Stress Management

Stress Management is the ability to maintain control when situations, people, and events make excessive demands.

What is stress?
Stress is a normal physical response to events that make us feel threatened or upset our balance in some way. Stress may be considered as any physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental unrest and that may be a factor in causing disease. Physical and chemical factors that can cause stress include trauma, infections, toxins, illnesses, and injuries of any sort.
Stress has become an integral part of everyday life. Each and every person is under the grip of stress - starting from a two-year infant to an adult. Stress takes an entry in different forms and it alters the normal functioning of a person. Stress has become part and parcel of an individuals life. We cannot eliminate stress but yes, we can reduce stress in our life.

Causes of stress
The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually think of stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship. However, anything that puts high demands on us or forces us to adjust can be stressful. This includes positive events such as getting married, buying a house, going to college, or receiving a promotion.
Common external causes of stress

Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self-generated:

Major life changes Work Relationship difficulties

Financial problems Being too busy Children and family

Common internal causes of stress

Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self-generated:

Inability to accept uncertainty Pessimism Negative self-talk

Unrealistic expectations Perfectionism Lack of assertiveness

Stress Management Strategies

Look around See if there really is something we can change or control in the situation Remove yourself from the stressful situation Give yourself a break if only for a few moments daily Don't sweat the small stuff Try to prioritize a few truly important things and let the rest slide Selectively change the way you react, but not too much at one time. Focus on one troublesome thing and manage our reactions to it/him/her Avoid extreme reactions; Why hate when a little dislike will do? Why generate anxiety when you can be nervous? Why rage when anger will do the job? Why be depressed when you can just be sad? Get enough sleep Lack of rest just aggravates stress Avoid self-medication or escape Alcohol and drugs can mask stress. They don't help deal with the problems Set realistic goals for yourself Reduce the number of events going on in our life and we may reduce the circuit overload Don't overwhelm yourself by fretting about our entire workload. Handle each task as it comes, or selectively deal with matters in some priority Learn how to best relax yourself Meditation and breathing exercises have been proven to be very effective in controlling stress. Practice clearing our mind of disturbing thoughts. Change the way we see our situation; seek alternative viewpoints Stress is a reaction to events and problems, and we can lock ourselves in to one way of viewing our situation. Seek an outside perspective of the situation, compare it with ours. and perhaps lessen our reaction to these conditions. Do something for others to help get our mind off ourselfves Work off stress with physical activity, whether it's jogging, tennis, gardening Begin to manage the effects of stress This is a long range strategy of adapting to our situation, and the effects of stress in our life. Try to isolate and work with one "effect" at a time. Don't overwhelm yourself. for example, if you are not sleeping well, seek help on this one problem. Try to "use" stress If you can't remedy, nor escape from, what is bothering you, flow with it and try to use it in a productive way Try to be positive Give yourself messages as to how well you can cope rather than how horrible everything is going to be. "Stress can actually help memory, provided it is short-term and not too severe. Stress causes more glucose to be delivered to the brain, which makes more energy available

to neurons. This, in turn, enhances memory formation and retrieval. On the other hand, if stress is prolonged, it can impede the glucose delivery and disrupt memory."

The different kinds of stress

Stress management can be complicated and confusing because there are different types of stress--acute stress, episodic acute stress, and chronic stress.

Acute Stress
Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. Because it is short term, acute stress doesn't have enough time to do the extensive damage associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:

emotional distress--some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety, and depression, the three stress emotions; muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw pain, and the muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems; stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhoea, constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome; transient over arousal leads to elevation in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, and chest pain.

Acute stress can crop up in anyone's life, and it is highly treatable and manageable.

Episodic Acute Stress

There are those, however, who suffer acute stress frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are studies in chaos and crisis. They're always in a rush, but always late. If something can go wrong, it does. They take on too much, have too many irons in the fire, and can't organize the slew of self-inflicted demands and pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the clutches of acute stress. The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal: persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension, chest pain, and heart disease. Treating episodic acute stress requires intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional help, which may take many months.

Chronic Stress
Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives. It's the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional families, of being trapped in an unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career.

Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation. It's the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions. Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke, and, perhaps, even cancer. People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are depleted through long-term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and may require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment and stress management.

Stress in the workplace

Stress in the workplace is a commonality throughout the world in every business. Managing that stress becomes vital in order to keep up job performance as well as relationship with coworkers and employers. For some workers, changing the work environment relieves work stress. Making the environment less competitive between employees decreases some amounts of stress. However, each person is different and some people like the pressure to perform better. Salary can be an important concern of employees. Salary can affect the way people work because they can aim for promotion and in result, a higher salary. This can lead to chronic stress.[citation needed] Cultural differences have also shown to have some major effects on stress coping problems. Eastern Asian employees may deal with certain work situations differently than a Western North American employee would.[citation needed] In order to manage stress in the workplays, employers can provide stress managing programs such as therapy, communication programs, and a more flexible work schedule.[16]

Medical Environment Stress

A study was done on the stress levels in general practitioners and hospital consultants in 1994. Over 500 medical employees participated in this study done by Dr. R.P Caplan. These results showed that 47% of the workers scored high on their questionnaire for high levels of stress. 27% of the general practitioners even scored to be very depressed. These numbers came to a surprise to Dr. Caplan and it showed how alarming the large number of medical workers become stressed out because of their jobs. Managers stress levels were not as high as the actual practitioners themselves. An eye opening statistic showed that nearly 54% of workers suffered from anxiety while being in the hospital. Although this was a small sample size for hospitals around the world, Caplan feels this trend is probably fairly accurate across the majority of hospitals.[17]

Stress Management Programs in Workplace

Many businesses today have begun to use Stress Management Programs for employees who are having trouble adapting to stress at the workplace or at home. Many people have spill over stress from home into their working environment. There are a couple of ways businesses today try to alleviate stress on their employees. One way is individual intervention. This starts off by monitoring the stressors in the individual. After monitoring what causes the stress, next

is attacking that stressor and trying to figure out ways to alleviate them in any way. Developing social support is vital in individual intervention, being with others to help you cope has proven to be a very effective way to avoid stress. Avoiding the stressors all together is the best possible way to get rid of stress but that is very difficult to do in the workplace. Changing behavioural patterns, may in turn, help reduce some of the stress that is put on at work as well. Employee Assistance Programs can include in-house counselling programs on managing stress. Evaluative research has been conducted on EAPs that teach individual stress control and inoculation techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback, and cognitive restructuring. Studies show that these programs can reduce the level of physiological arousal associated with high stress. Participants who master behavioural and cognitive stress-relief techniques report less tension, fewer sleep disturbances, and an improved ability to cope with workplace stressors. Another way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee. Some may be too overwhelmed that they have so much work to get done, or some also may have such little work that they are not sure what to do with themselves at work. Improving communications between employees also sounds like a simple approach, but it is very effective for helping reduce stress. Sometimes making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the company, such as giving them a voice in bigger situations shows that you trust them and value their opinion. Having all the employees mesh well together is a very underlying factor which can take away much of workplace stress. If employees fit well together and feed off of each other, the chances of lots of stress is very minimal. Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace may reduce stress. Changing simple things such as the lighting, air temperature, odour, and up to date technology. Intervention is broken down into three steps: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. Primary deals with eliminating the stressors all together. Secondary deals with detecting stress and figuring out ways to cope with it and improving stress management skills. Finally, tertiary deals with recovery and rehabbing the stress all together. These three steps are usually the most effective way to deal with stress not just in the workplace, but overall.

Effects of Stress
Effects of stress are long lasting. They can harm the immune system, usher physical and mental changes in an individual. Stress causes changes in our body. It also affects our emotions.

How stress affects the body

Common symptoms of stress include:

A fast heartbeat. A headache. A stiff neck and/or tight shoulders. Back pain. Fast breathing.

Sweating, and sweaty palms. An upset stomach, nausea, or diarrhoea.

How stress affects our thoughts and emotions We might notice signs of stress in the way we think, act, and feel. We may:

Feel cranky and unable to deal with even small problems. Feel frustrated, lose our temper more often, and yell at others for no reason. Feel jumpy or tired all the time. Find it hard to focus on tasks. Worry too much about small things. Feel that we are missing out on things because we can't act quickly. Imagine that bad things are happening or about to happen.

How stress affects us depends on many things, such as:

Our personality. What we have learned from our family about responding to stress. How we think about and handle stress. Our coping strategies. Our social support.

Tips to Reduce Stress

We may not be able to control stress, but we can manage it. Here are some stressmanagement tips that may help you feel better - and less stressed - every day:

Accept that there are events that we cannot control. Keep a positive attitude; rather than defaulting to negatives (''Nothing goes right for me,'' or ''Bad things always happen to me''), give yourself positive messages (''I'm doing my best,'' or ''I'll ask for help''). Halt stress in its tracks; if you feel overwhelmed, take a walk or drive in the slow lane to avoid getting angry at other drivers. Manage your time. Give yourself time to get things done; set your watch so you have more time to prepare for an event. Do things that are pleasurable, like reading or gardening. Take 15-20 minutes every day to sit quietly and reflect. Learn and practice relaxation techniques like yoga or deep breathing. Exercise regularly by bicycling, walking, hiking, jogging, or working out at the gym. Your body can fight stress better when it is fit. Avoid alcohol and recreational drugs. And don't smoke. Eat healthy, well-balanced meals. Get enough rest and sleep. Your body needs time to recover from stressful events. Seek out social support.

