Genetics Key Notes

DNA is a double stranded ladder-like shape (double helix). It contains all of the genetic information for the whole organism. Each cell has a full set of DNA. The DNA is coiled up into chromosomes. The chromosomes have sections called genes that code for a single trait (characteristic). The code is carried by bases (A, T, C, or G). A change in a base results in a change in the expression of that gene. Every time we produce a new body cell we must copy all of the information in one cell, and then split it into 2 exact copies. This is called Mitosis and is used for growth, replacement, and repair in the body. Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 homologous pairs; 1 set from mum and 1 set from dad. On these 23 pairs lay the 10-30,000 or so genes that make up a human. We got our genes from our parents. They produced sex cells (gametes) with a half set of information (haploid) in a process called Meiosis. During meiosis genetic information is doubled, then split, then split to form a gamete. Each gamete has one of each of the chromosomes that the parent has two of. They are divided up randomly. Each parent can produce at least 8 million different gametes. This is important for Variation. Then the 2 gametes combine during fertilization to produce a zygote (fertilized egg) with 2 sets of chromosomes (diploid). So all of us have 2 sets of information for each gene. These may be different alleles (gene forms). If this is the case then one will be seen (dominant) and the other hidden (recessive). This is called being Heterozygous for a trait (Rr). An individual could also be Homozygous recessive (rr), or Homozygous dominant (RR). Homozygous individuals can also be said to be Pure Breeding as they do not carry recessive genes that can show up in later generations. Case example: The allele for tongue rolling (R) is dominant over the non-rolling allele (r). If 2 people who are heterozygous are crossed (breed), we can work out the expected ratio of the offspring. This is not guaranteed to happen as it depends on RANDOM CHANCE. One tool to do this is a punnett square: R r
Gametes from Parent 1

R
Gametes from Parent 2

RR Rr

Rr rr
Offspring

This outcome can be expressed as: 1 RR : 2 Rr, 1 rr this is a description of the genes they posses (Genotype ratio) 3 Tongue rollers : 1 non-roller this is a physical description (Phenotype ratio) Sex X
Gametes from Mum

X XX XX

Y XY XY

Determination:

Gametes from Dad

Offspring 50% Male 50% Female

 A pedigree chart shows the family tree for one specific trait. In this case, the shaded trait must be recessive, as it can be hidden (e.g. in generation I), and then pop up in the next generation. Parents must be Bb and Bb (unaffected), giving a 25% chance of having affected offspring.

Every individual is a test case for its combination of alleles. If it is a good combination the individual will survive (and reproduce) successfully. This means that these alleles will be more frequent in the next generation. The population is starting to change. Variation is important in a population. When environmental conditions start to change (or there is a disease, or a new predator introduced, etc) the best adapted individuals will be more likely to survive. The more variation there is in a population, the more chance there is of having a successful phenotype for the new conditions. Sexual reproduction increases variation. During meiosis, unique allele combinations are assorted in gametes. Combining gametes from 2 individuals increases the variation even further. That is why siblings look different. Of course, gametes from 1 person will tend to have many similarities between them. That is why siblings can look similar. Increased variation is the key advantage of sexual reproduction. There are disadvantages as well. Sex requires specialized features (genitals, flowers etc.), more energy, more time, etc. It is easier and faster for many plants and animals to clone themselves by budding, with runners, or tubers, etc. BUT there is no variation so if one individual struggles in the conditions, they all do.