Physics of the Ear

Audible sound can be referred to as sound waves with frequency between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz and with an intensity above the standard threshold of hearing.Although the range of frequencies which can be heard varies from person to person, the human ear can only respond to the minute vibrations of pressure in the air if they are within this audible frequency range. If the frequency is below 20 Hz, the pressure wave (due to traveling sound waves) does not disturb the membranes or the hairs in the inner ear. Such frequencies are not heard. Frequency is defined as the number of pressure variations per second and is measured in Hertz (Hz) .It is one of the properties of sound or noise and determines the pitch of a sound. A sound with a high frequency is perceived as high-pitched and a sound with a low frequency is low-pitched. Frequency is one of the properties of sound or noise. A sound with a high frequency is said to be high-pitched and a sound with a low frequency is low-pitched. The audible sound pressure range is from 0 dB to 120 dB. A sound wave varies as it travels through a medium due to the variation of atmospheric pressure. The intensity of sound is defined as the energy per second crossing one square metre normal to the direction of the sound, the unit of intensity is watt- per square metre. The threshold of hearing varies with frequency. For low frequencies, much below 1 kHz, higher intensities are required. Above these threshold intensities, sound can be detected but the sensitivity of the ear to changes in sound intensity is not constant. The sensitivity of the ear is its ability to detect the smallest fractional change of the intensity I. Thus, sensitivity depends on the ratio and a smaller discernible relative change in intensity implies a greater sensitivity. Also, for the same sensitivity, a smaller change in intensity can be detected when the intensity is low than when the intensity is high. The ear can detect a wide range of intensities from a threshold of approximately 1.0 x 10-12 W/m2 to about 100 W/m2. At this upper limit, pain and temporary deafness may be experienced. The human ear is capable of detecting pressure variations of less than one billionth of atmospheric pressure. The threshold of hearing is generally taken as 1 x 10(-12) W/M2. This incredible sensitivity is enhanced by an effective amplification of the sound signal by the outer and middle ear structures. Contributing to the wide dynamic range of human hearing are protective mechanisms that reduce the ear's response to very loud sounds. Sound intensities over this wide range are usually expressed in decibels.

Lenses
A lens is a transparent medium (usually glass) bounded by two curved surfaces (generally either spherical, cylindrical, or plane surfaces). It may be described as a converging or a diverging . Converging lenses brings light rays together while a diverging lens spreads them out. Converging lenses are thicker in the centre while diverging lenses are thinner at the centre.

The focal length, f, of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal focus. It is a measure of how strongly the system converges (focuses) or diverges (defocuses) light.For a converging lens light rays meet and usually form a real image and the focal length is positive. A diverging lens, however, only forms a virtual image and the formed is negative. For a converging lens, as f is varied, different kinds of images are observed. When the object is: At distance 2f from lens, image is real, inverted and the same size as the object Between 2f and f, the image is real, inverted and bigger that the object Between f and 2f, image is real, inverted and bigger than the object Nearer than f, image is upright, magnified and virtual The power of a lens is defined by the formula: Power = 1/focal length in metres The SI unit of this power is m-1 which is sometimes called the dioptre.

The power of a converging lens is positive, since f is a real distance while the power of a diverging lens is negative since f is only a virtual distance.

A radius of curvature is the radius of a circle that passes through the points on the surface of a lens The focal length of a lens is given by the formula 1/F = (n-1)(1/c1 - 1/c2) where F is the focal length of the lens, n is the refractive index of the lens material, c1 is the radius of curvature

of the front of the lens and c2 is the radius of curvature of the back of the lens. It can be seen from the formula that increasing the radius of curvature will increase the focal length of the lens. This is because as the lens radius is increased, the lens grows thinner (less rounded) thus increasing the focal length. Increasing or decreasing the lens radius also affects the size and position of the image formed by the lens.

Physics of the eye

How an image is formed on the eye
When light rays hit a medium with a higher optical density, they are slowed and refracted