Causes of Stress

Whenever our body feels something not favourable, then it tries to defend itself. If this situation continues for a long time, then our body is working overtime. There are several causes of stress. For example, you are under stress when you are worried about something, worried about your children, worried about the illness of your father, worried about your job security, or worried about your loans or similar things. You may be under stress due to several causes. Look at the following causes of stress.

1. Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse, family, near relative or friend. o Injury or illness of any family member. o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister. o Separation or divorce from partner. o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby. o Children's behavior or disobedience. o Children's educational performance. o Hyperactive children. o Sexual molestation. o Argument or heated conversations with spouse, family members or friends or neighbors. o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected expenditure. o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living. o Loss of money in burglary, pick-pocketed or share market. o Moving house. o Change of place or change of city or change of country. 2. Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job. o Your relationship with colleagues. o To control staff under you. o To train your staff and take work from them. o Support you receive from your boss, colleagues and juniors. o Excessive work pressure. o To meet out deadlines. o To give new results. o To produce new publications if you are in research area. o Working overtime and on holidays. o New work hours. o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded you. o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss. o Change of job. o Work against will. o Harassment. o Sexual molestation. 3. Other Causes of Stress o Fear, intermittent or continuous. o Threats: physical threats, social threats, financial threat, other threats. o Uncertainty. o Lack of sleep.

o o

Somebody misunderstands you. Setback to your position in society.

Stress Coping Ability

Below is a list of stress coping skills. A coping skill can be positive or negative. Negative coping skills cost you every time you use them. They will mask the problem. Negative Coping Skills Alcohol (Drink to change your mood. Use alcohol as your friend) Denial (Pretend nothing is wrong. Lie. Ignore the problem) Drug Use (Abuse coffee/aspirin/medications. Illegal drug use.) Fault finding (Have a judgmental attitude. Complain. Criticize.) Illness (Develop headaches/nervous stomach/major illness. Become accident-prone. Indulging (Stay up late, sleep in. Buy on impulse. Waste time.) Passivity (Hope it gets better. Procrastinate. Wait for lucky break) Revenge (Get even. Be sarcastic. Talk mean) Stubbornness (Be rigid. Demand your way. Refuse to be wrong.) Tantrums (Yell, mope, pout, swear. Drive recklessly) Food (Binging. Go on a diet. Use food to console yourself, ice cream, chocolate, comfort foods, etc.) Smoking (Smoke to relieve tension. Smoke to be "in".) Withdraw (Avoid the situation. Skip school or work. Keep feelings to self.) Worrying (Fret over things. Imagine the worse) Positive Coping Skills Diversions: Breathing (Breathing is the easiest to learn and provides the fastest results!) Getaways (Spend time alone. See a movie. Daydream.) Hobbies (Write. Paint. Remodel. Create something.) Learning (Take a class. Read. Join a club.) Music (Play an instrument. Sing. Listen to your stereo.) Play (play a game. Goof off. Go out with friends.) Work (Tackle a new project. Keep busy. Volunteer.) Laughing Hugs Pets (Pet Therapy. Pet therapy can be very helpful to adults and children. If using this to help a child, make sure the child is supervised at all times with a pet. Never leave a child alone with a pet. In an unsupervised situation the child could easily become stressed and hurt the pet.)

Family: Balancing (Balance time at work and home. Accept the good and the bad.) Conflict Resolution (Look for win/win solutions. Forgive readily.) Esteem Building (Build good Family feelings. Focus on personal strengths.) Flexibility (Take on a new Family roles. Stay open to change.)

 Body:

Networking (Developing friendships with other families. Make use of the community resources.) Togetherness (Take time to be together. Build family traditions. Express affection.)

Along with improving your ability to relax, you must assess diet and other strains on your body. Exercise (Pursue physical fitness, job, swim, dance, or walk. Aerobic exercise can reduce anxiety up to 50%) Good nutrition (a well-balanced diet will improve your ability to appropriately respond to stress.) Sleep (Get an adequate amount of rest each night.) Caffeine (Reducing caffeine intake will help you manage your anxiety. 2 cups of coffee doubles the epinephrine level).

Interpersonal: Mental: Imagination (Look for the humour. Anticipate the future.) Life planning (set clear goals. Plan for the future.) Organizing (Take charge. Make order. Don't let things pile up.) Problem Solving (Solve it yourself. Seek outside help. Tackle problems.) Relabeling (Change perspectives. Look for good in a bad situation.) Time Management (Focus on top priorities. Work smarter.) Affirmation (Believe in yourself. Trust others. Give compliments .) Assertiveness (State your needs and wants. Say "no" respectfully.) Contact (Make new friends. Touch. Really listen to others.) Limits (Accept other's boundaries. Drop some involvement.) Linking (Share problems with others. Ask for support from family and friends.)

Physical: Biofeedback (Listen to your body. Know your physical limitations.) Exercise (Pursue physical fitness. Jog, swim, dance, or walk.) Nourishment (Eat for health. Limit the use alcohol.) Relaxation (tense and relax each muscles. Take a warm bath. Breathe deeply.) Self-Care (Energize your work and play. Strive for self-improvement.) Stretching (take short stretch breaks throughout your day.)

Spiritual Commitment (Take up a worthy cause. Say "yes." Invest yourself meaningfully. Faith (Find purpose and meaning. Trust God. Prayer (Confess. Ask forgiveness. Ray for others. Give thanks. Surrender (Let go of problems. Learn to live with situations.) Valuing (Set priorities. Be consistent. Spend time and energy wisely. Worship (Share beliefs with others. Put faith into action.)

The above are techniques that are reliable stress relievers without the negative side effects. These skills can be used over and over again for a variety of stressful situations.

Stress Inoculation Training

Stress Inoculation Training is a cognitive-behavioral approach providing people with added psychological resilience against the effects of stress through a program of managed successful exposure to stressful situations. The approach was developed by Donald Meichenbaum The program usually comprises three phases:

The Conceptualization Phase - learning to conceptualize and reconceptualise stress. Skills Acquisition & Rehearsal Phase - Inc. problem solving, cog. Restructuring & guided self-dialogue. It is important to understand that stress cannot be effectively managed by adopting a cookbook approach. But that stressors need to be appraised and a range of coping options are available to the individual who can decide how best to employ them. Application & follow through Phase - staff are encouraged to write coping contracts and undertake homework in order to ensure responsibility for their own wellbeing.

Fear
Fear occurs as a response to something which is perceived as being threatening, dangerous or harmful. Fear can cause a person to feel nervous, anxious and can even impair their bodily functions by interfering with their ability to think clearly, speak with a steady voice and keep a steady hand. Nobody likes to feel fearful because it is a negative and unpleasant emotion. However, it is also a very useful emotion to have, because the main purpose of fear is to alert our attention to, and prepare our body for, a threat that could potentially harm or even kill us. What is Fear? Fear is an unwanted, unpleasant feeling of anticipated or perceived risk or danger, whether it be real or unreal. Fear also can be described as a feeling of extreme dislike towards certain conditions, objects or situations such as: fear of darkness, fear of ghosts, etc.

Different forms of fear

Fear of the Dark Fear of the Dark is essentially fear of the unknown. It is frequently inculcated in sensitive children by a nurse or some other person who ought to know better.

Fear to Go Out of the House Agoraphobia it is the fear of open spaces or of being in crowded, public places like markets, basically a fear of leaving a safe place. This peculiar disability is not uncommon. It may be associate with attacks of panic in which the sufferer suddenly trembles violently, may be

unable to remain standing, sweats, weeps, has a rapid pulse and feels extreme unreasoning fear. Fear of Failure
This tormenting emotion or mental attitude does not denote any lack of ability; rather does it derive from a basal lack of self-confidence. Three remedies call for special mention in this connection.

Fear of Insecurity Fear of insecurity manifests out of a need for safety. When our safety or security is threatened, this fear arises. Safety here refers not only to physical safety but also emotional and mental safety. We take great pain to protect ourselves from emotional and mental hurts and harms. Fear of Loneliness This fear includes also the fear of separation and arises out of our need to be accepted and included. We fear being excluded, forsaken, shunned, rejected, ostracized or abandoned. The sense of loneliness can be felt even when one is physically present in the midst of a crowd of people. What we want is not merely physical closeness but emotional and mental acceptance. We longed for approval and acceptance. Fear of Loss This fear arises out of our need to hold on. We fear loss of our life, our property, our family, our money, our reputation, our fame, our freedom, and just about anything you can think of. We cling on to things we like and run away from things we don't. This fear of loss is the fear of losing everything we considered dear and near to us. Fear of public speaking
Fear of public speaking, an extremely common phobia, is a type of social phobia. Other fears associated with social phobia include fear of eating or drinking in public, talking to strangers, taking exams, mingling at a party, and being called on in class.

So to eliminate the root cause of our fear, we need to change our beliefs.