(or bent with a slight change in direction. In the case of a concave surface such as a lens, the angle of refraction depends on the degree of curve. The rays entering the curved lens further from the center are bent at the sharper angle and those nearer the center are bent less. This optical principle is used by the eye to focus images on the retina. How are these images focused on the retina? Well, firstly let us note the parts of the eye which take part in the focusing of images: Light first passes through the cornea which is the curved-front transparent portion of the eyeball where most of the bending of the light occurs. Next is the pupil, which is the hole in the iris which allows light to enter the eye. The iris is the colored portion of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and hence the amount of light that enters the eye through the pupil. The light then passes through the lens and the image is projected on the retina. The retina is the light sensitive surface at the back of the eyeball. Rods and Cones are photosensitive cells found along the retina that capture light rays and convert them into electrical impulses. These impulses are then carried to the brain by the optical nerve. The location on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball is a blind spot, at which no rods and cones are found. In order to form images, light reflecting off the object moves in straight lines in all directions away from the object. The points of light from the object that hit the lens of an eye are refracted and brought into focus as a point of light on the retinal image. Thus, the image is a mosaic of light points that are brought to focus by the refraction of the lens. An image is projected at a fixed focal distance from the lens and appears small upside down. The projection can be captured on a screen, the retina. If the object moves closer or farther from the lens will blur unless the curvature of the lens is changed. Small muscles attached to the eye lens, ciliary muscles, are constantly changing its curvature, allowing images to become focused. This process is called accommodation. The points of light of the image then stimulate the retinal cells to induce information transferal to the brain.

Important Definitions

Accommodation is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain a clear image on an object as it draws near to the eye. Depth of Focus is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane in relation to the lens. The Near Point is the shortest distance an eye can see distinctly. For the normal eye, the distance is 25 cm. The Far Point is the greatest distance an eye can see distinctly. For a normal eye, this is infinity.

Defects of the Eye and how they can be Corrected

Long Sight, also known as hypermetropia, and colloquially known as farsightedness, is a defect of vision caused by an imperfection in the eye (when the eyeball is too short or when the lens cannot become round enough), causing inability to focus on near objects, and in extreme cases causing a sufferer to be unable to focus on objects at any distance. As an object moves toward the eye, the eye must increase its power to keep the image in focus on the retina. If the power of the cornea and lens is insufficient the image will be blurred. With long sight, the far point is at infinity but the near point will be more than 25 cm. A Converging Lens is used to correct this defect.

2.

Short Sight, also known as myopia and colloquially known as nearsightedness, is a

refractive defect of the eye in which collimated light (focused into a narrow beam or column) produces image focus in front the retina when accommodation is relaxed. Those with myopia see nearby objects clearly but distant objects appear blurred. With myopia, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep, so the images are focused in the vitreous inside the eye rather than on the retina at the back of the eye. The opposite defect of myopia is farsightedness. A Diverging Lens is used to correct this defect.

3. Astigmatism is an optical defect, whereby vision is blurred due to inability of the optics of the eye to focus a point object into a sharp focused image on the retina. This may be due to an irregular curvature of the cornea or lens. There are two types of Astigmatism : regular and irregular. Irregular astigmatism is often caused by a corneal scar or scattering in the crystalline lens and cannot be corrected by standard spectacle lenses. Irregular astigmatism of the cornea

can be corrected by contact lenses. Regular astigmatism arising from either the cornea or crystalline lens can be corrected by a toric lens. A toric surface resembles the surface of a foot ball or a doughnut where there are two regular radii, one smaller than another. This optical shape gives rise to regular astigmatism in the eye. 4. A cataract is an opacity (the quality of being opaque to a degree; the degree to which something reduces the passage of light) that develops in the crystalline lens of the eye or in its envelope. Early on in the development of of age-related cataract the power of the of the crystalline lens may be increased, causing near-sightedness (myopia) and the gradual yellowing and opacification of the lens may reduce the perception of blue colours. Cataracts typically progress slowly to cause vision loss and are potentially blinding if untreated. When symptoms begin to appear, you may be able to improve your vision for a while using new glasses, strong bifocals, magnification, appropriate lighting or other visual aids.

The Formation of Focused Images in the Simple Camera

The simple camera has a convex lens which focuses a real inverted diminished image of the object on the film. The camera accommodates for image sat different distance by moving the lens further from or closer to the film. The camera regulates the amount of light entering by adjusting the shutter. The film is developed to give a negative from which prints are made.

The formation of Focused Images in the Magnifying Glass

A magnifying glass is a converging lens. It is held close to a small object and peer through it to see a magnified image. The object viewed by a magnifying glass is closer to the lens than the focal point.

From the ray diagram above, it can be seen that: The image is upright The image is magnified The image is farther from the lens than the object The image is virtual

Bibliography
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/noise_education/web/ENG_EPD_HTML/m1/intro_2.html http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/earsens.html http://www.ehow.com/info_7857571_radius-curvature-telescope-lens-affect.html#ixzz1Fph20iV f

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/lenses/lensvariations/index.html