What Causes Fear

Ten Top Fears and Their Causes 1. Fear of public speaking The long term cause for fear of public speaking could be a single traumatic experience speaking in school or performing at a recital. Or it might be that you are naturally shy or have some social anxiety. This fear often results from seeing yourself as losing control or being incompetent in front of others. You might imagine yourself making embarrassing mistakes. You may feel that your

performance has to be perfect to be acceptable. These self-defeating thoughts are very stubborn. On an occasion when you do speak to a group of people and make a small error, you may exaggerate the mistake, blow it out of all proportions, and even lose sleep over it. Nine chances out of ten, the audience hardly noticed the slip. 2. Fear of flying What causes fear of flying is often a traumatic experience with flying. This experience might be related to another phobia such as a fear of heights or being enclosed. It could have happened as a result of air turbulence or being sick while in flight or having a panic attack. Even seeing scenes of an air crash on TV can be what causes fear of flying. Sometimes an unpleasant association with a flight, such as going to a difficult meeting can start this fear. The longer you avoid flying, the worse a flight may seem. If you fear flying, you are also not alone. Twenty per cent of the population is afflicted with this fear. It is in the number two spot on the list of fears. 3. Claustrophobia its usually difficult to determine what causes fear of confined spaces. Sometimes if results from being confined as a child in some way. Most animals and humans dont want to be confined. People want freedom. But claustrophobia is an exaggerated fear of confinement. 4. Fear of disease what causes fear of disease or hypochondria is sometimes an unconscious identification after the death or serious illness of a family member. You might feel that you too could develop a similar disease. 5. Dental phobia as with other phobias, what causes fear of dental work could be a previous traumatic experience. It could also occur from a rough or unpleasant dentist, a fear of the needle for freezing or the dread of having something done in your head. It could also be the fear of confinement in a chair. More than 50% of North Americans dislike dental procedures. When the fear progresses to avoiding the dentist altogether, it is a phobia and you need help. 6. Blood/injection phobia what causes fear of blood is often other family members who fear this too. Children often internalize this fear from their parents and siblings. 7. Fear of vomiting a general anxiety about losing control is often what causes fear of vomiting. It could result from serious vomiting as a child or from seeing a loved one sick and vomiting.

8. Fear of heights some acrophobia is instinctive in all animals. An exaggerated anxiety could result as a fall in childhood or from the memory of an incident where you were afraid of falling as a child. Sometimes people with balance problems are more susceptible to this fear. 9. Animal and insect phobias Its possible that fear of some animals is inborn in all mammals. But more often a parents fear will rub off on the child. A child is bitten by a dog, scratched by a cat or stung by a wasp can grow up with a fear of that animal or insect. Sometimes a horror movie can trigger this fear. 10. Fear of death What causes fear of death is often just being human. Cats and dogs dont fear death. But they may fear poisonous snakes. You may fear the pain of death or the uncertainty of what or when it will be. Religious beliefs around punishment and hell in the afterlife can be very difficult for believers. Sometimes a loved ones pain before dying causes anxiety over dying. What causes fear varies from person to person depending upon childhood experiences and personality.

Overcoming Fear
Overcoming fear is absolutely possible. Conquering fear is possible when you have the motivation, the tools and persistence to deal with it.

Ten Tops Ways for Overcoming Fear

1. Get to know yourself better. Finding out who we are and what we have to offer the world is a major life quest. Its also one of the fundamental ways to conquer fear. When you know yourself, you will also begin to understand your apprehension. To help this process, ask yourself these five top questions for overcoming fear

What are my dreams? What are my passions? What are the things I love to do? What is important to me?

Fear of failure is the biggest fear people have. It is closely related to fear of criticism and rejection. Success and freedom from fear is possible. Motivate yourself by visualizing the things you love to do. 2. Think of the benefits of overcoming fear and the cost of missed opportunities. Taking risks gives huge rewards. I love flying now, for example. It has given me a greater sense of

pride of accomplishment because it was so difficult. 3. Take action bold, decisive action. Do something frightening. Since fear of failure is immobilizing you, you must act. I know this from experience. About 60 hours into my pilot training, my instructor said, Youre ready for your first solo flight now. I returned home and for the next two weeks had the most terrible nightmares you could imagine. 4. Take small steps. This might seem opposite to the point above. You will have to decide which is better for your particular fear bold decisive action or small steps. I didnt have the option of small steps. For me it was either staying on the ground or flying in the air on my own. But if you have the option and your fear is overwhelming you, start small. For example, if you have fear of public speaking and know you have to give a speech well enough in advance, start by greeting people more on the street. Talk more in group conversations. Offer your opinions. Get out of your own skin more. Move forward slowly. Develop small steps for overcoming fear. 5. Get rid of your negative thoughts. For help with this, go to Self-Doubt. 6. See failure from a different perspective. Think back to the time you were learning to ride a bike. Did you fall a few times? I know I did. Did you stop cycling? I bet not. You got back on that bicycle seat with your scraped knees and eventually rode off. Now you can develop that same motivation because you want to feel successful in overcoming your fear. 7. Do things differently. If what you are doing isnt working, do something else. Theres a saying that insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different outcome. Another saying is, If you always do what youve always done, youll always get what youve got. 8. Persist. If you want to conquer your fear, dont give up. Keep at it. 9. Dont give yourself a way out. When success and failure are the only options, do what the leaders of ancient Greek armies did to keep the armies fighting. They burnt the boats upon landing on shore so there was no going back. 10. Celebrate your success at overcoming fear. Acknowledging your achievements will encourage you to keep moving forward.

Overcoming Fear that is Specific

1. Fear of public speaking If you have anxiety and public speaking, the only solution is to find opportunities to speak. Youll have the most success if you change your perspectives. Here are statements to write down and repeat to yourself over and over again

I have the ability to speak in front of others. I can go with the flow rather than resist it. Others will value me if I am myself. I will not appear anxious to others even if I feel apprehensive inside. People are not hoping Ill make a mistake. By focusing on what I want to say, I will forget my fear. By practicing my speech over and over again, Ill perform well.

2. Fear of flying If you fear flying, you are also not alone. Twenty per cent of the population is afflicted with this fear. It has the number two spot on the list of fears. Here are actions to take 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Find out how planes fly. Know that a plane can glide for a long distance. If feeling confined or heights is a problem, choose an aisle seat. Give yourself lots of time to catch the flight. Avoid rushing. Have a friend fly with you for distraction. Fly short distances at first if possible. Take reading material and other things to occupy your thoughts. Watch a movie. Use medication is absolutely necessary. Avoid caffeine.

3. Claustrophobia Engage in some cognitive self therapy. Get help to challenge your false idea that being in a crowed space is life threatening. Start small. Choose short tunnels and short bus trips. Shift your thinking. Easy does it. Also, look at the benefits of travel and other opportunities you are missing. 4. Fear of disease Start by becoming aware of your fear of illness. After becoming aware stop researching illnesses and going to doctors for continual reassurance. The risk of having a life threatening disease is very low. 5. Dental phobia 1. 2. 3. 4. Find an understanding and supportive dentist. Learn panic control techniques. Stop exaggerating and reinforcing your phobia. Gradually reinforce your exposure to your fear.

6. Blood/injection phobia here is a list of steps to take

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Read an article about bleeding. Look at photos of blood. Look at photos of injuries involving blood. Watch videos or movies involving blood and injuries. Visit a blood bank. Try to arrange a viewing of a veterinarian surgery.

For injection phobia try 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Looking at photos of people receiving an injection. Looking at videos of people receiving an injection. Visiting a doctors office to see someone getting a shot. Handling syringes. Having a health care professional touch your skin with a syringe. Receiving a shot in the arm. Having blood drawn as in a blood test.

7. Fear of vomiting First find out whether you are afraid of vomiting or a rejection of others who might see you vomiting. Or is it a fear of losing control of your body? You need to identify the core fear. Once you know the fear, gradually expose yourself to situations where you have to face it. 8. Fear of heights This fear often combines with fear of flying, elevators and bridges. Here are the steps for overcoming this fear with careful strategies, overcoming fear is not too difficult. 1. Go to the second story of a building and look out the window for seconds. Have someone with you. 2. Look out of the second story of a building for two to five minutes. Look straight out and then down. 3. Repeat steps one and two with phone access, then alone. 4. Go to the third story of a building and look out the window for thirty seconds with someone with you. 5. Look out the third story for two to five minutes. Look straight out and then down. 6. Repeat steps one and two with phone access, then alone. 7. Continue this process going progressively to higher and higher floors. Take an elevator after floor four. 8. Continue advancing to higher floors in small increments until to reach the highest floor in a building available to you. 9. Go out onto a balcony with a support person at a low floor. Go out onto higher floor balconies. 10. Go out onto balconies for longer durations moving progressively closer to the guardrail.

9. Animal and insect phobias Overcoming fear of animals and insects involves gradual exposure as with fear of heights.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Draw a picture of the animal. Look at black and white photos. View color photos. Watch a video of the animal or insect. Handle a toy of the animal. Look at the animal from a distance in a pet store, zoo or wherever you can find it. Move closer to the creature. Watch someone touch or hold it. In the case of insects, be near the insect with someone who isnt afraid of it. 9. If your fear is an animal, hold it directly.

10. Fear of death overcoming this fear may need some deep philosophical reflection on the meaning of life. Live your life to the fullest possible. Know that everyone has to deal with the reality of death one day. Fear of the death of a loved one is difficult. But it is also an opportunity to develop the inner strength to stand on your own in the absence of a loved one. Read books about the existence of an afterlife. Try hypnotherapy for overcoming fear. With effort and persistence, overcoming fear is totally possible. By facing your fears, you will become stronger, more confident and proud of the person you are.

What Causes Fear?

While it is important to be aware of potential and real threats, it is just as important to react appropriately to them. For most of us, our initial startle response subsides as soon as we realize that there is no actual threat or danger. However, this is not always the case. There are many people for whom fear becomes maladaptive, as they struggle with anxiety, phobias and panic attacks. Children are also at risk of overactive fear, as they are not always able to rationalize fears that are unrealistic or unfounded. What is fear like for children? Children experiencing fears and phobias feel very real threats and parents often have difficulty consoling or reassuring their child that there is actually nothing to fear. Childhood anxiety can have a negative impact on their healthy development and may predispose them to problems in later life.

Common Causes of Fear in Children

When a child grows older (especially around the age of 2), fears that were never an issue before suddenly rear their ugly heads. At the age of 2 and above, most children now know what it is like to be injured, scolded, or even lost. One of the major fears in children is the act of being separated from his/her parents. Fear of separation is common for both toddlers and school aged children, this is due to them being left at the babysitters, nursery, or school. While some children fret over their parents departure and return, others may fear their

teachers, surroundings, or other children. Most of the time, this fearfulness with others will subside as children start to spend more time with their teacher and classmates. Another fear in children is fear of the dark. Fear of the dark is usually one of the biggest and hardest fears to conquer in children. Children usually have this fear well into their school aged years. Fear of the dark resonates differently with age, while younger children may be fearful of monsters lurking in the shadows, older children may fear burglars. Most families find it beneficial to leave a light on at night, with a gradual reduction happening over an extended period of time.

Help for Fear

There are a number of natural herbal and homeopathic remedies that can help with overcoming fears. Fear becomes a problem that needs to be addressed when it turns into anxiety, panic or phobias. Types of Fear
Some of the most common fears include: Less common but still frightening fears are:

Flying phobia Fear of heights Fear of public speaking Fear of intimacy Fear of failure Fear of success Fear of death Fear of rejection Fear of spiders Fear of driving Fear of needles Fear of abandonment Fear of clowns Fear of water Fear of god Fear of snakes Fear of being alone Fear of falling

Some additional types of fear are: Fear of change Fear of dentist Fear of germs Fear of dogs Fear of cats Fear of money

Fear of long words Fear of midgets Fear of Friday the 13th Fear of crowds Fear of people Fear of technology Fear of bridges Fear of self Fear of hair Fear of engulfment Fear of vomiting Fear of stupid people Fear of selling Fear of music Fear hospitals Fear of night Fear of losing money Fear of darkness Fear of belly buttons Mortgage fears Fear of open spaces Fear of phone Fear of thunder Fear of itching Fear of missing out Bird flu fears Fear of aging Fear of risk taking

These fears can range in intensity from mild anxiety to complete terror.

Depression and anger

Depression and anger often combine to deepen the pain, isolation and destructive behavior of recurrent depressive disorders.

Anger
Anger is a natural response to feeling attacked, injured or violated. It's part of being human; it's energy seeking expression. Our anger can be our friend. It helps us survive, giving us the strength to fight back or run away when attacked or faced with injustice. In itself, it's neither good nor bad, but it can be frightening. Angry feelings can lead to destructive and violent behaviour, and so we tend to be frightened of anger. The way we are brought up, and our cultural background, will very much influence how we feel about expressing anger. You may have been punished for expressing it when you were small, or you may have witnessed your parents' or other adults' anger when it was out of control, destructive and terrifying. Or you may have been frightened by the strength of your own bad temper. All of this encourages you to suppress your anger.

Anger management: 10 tips to tame your temper

No. 1: Take a timeout
Counting to 10 isn't just for kids. Before reacting to a tense situation, take a few moments to breathe deeply and count to 10. Slowing down can help defuse your temper. If necessary, take a break from the person or situation until your frustration subsides a bit.

No. 2: Once you're calm, express your anger

As soon as you're thinking clearly, express your frustration in an assertive but nonconfrontational way. State your concerns and needs clearly and directly, without hurting others or trying to control them.

No. 3: Get some exercise

Physical activity can provide an outlet for your emotions, especially if you're about to erupt. If you feel your anger escalating, go for a brisk walk or run, or spend some time doing other favorite physical activities. Physical activity stimulates various brain chemicals that can leave you feeling happier and more relaxed than you were before you worked out.

No. 4: Think before you speak

In the heat of the moment, it's easy to say something you'll later regret. Take a few moments to collect your thoughts before saying anything and allow others involved in the situation to do the same.

No. 5: Identify possible solutions

Instead of focusing on what made you mad, work on resolving the issue at hand. Does your child's messy room drive you crazy? Close the door. Is your partner late for dinner every night? Schedule meals later in the evening or agree to eat on your own a few times a week. Remind yourself that anger won't fix anything, and might only make it worse.

No. 6: Stick with 'I' statements

To avoid criticizing or placing blame which might only increase tension use "I" statements to describe the problem. Be respectful and specific. For example, say, "I'm upset that you left the table without offering to help with the dishes," instead of, "You never do any housework."

No. 7: Don't hold a grudge

Forgiveness is a powerful tool. If you allow anger and other negative feelings to crowd out positive feelings, you might find yourself swallowed up by your own bitterness or sense of injustice. But if you can forgive someone who angered you, you might both learn from the situation. It's unrealistic to expect everyone to behave exactly as you want at all times.

No. 8: Use humor to release tension

Lightening up can help diffuse tension. Don't use sarcasm, though it can hurt feelings and make things worse.

No. 9: Practice relaxation skills

When your temper flares, put relaxation skills to work. Practice deep-breathing exercises, imagine a relaxing scene, or repeat a calming word or phrase, such as, "Take it easy." You might also listen to music, write in a journal or do a few yoga poses whatever it takes to encourage relaxation.

No. 10: Know when to seek help

Learning to control anger is a challenge for everyone at times. Consider seeking help for anger issues if your anger seems out of control, causes you to do things you regret or hurts those around you. You might explore local anger management classes or anger management counseling. With professional help, you can:

Learn what anger is Identify what triggers your anger Recognize signs that you're becoming angry Learn to respond to frustration and anger in a controlled, healthy way Explore underlying feelings, such as sadness or depression

Depression (mood)
What is depression?
Depression is a common mental disorder that presents with depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy, and poor concentration. These problems can become chronic or recurrent and lead to substantial impairments in an individual's ability to take care of his or her everyday responsibilities. At its worst, depression can lead to suicide, a tragic fatality associated with the loss of about 850 000 lives every year. Depression occurs in persons of all genders, ages, and backgrounds.

Types of Depression
There are several different types of clinical depression (mood disorders that include depressive symptoms):

Major depression is an episode of change in mood that lasts for weeks or months. It is one of the most severe types of depression. It usually involves a low or irritable mood and/or a loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. It interferes with one's normal functioning and often includes physical symptoms. A person may experience only one episode of major depressive disorder, but often there are repeated episodes over an individual's lifetime. Dysthymia, often commonly called melancholy, is less severe than major depression but usually goes on for a longer period, often several years. There are usually periods of feeling fairly normal between episodes of low mood. The symptoms usually do not completely disrupt one's normal activities. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of depression, usually severe, alternating with episodes of extreme elation called mania. This condition is sometimes called by its older name, manic depression. The depression that is associated with bipolar disorder is often referred to as bipolar depression. When depression is not associated with bipolar disorder, it is called unipolar depression. Seasonal depression, which medical professionals call seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, is depression that occurs only at a certain time of the year, usually winter, when the number of daylight hours is lower. It is sometimes called "winter blues." Although it is predictable, it can be very severe. Psychotic depression refers to the situation when depression and hallucinations or delusions are experienced at the same time (co-occur). This may be the result of depression that becomes so severe that it results in the sufferer losing touch with reality. Individuals who primarily suffer from a loss of touch with reality (for example, schizophrenia) are thought to suffer from an imbalance of dopamine activity in the brain and to be at risk of subsequently becoming depressed.

Causes of Depression
The causes of depression are complex. Genetic, biological, and environmental factors can contribute to its development. In some people, depression can be traced to a single cause, while in others, a number of causes are at play. For many, the causes are never known.

Currently, it appears that there are biochemical causes for depression, occurring as a result of abnormalities in the levels of certain chemicals in the brain. o These chemicals are called neurotransmitters. o The abnormalities are thought to be biological and are not caused by anything you did. While we still don't know exactly how levels of these neurotransmitters affect mood, we do know that the levels can be affected by a number of factors. o Heredity: Certain types of depression seem to run in some families. Research is ongoing as to exactly which genes are involved in depression. Just because someone in your family has depression, however, doesn't mean you will. Sometimes, family members who were known to abuse alcohol or other drugs were unwittingly trying to improve their mood (often called "self-medication" by professionals). Likewise, you can become depressed even if no one else in your family is known to have depression. o Personality: People with certain personality traits are more likely to become depressed. These include negative thinking, pessimism, excess worry, low selfesteem, a hypersensitivity to perceived rejection, overdependence on others, a sense of superiority or alienation from others, and ineffective responses to stress. o Situations: Difficult life events, loss, change, or persistent stress can cause levels of neurotransmitters to become unbalanced, leading to depression. Even events that tend to be major happy occasions, such as pregnancy and childbirth, can cause changes in hormone levels, be stressful and cause clinical depression, as in postpartum depression. o Medical conditions: Depression is more likely to occur with certain medical illnesses. These "co-occurring" conditions include heart disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer, hormonal disorders (especially perimenopause or hypothyroidism, known as "low thyroid"), Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. While it does not appear that allergies cause depression or vice versa, people who suffer from nonfood allergies have been found to be somewhat more vulnerable to also having depression compared to people who do not have allergies. Clinical depression should not be considered a normal or natural reaction to illness. o Medications: Some medications used for long periods, such as prednisone, certain blood pressure medicines, sleeping pills, antibiotics and even birth control pills in some cases, can cause depression or make an existing depression worse. Some antiseizure medications, like lamotrigine (Lamictal), topiramate (Topamax), and gabapentin (Neurontin), may be associated with a higher risk of suicide. o Substance abuse: While it has long been believed that depression caused people to misuse alcohol and drugs in an attempt to make themselves feel better (selfmedication), it is now thought that the reverse can also be the case; substance abuse can actually cause depression. Diet: Deficiencies in certain vitamins, such as folic acid and B-12, may cause depression. o Certain people are more likely to develop clinical depression. The following are risk factors for depression in adults: Female sex Advanced age

Lower socioeconomic status Recent stressful life experience Chronic (long-term) medical condition Underlying emotional or personality disorder Substance abuse (such as alcohol, sleeping medications, medications for panic or anxiety, or cocaine) Family history of depression, especially in a close relative (such as parent, brother or sister, or child) Lack of social support Many of these risk factors also apply to children. Other risk factors for childhood or teenage depression include the following: Continual mental or emotional stress, at home or at school The presence of any medical condition, even as mild as acne A recent loss Attention problems (ADHD), learning, or conduct disorder Obesity Risk factors for depression in elderly people include those listed for adults. The following are especially important: Co-occurring illnesses: These become much more important risk factors in the elderly because of the higher incidence of these illnesses in older people. Diseases with which depression is more likely to occur include heart disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer, thyroid disease, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease -- all diseases that are much more common in elderly people than in other age groups. Medication effects: Like co-occurring illnesses, medication use is much more common in the elderly. Depression is a side effect of some medications in the elderly. Not taking medication for medical conditions: Some medical conditions, if untreated, may cause depression. An example is hypothyroidism (low thyroid functioning). Living alone, social isolation Being recently widowed

Symptoms and Signs of Depression

Clinical depression is not something you feel for a day or two before feeling better. In true depressive illnesses, the symptoms last weeks, months, or sometimes years if you don't seek treatment. If you are depressed, you are often unable to perform daily activities. You may not care enough to get out of bed or get dressed, much less work, do errands, or socialize.

Adults: You may be said to be suffering from a major depressive episode if you have a depressed mood for at least two weeks and have at least five of the following clinical symptoms: o Feeling sad or blue o Crying spells o Loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities o Significant increase or decrease in appetite o Significant weight loss or weight gain o Change in sleep pattern: inability to sleep or excessive sleeping o Agitation or irritability o Fatigue or loss of energy

o o o o

A tendency to isolate from friends and family Trouble concentrating Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt Thoughts of death or suicide

Children with depression may also experience the classic symptoms but may exhibit other symptoms as well, including the following: o Poor school performance o Persistent boredom o Frequent complaints of physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomach-aches o Some of the classic adult symptoms of depression may also be more obvious in children, such as changes in eating or sleeping patterns (Has the child lost or gained weight in recent weeks or months? Does he or she seem more tired than usual?) o Symptoms and signs of depression in teens may include more risk-taking behaviours and/or showing less concern for their own safety. Examples of risk-taking behaviours include driving recklessly/at excessive speed, becoming intoxicated with alcohol or other drugs, especially in situations in which they are driving or may be in the presence of others who engage in risky behaviours, and engaging in promiscuous or unprotected sex. Parents of children with depression report noticing the following behaviour changes. If you notice any of these, discuss this with your health-care provider. o The child cries more often or more easily. o The child's eating habits, sleeping habits, or weight change significantly. o The child has unexplained physical complaints (for example, headaches or abdominal pain). o The child spends more time alone, away from friends and family. o The child actually becomes more "clingy" and may become more dependent on certain relationships. This is less common than social withdrawal though. o The child seems to be overly pessimistic or exhibits excessive guilt or feelings of worthlessness. o The child expresses thoughts about hurting him or herself or exhibits reckless or other harmful behaviour. Elderly: While any of the classic symptoms and signs of depression may occur in elderly men and women, other symptoms also may be noted: o Diminished ability to think or concentrate o Unexplained physical complaints (for example, abdominal pain, changes in bowel habits, or muscle aches) o Memory impairment (occurs in about 10% of those with severe depression)

Since symptoms of depression tend to be more physical in elderly individuals compared to younger individuals, this puts these individuals at risk for having their depressive symptoms erroneously attributed to medical problems.

Depression Treatment
If your symptoms indicate that you have clinical depression, your health-care provider will strongly recommend treatment. Treatment may include addressing any medical conditions that cause or worsen depression.

Most practitioners will continue treatment of major depression for six months to a year. Treatment for teens with depression can have a significantly positive effect on the adolescent's functioning with peers, family, and at school. Without treatment, your symptoms will last much longer and may never get better. In fact, they may get worse. With treatment, your chances of recovery are quite good.
Self-Care at Home

Once you are being treated for depression, you can make lifestyle changes and choices that are forms of self-help through the rough times and may prevent depression from returning.

Try to identify and focus on activities that make you feel better. It is important to do things for yourself. Don't isolate yourself. Take part in activities even when you may not want to. Such activity may actually make you feel better. Talk with your friends and family and consider joining a support group. Communicating and discussing your feelings is an integral part of your treatment and will help with your recovery. Try to maintain a positive outlook. Having a good attitude can be beneficial. Regular exercise and proper diet are essential to good health. Exercise has been found to increase the levels of the body's own natural antidepressants called endorphins. Try to get enough rest and maintain a regular sleeping pattern. Avoid drinking alcohol or using any illicit substances.

Medical Treatment

Therapy frequently includes antidepressant medication and supportive care such as psychotherapy. Other less widely used therapies, such as electroconvulsive therapy, are used in severe cases. Therapy may be provided by your health-care provider or by a specially trained mental-health professional.

Psychiatrists are medical doctors who have completed specialized training in mental disorders. Psychologists are nonphysicians who have graduate (after college) and doctorate-level (PhD) training that includes experience in mental-health-care facilities. Psychotherapists may have a degree in medicine (psychiatry), psychology, social work, nursing, mental-health counselling, or couples and family therapy, as well as additional more specialized education or training.

Depression Prevention
People who have risk factors for depression should be "screened" regularly by their healthcare provider. This means that when they see their health-care provider, questions should be asked that might indicate depression. If identified early, those who are at risk for depression are more likely to benefit from treatment.

Conflict Management skills

Conflict is defined as a difference of opinion regarding ideas, wishes or desires. Conflict can arise between couples, work peers and political governments. Understanding the basic types of conflicts that may occur in your daily environment can help you avoid disagreements or learn the best way to deal with them. Conflict management is the process of limiting the negative aspects of conflict while increasing the positive aspects of conflict. The aim of conflict management is to enhancelearning and group outcomes, including effectiveness or performance in organizational setting
Conflict Management Skills: resolving interpersonal conflict through effective interpersonal negotiation skills.

Conflict management plays a very important role in preventing conflicts among individuals. How does a conflict arise? When individuals strongly oppose each others opinions and ideas, the probability of a conflict arises. A conflict starts when individuals think on different lines and find it very difficult to accept each others ideas. Conflict must be avoided as it destroys the peace, lowers the productivity as well as demotivates the individuals. All the factors leading to a fight must be explored and efforts must be made to prevent a conflict. A conflict is not very easy to control; an individual needs certain skills for the same. Let us study the skills in detail. 1. Effective communication Skills Effective communication skills are of utmost importance to prevent conflicts. While interacting with others, you have to take special care of your speech and the way you speak. Never ever shout on anyone, even if you do not agree with him. Always speak in a polite but convincing manner. Greet others with a warm smile. It works. Be very specific and precise in your speech. Do not use complicated words and confuse others. Keep a control on your tongue and do not use words which might hurt the sentiments of others. Avoid using abusive languages. 2. Listening Skills

An individual must not give his expert comments unless and until he is very clear what the other person wants. Always be a good listener. Dont just jump to conclusions and assume things on your own. Always listen to the other side of the story as well. 3. Discussion Dont just follow the rumour mills blindly, do discuss with others as well. Differences can crop up anytime but fighting would provide no solution. It is always better to sit and discuss the issues on an open forum. All the participants must give their inputs and efforts must be made to find out an alternative. Invite all the members involved and never ignore anyone as it would never solve the problem. Everyone has a right to express his views and a middle way has to be found. 4. Patience One needs to be very patient to avoid conflicts. There would be people at your workplace and even home who would try to provoke you to fight. Never ever get influenced. Always follow your instincts and support what is right. Be very sensible and patient. Learn to keep a control on your emotions. Do not ever lose your temper as it would only make the situation worse. 5. Impartial An individual has to be impartial to avoid conflicts. Do not always support your friend. Stand by what is correct and never support what is wrong. Any individual, even if he is your friend must be corrected if you feel he is wrong. Listen to everyone and never ignore anyone just because you dont know him. 6. Never Criticize Make the other person understand if he is wrong. Dont criticize him as it would definitely hurt his sentiments. The other person might not be as intelligent as you are, but you have no right to make fun of him. Others will look up to you if you guide the other person well and make him realize his mistakes. 7. Positive Attitude Positive attitude is essential to avoid fights and conflicts. In offices, never ever play the Blame game. No one is perfect and if you have done anything wrong, have the courage to accept it. Human Beings are bound to make mistakes but never try to put the blame on anyone elses shoulders. Avoid backbiting as it only spoils the relationships. If you dont agree with anyones views, discuss with him on his face, he will like it. Dont always find faults in others and be a little more adjusting as life is all about adjustments. 8. Ignore others Individuals must try to adopt the middle path approach which considers the interests of one and all. Dont unnecessarily waste your energy for a person who is too

adamant and is not willing to compromise at all. Ignore the person who is too demanding as it would solve half of your problems.

The Types of Conflict in Communication

Conflict is a struggle that occurs when our needs and goals are incompatible with those of others. During our lives, we are likely to experience several conflicts with people who are close to us, people we work with and those we might not know.

Types
o

There are four types of conflict in communication: intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, intragroup conflict and intergroup conflict.

Intrapersonal Conflict
o

The conflict that is happening inside of an individual is intrapersonal conflict. This type of conflict takes place when there is an inconsistency in our ideas, attitudes, emotions or values.

Interpersonal Conflict
o

Interpersonal conflict is the conflict that takes place between individuals-friends, family members, couples or even strangers. These types of conflicts usually take place when people communicate directly with each other.

Intragroup Conflict
o

Conflict that occurs within a small group of people is intragroup conflict. These conflicts can involve members of a family or workplace team and usually stem from individual differences that end up affecting the entire group.

Intergroup Conflict
o

Intergroup conflict occurs between different groups. An example is the feud that occurred between the Montagues and the Capulets in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet." When conflict is this large, it can often continue for many years and is extremely complicated to resolve.

Body language
Body language typically refers to the various natural gestures, body postures, eye movements and facial expressions that we use to enhance our verbal communication. Body language is, therefore, an example of non-verbal communication. In sum, non-verbal communication does not use verbal codes (words in written or spoken language and/or concepts in signed language). Rather, non-verbal communication refers to all

the components used by the sender of a message (whether intentional or unintentional) that possess a potential message value for the receiver of the message. These non-verbal components are typically divided into two broad categories: 1. static 2. dynamic

Static NVC Components

Static non-verbal communication components are those things that do not usually change during the course of an interaction: for example, clothes and hair color.

Idiosyncratic interpretation
Of themselves such things as clothes and hair color do not necessarily convey particular meanings. However, we often associate meanings with these components based upon our cultural background, our biases and even our prejudices Many of these associations are, clearly, cultural stereotypes. However, the point is that there is always the possibility that a static component such as hair color can convey certain meanings, albeit unintentionally. Indeed we saw in the brief definition of non-verbal communication above that that potential message value of a component may be intended or unintentional. In other words, depending on the message receivers suppositions, his or her cultural understandings, the environmental conditions and other situational variables, a particular non-verbal component may convey some information that is meaningful to the receiver however he or she interprets this.

Customary interpretation
With respect to clothes we may be more ready to assert meanings than in regard to hair color. For example, many of us would contend that the way we dress says something about me as an individual. Styles of dress are used by particular groups to express such things as group cohesion and an orientation towards authority. Consider the 1960s hippies, punks of the 1970s and the romantics of the 1980s. Clothes are most readily seen to convey a sense of professional and/or institutional affiliation through uniforms. Examples of institutional identity marked by uniform are the police, nurses and footballers. The clothing conveys a meaning. Someone wearing a nurses uniform is likely to be viewed as an individual who would be willing to offer medical assistance. One wearing a police uniform is likely to be considered as one who will uphold the law, and so on. Further examples

Other static non-verbal communication components include the following:

hygiene (e.g. well groomed hair; unpleasant smelling breath) eye color hair color and length face shape shape and length of nose skin color race body shape and figure gender adornments (e.g. glasses; hearing aid) cosmetic make up

Dynamic Non-verbal Communication

Dynamic non-verbal communication uses components that change during the course of an encounter. These are the components typically thought of as body language, i.e. gestures, facial expression, eye movement, and similar.

Dynamic NVC Components

These are components that do change frequently during face-to-face interactions with others. Some of the more important are:

eye movement and direction of gaze body movement physical contact facial expression gesture

Eye movement and direction of gaze

There are large individual and cultural differences in the use of eye gaze. However, it is conventional (at least in the UK and USA/Canada) to look at the person that one is talking to. The use of eye gaze paces the interaction and people tend to look longer at the other person when listening as opposed to speaking. The speaker makes brief eye contact with the listener whilst he or she is engaged in a stretch of talk. This serves to hold the floor, i.e. to signal to the listener that they are engaged in an extended unit of talk and that they are not yet ready to pass over the turn at talk to the current listener. The listener, however, will be looking at the speaker much more consistently and thereby signalling that he or she is still attending to what is being said.

At the end of stretch of talk, the speaker may look up to make eye contact with the listener. This eye contact is held slightly longer and signals to the listener that the speaker has finished his or her stretch of talk and that the listener may now take up the talk. In addition, we tend to look less at people if we dislike them, if the topic is difficult or embarrassing, or if we are lying.

Body movement and posture

As with many non-verbal communication components the use of body movements and posture may be conscious or unconscious (intentional or unintentional). You could probably provide an example of a sitting posture that signalled that an individual was withdrawn or upset. One might consider, for example, that a withdrawn individual may slump into the chair, arms folded across the chest, head lowered and shoulders raised, making little eye contact with others in the room. An upset individual may have a similar bodily posture but this may also be associated with facial grimacing and puckering of the lips, and small intermittent shrugging of the shoulders. The point is that most of us have some idea of what different body postures and orientations can signal. We can, therefore, exploit this knowledge. For example, in an interview situation, in order to appear keen and motivated, we may sit forward in the chair and even lean forward when answering questions. Much of our body movement, however, is unconscious in that we do not actively sit, stand or walk in particular ways in order to send particular messages. We unconsciously adopt certain movements and positions which reflect our current moods, aspirations and needs.
orientation

The orientation of our body towards others is an important factor and indicates the nature of the encounter. We are more likely to confront someone sitting opposite us than sitting to the side of us. We tend to sit to the side of people who need our support: consider how a teacher might assist one of their pupils or how a nurse might comfort a distraught patient or relative. Orientation also indicates the relative status of each person and demarcates the limits of a group.
proxemics

As well as how we orient our bodies towards others we also tend to stand or sit at particular distances from the people we are interacting with: this is known as proxemics. As a rule, extroverts tend to stand closer than introverts. Again there is a wide cultural variation in the distances that different peoples approach each other. Persons in the United Kingdom, for example, generally prefer to stand further apart from each other when talking on a casual basis than do some persons from the Asian continent.

Physical contact
Once again, the cultural variation in the use of physical contact is great. For example, in casual interactions there tends to be much more physical contact between Mediterranean

peoples than there is between persons from the United Kingdom. Physical contacts between the latter are rather limited and tend to be restricted to symbolic contacts such as shaking hands. Gender and familiarity will also influence the nature of physical contact. Typically, within the UK, physical contact between females is greater than between males. Any physical contact between males and females will be influenced by familiarity, the environment and the emotional bond between the pair, and other situational variables. Contacts outside the family are largely confined to the use of the hands and persons tend to contact only the other persons hands, shoulders, arms and upper back. The site of physical contact, and the strength with which the contact is made, may be variously construed as aggressive, sexual, leading or dominating.

Facial expression
Facial expressions are used to signal a wide range of emotions and information. Such signals may be attained by singular movements of the eyebrows, eyes, mouth, forehead or any combination of these.

Gesture
As with most dynamic non-verbal communication components, gesture is culture-bound, i.e. the meaning of a physical gesture to one group of people may be completely different to the meaning of exactly the same gesture to another group of people. Gestures are often thought of as being natural, in the sense that they do not follow any complex, formalized rules. They typically signal only a very limited vocabulary, e.g. yes, no, good, bad, happy. In this sense, some gestures are arguably verbal. Most people use some form of natural gesture when communicating with others. Gestures can expand and clarify the context of the talk and they are a way of providing visual punctuation to what is being said.

Secrets of Body Language

Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously. John Borg attests that human communication consists of 93 percent body language and paralinguistic cues, while only 7% of communication consists of words themselves; however, Albert Mehrabian, the researcher whose 1960s work is the source of these statistics, has stated that this is a misunderstanding of the findings.

Research shows that we make eleven crucial decisions about one another subconsciously evaluating an array of nonverbal cues within the first seven seconds. And once someone labels you as likeable or un-likeable, powerful or submissive, everything else you do will be viewed through that filter. Others assert that research has suggested that between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning is derived from nonverbal behavior. Delve into the science of non-verbal signals as this very visual and highly entertaining expose reveals the hidden language in which 93% of human communication takes place. From President Franklin D. Roosevelt, to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and 2008 presidential hopefuls Senators Barack Obama and John McCain, see how both politicians and celebrities use the subtle movements of body language to persuade masses, establish power, and advance careers.

Conflict stimulation and conflict resolution techniques for effective management Conflict stimulation
The practice of encouraging conflict to motivate employees to change when necessary. Conflict stimulation helps to keep a company or team from stagnating. Conflict improves group and organizational effectiveness. The stimulation of conflict initiates the search for new means and goals and provides the stimulus for innovation. The successful solution of a conflict leads to greater effectiveness, to more trust and openness, to greater attraction of members for each other, and to depersonalization of future conflicts. In this write up we are discussing how the stimulating conflict can provide benefits to the organization. Conflict is a means by which to bring effective device by which management existing power structure, current entrenched about radical change. It's an can drastically change the interaction patterns, and attitudes

Conflict facilitates group cohesiveness. Whereas conflict increases hostility between groups, external threats tend to cause a group to pull together as a unit. Inter group conflicts raise the extent to which members identify with their own group and increase feelings of solidarity. Conflict brings about a slightly higher, more constructive level of

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are not conflict.

Conflict resolution techniques for effective management

Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of social conflict. Often, committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs), and by engaging in collective negotiation. Ultimately, a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding. It may be important to note that the term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. Furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution.

Techniques for Conflict Resolution

Behavioral Techniques o Dont negotiate when angry. o Forget the past and stay in the present. o Focus on the problem not the person. o Communicate feelings assertively, NOT aggressively. Express concerns without blaming the other side. o Expect and accept anothers right to disagree. Dont push or force compliance; work to develop common agreement. o Dont view the situation as a competition where one has to win and the other has to lose. Work toward a solution where both parties have some of their needs met. o Build power with NOT power over others. o Thank the person for listening. Negotiation Techniques o Identify and define the conflict in specific terms. o Focus on areas of common interest and potential areas for agreement. o NEVER jump to conclusions or make assumptions about what another is feeling or thinking.

o Listen without interrupting; ask for feedback if needed to assure a clear understanding of the issue. o Generate alternative solutions. o Discuss the pros and cons of the alternatives. Listen as well as state your case. o Select the best course of action that all can agree upon. o Implement only the parts of the plan that are in agreement. Remember, when only one persons needs are satisfied in a conflict, it is NOT resolved and will continue. o Follow-up to evaluate the effectiveness of the plan and make any adjustments necessary.

Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills are the life skills we use every day to communicate and interact with other people, individually and in groups. Interpersonal skills include not only how we communicate with others, but also our confidence and our ability to listen and understand. Problem solving, decision making and personal stress management are also considered interpersonal skills.

Group decision making

Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions. The number of people involved in group decision-making varies greatly, but often ranges from two to seven. Decision-making groups may be relatively informal in nature, or formally designated and charged with a specific goal. The process used to arrive at decisions may be unstructured or structured. Group decision-making should be distinguished from the concepts of teams, teamwork, and self-managed teams. Although the words teams and groups are often used interchangeably, scholars increasingly differentiate between the two. The basis for the distinction seems to be that teams act more collectively and achieve greater synergy of effort. Katzenback and Smith spell out specific differences between decision making groups and teams:

The group has a definite leader, but the team has shared leadership roles Members of a group have individual accountability; the team has both individual and collective accountability. The group measures effectiveness indirectly, but the team measures performance directly through their collective work product. The group discusses, decides, and delegates, but the team discusses, decides, and does real work.

GROUP DECISION MAKING METHODS Method 1. Decision made by authority without group discussion Process: The designated leader makes all decisions without consulting group members. Strengths Takes minimal time to make decision Weaknesses No group interaction

Commonly used in organizations (so we are Team may not understand decision or be familiar with method) unable to implement decision High on assertiveness scale Low on cooperation scale

Method 2. Decision by expert Process: Select the expert from group, let the expert consider the issues, and let the expert make decisions. Strengths Weaknesses Useful when one person on the team has Unclear how to determine who the expert is the overwhelming expertise (team members may have different opinions) No group interaction May become popularity issue or power issue Method 3. Decision by averaging individuals' opinions Process: Separately ask each team member his/her opinion and average the results. Strengths Extreme opinions cancelled out Error typically cancelled out Group members consulted Weaknesses No group interaction, team members are not truly involved in the decision Opinions of least and most knowledgeable members may cancel Commitment to decision may not be strong

Useful when it is difficult to get the team Unresolved conflict may exist or escalate together to talk Urgent decisions can be made May damage future team effectiveness

Method 4. Decision made by authority after group discussion Process: The team creates ideas and has discussions, but the designated leader makes the final decision. The designated leader calls a meeting, presents the issue, listens to discussion from the team, and announces her/his decision. Strengths Team used more than methods 13 Weaknesses Team is not part of decision

Listening to the team increases the accuracy Team may compete for the leaders of the decision attention Team members may tell leader what he/she wants to hear Still may not have commitment from the team to the decision

Method 5. Decision by minority Process: A minority of the team, two or more members who constitute less than 50% of the team, make the teams decision

Strengths Method committees often used by executive

Weaknesses Can be railroading

Method can be used by temporary May not have full team commitment to committees decision Useful for large number of decisions and May create an air of competition among limited time team members Some team perspective and discussion Method 6. Decision by majority vote Still may not have commitment from team to decision

Process: This is the most commonly used method in the United States (not synonymous with best method). Discuss the decision until 51% or more of the team members make the decision. Strengths Weaknesses

Useful when there is insufficient time to Taken for granted as the natural, or only, make decision by consensus way for teams to make a decision Useful when the complete team-member Team is viewed as the winners and the commitment is unnecessary for losers; reduces the quality of decision implementing a decision Minority opinion not discussed and may not be valued May have unresolved and unaddressed conflict Full group interaction is not obtained

Method 7. Decision by consensus

Process: Collective decision arrived at through an effective and fair communication process (all team members spoke and listened, and all were valued). Strengths Weaknesses

Most effective method of team decision Takes more time than methods 16 making Takes psychological energy and high degree All team members express their thoughts of team-member skill (can be negative if and feelings individual team members not committed to the process)

 Team members feel understood Active listening used

Developing characteristics of charismatic and transformational leadership

Leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.
Charismatic-Transformational Leadership applies to the most difficult and complex organizational problems. These problems involve culture, values and paradigms in addition to the more technical problems.

Charismatic Leadership
Charisma--A spiritual power or personal quality that gives an individual influence or authority over large numbers of people. Charismatic leadership is the idea of having a leader who has a large amount of character, shows it to its followers, and knows how to use this to his or her advantage. They can use this character to help meet the needs of the people and even to attract more individual support. Charismatic leaders have a deep self-confidence derived from self-knowledge. They have thought things through and have little inner conflict or doubt.

Charismatic leadership is leadership based on the leader's ability to communicate and behave in ways that reach followers on a basic, emotional way, to inspire and motivate. We often speak of some sports and political leaders as charismatic (or not) -- an example being John F. Kennedy. Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leadersy dK363 1. Vision and articulation. Has a visionexpressed as an idealized goalthat proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others. 2. Personal risk. Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision. 3. Environmental sensitivity. Able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change. 4. Sensitivity to follower needs. Perceptive of others abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings. 5. Unconventional behavior. Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.

Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a type of leadership style that leads to positive changes in those who follow.

Leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation, and who possess charisma.
Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic and passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process; they are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed as well.

Transformational leadership is focused more on the quality of interaction between people. It has an inspiring, uplifting, stimulating and individualized focus. The results are still important, but it is about long term relationship building.
Characteristics of Transformational Leaders

Charisma: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness- self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy and social skills.
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to understand and manage both our own emotions, and those of the people around us. People with a high degree of emotional intelligence usually know what they're feeling, what this means, and how their emotions can affect other people. For leaders, having emotional intelligence is essential for success.

Elements of Emotional Intelligence

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Self-awareness. Self-regulation. Motivation. Empathy. Social skills.

1. Self-awareness
If we're self-aware, we always know how we feel. And we know how our emotions, and our actions, can affect the people around us. Being self-aware when we're in a leadership position also means having a clear picture of our strengths and weaknesses. And it means having humility. To improve our self-awareness

Keep a journal Journals help improve our self-awareness. If we spend just a few minutes each day writing down our thoughts, this can move us to a higher degree of self-awareness. Slow down When we experience anger or other strong emotions, slow down to examine why. Remember, no matter what the situation, we can always choose how we react to it.

2. Self-regulation
Leaders who regulate themselves effectively rarely verbally attack others, make rushed or emotional decisions, stereotype people, or compromise their values. Self-regulation is all about staying in control. This element of emotional intelligence, according to Goleman, also covers a leader's flexibility and commitment to personal accountability. So, how can we improve our ability to self-regulate?

Know our values Do we have a clear idea of where we absolutely will not compromise? Do we know what values are most important to us? Spend some time examining our "code of ethics." If we know what's most important to us, then we probably won't have to think twice when we face a moral or ethical decision we'll make the right choice. Hold yourself accountable If we tend to blame others when something goes wrong, stop. Make a commitment to admit to our mistakes and face the consequences, whatever they are. We'll probably sleep better at night, and we'll quickly earn the respect of those around us. Practice being calm The next time we're in a challenging situation, be very aware of how we act. Do we believe our stress by shouting at someone else? Practice deepbreathing exercises to calm ourselves. Also, try to write down all of the negative things we want to say, and then rip it up and throw it away. Expressing these emotions on paper (and not showing them to anyone!) is better than speaking them aloud to our team. What's more, this helps us challenge our reactions to make sure that they're fair!

3. Motivation
Self-motivated leaders consistently work toward their goals. And they have extremely high standards for the quality of their work. How can we improve our motivation?

Re-examine why we're doing this It's easy to forget what we really love about our career. So, take some time to remember why we wanted this job. If we're unhappy in our role and we're struggling to remember why we wanted it, try the Five Whys technique to find the root of the problem. Starting at the root often helps us look at our situation in a new way. And make sure that our goal statements are fresh and energizing. Know where we stand Determine how motivated we are to lead. Our Leadership Motivation Assessment can help us see clearly how motivated we are in our

leadership role. If we need to increase our motivation to lead, and it then directs us to resources that can help. Be hopeful and find something good Motivated leaders are usually optimistic, no matter what they face. Adopting this mindset might take practice, but it's well worth the effort. Every time we face a challenge, or even a failure, try to find at least one good thing about the situation. It might be something small, like a new contact, or something with long-term effects, like an important lesson learned. But there's almost always something positive we just have to look for it.

4. Empathy
For leaders, having empathy is critical to managing a successful team or organization. Leaders with empathy have the ability to put themselves in someone else's situation. They help develop the people on their team, challenge others who are acting unfairly, give constructive feedback, and listen to those who need it. If we want to earn the respect and loyalty of our team, then show them we care by being empathic. How can we improve our empathy?

Put yourself in someone else's position It's easy to support our own point of view. But take the time to look at situations from other people's perspectives. Pay attention to body language Perhaps when we listen to someone, we cross our arms, move our feet back and forth, or bite our lip. This body language tells others how we really feel about a situation, and the message we're giving isn't positive. Learning to read body language can be a real asset when we're in a leadership role because we'll be better able to determine how someone truly feels. And this gives us the opportunity to respond appropriately. Respond to feelings We ask our assistant to work late again. And although he agrees, we can hear the disappointment in his voice. So, respond by addressing his feelings. Tell him we appreciate how willing he is to work extra hours, and that we're just as frustrated about working late. If possible, figure out a way for future late nights to be less of an issue (for example, give him Monday mornings off).

5. Social skills
Leaders who do well in this element of emotional intelligence are great communicators. They're just as open to hearing bad news as good news, and they're experts at getting their team to support them and be excited about a new mission or project. Leaders who have good social skills are also good at managing change and resolving conflicts diplomatically. They're rarely satisfied with leaving things as they are, but they're also not willing to make everyone else do the work.

Negotiation skills- preparation and planning, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving, closure and implementation.

Negotiation skills
Negotiation is defined as a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. "A negotiation is an interactive communication process that may take place whenever we want something from someone else or another person wants something from us." Negotiation skills include being well prepared, showing patience, maintaining integrity, avoiding the presumption of evil, controlling our emotions, understanding the role of time pressures, breaking down bigger issues into smaller ones, avoiding threats and manipulative tactics, focusing first on the problem rather than on the solution, seeking for interest-based decisions, and rejecting weak solutions.

Negotiation is most successful when both sides:

Recognize the value of a relationship and have a mutual desire to continue it. Participate actively in the process. Show consideration and acceptance of each other's perspectives, values, beliefs and goals. Separate personality from the issue involved. Work together to develop a solution everyone can accept.

Successful negotiation tips:

Communicate clearly. Respect the other person. Recognize and clearly define the problem. Seek solutions from a variety of sources. Collaborate to reach a mutual solution. Be reliable. Preserve the relationship.

There are also steps to be followed in ensuring a successful negotiation process Step 1: Preparation and planning; Step 2: Definition of ground rules; Step 3: Classification and justification; Step 4: Bargaining and Problem Solving and; Step 5: Closure and implementation...

Stages of Negotiation
1. Preparation and Planning
Preparation and planning is the most important phase. When it comes to preparation, we would basically need to have a clear idea of how we are to go about with our points. One of the keys to effective negotiation is to be able to express our needs and our thoughts clearly to the other party. It is important that we carry out some research on our own about the other party before we begin the negotiation process.

This way we will be able to find out the reputation of the other party and any famous tactics used by him/her to try and get people to agree. We will then be well prepared to face the negotiator with confidence. Reading up on how to negotiate effectively will aid us to a great extent.

2. Definition of Ground rules

Procedures and limits agreed-to by the parties to a negotiation to govern the process, conduct, and scope of the negotiations. Ground rules can help to avoid offensive behaviour and poor treatment of the parties. It may be helpful to review the ground rules, and to explain why ground rules are important. If a participant continues to behave badly or to undermine the process the may consider asking that person to leave the negotiations. Sometimes the problem lies in the personality of the particular individual. In this case the negotiating parties may ask the problematic individual's constituency group to appoint a new representative.

3. Clarification and Justification

Clarification and Justification happens next after we've exchanged initial positions. Armed with our three ring binder full of data from the Internet, we should be quite successful in supporting our position. Don't be afraid to share this data, our best bet is to make sure the other party sees this as our effort to justify our own position, not an effort to destroy theirs. It is still distributive bargaining, but there is benefit to taking every opportunity to avoid the appearance of confrontation. After all the positions

4. Bargaining and Problem Solving

The development of negotiation theory over recent decades has been organized around two major paradigms: bargaining and problem solving. For the bargaining paradigm, indicators of flexibility include concession rates, initiation of new proposals, and other soft behaviours. For the problem-solving perspective, flexibility is usually indicated by a search for better, mutually beneficial solutions to problems that satisfy the needs, identities, and interests of all parties. Empirical research generally reveals that bargaining behaviours are used more frequently in international negotiations than is problem solving. Bargaining or haggling is a type of negotiation in which the buyer and seller of a good or service dispute the price which will be paid and the exact nature of the transaction that will take place, and eventually come to an agreement. Bargaining is an alternative pricing strategy to fixed prices. Optimally, if it costs the retailer nothing to engage and allow bargaining, he can divine the buyer's willingness to spend. It allows for capturing more consumer surplus as it allows price discrimination, a process whereby a seller can charge a higher price to one buyer who is more eager (by being richer or more desperate). Haggling has largely disappeared in parts of the world where the cost to haggle exceeds the gain to retailers for most common retail items. However, for expensive goods sold to uninformed buyers such as automobiles, bargaining can remain commonplace.

The bargaining stage could be said to be the most important of the four stages. This is where most of the work is done by both parties. This is where the actual deal will begin to take shape. Terms and conditions are laid down. Bargaining is never easy. Both parties would have to learn to compromise on several aspects to come to a final agreement.

5. Closing and Commitment

The final stage would be where the last few adjustments to the deal are made by the parties involved, before closing the deal and placing their trust in each other for each to fulfill their role. These four stages have proven to provide great results if studied carefully and applied. Many organizations use this strategy to help their employees negotiate successfully. In the long run, we'll find that we will have mastered the art of negotiation and will be able to close a good deal without too much effort.

Time Management
Definition
It is managing ourselves in relation to time. It is setting priorities and taking charge of your situation and time utilization. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Usually time management is a necessity in any project development as it determines the project completion time and scope.
Time is life, do not waste it Identify major thieves of time and eject them Make a realistic list of things to do and act on it Eliminate unnecessary activities Memory aids such as diaries and tape recorders are useful Analyse how time is spent Never take on more than is necessary, learn to say no Analyse yourself and operate within your strengths Get on by being organized Employ a programme of physical and mental fitness Manage backlog Employ a schedule or planner to chart the way ahead Never cease striving to become more efficient and effective Treat each day as your last, maximize it.

Time : its attributes Time is neutral Time cannot be saved for future use Each activity requires a minimum quantum of time Time has a value like currency Time is cumulative in nature

Principles of Time Management

1. Set goals and Establish priorities 2. Spot the Time Wasters 3. Live Time Management 4. Think quality not quantity of Time 5. Organize yourself for success Prioritize, Clear your desk, delicate work to others, stay healthy in body and mind, Act purposefully and positively. 6. Write a Daily Time schedule: - Time, Activity, Priority (mark each activity according to how important it is (A: Extremely important; B: Important; C: relatively unimportant), Effectiveness and then evaluate the complete time plan of the day. 7. Work to suit your preferred lifestyle.

Time wasters- Procrastination

Timewasters are activities or things that just happen which impede us every day. They prevent us from making the right decisions, and hinder our progress in completing tasks that are important to us. They are different from leisure activities because we do not really enjoy them: while indulging in time wasters we are often bugged by the feeling that we really should be doing something else.

Try to identify some of our personal time wasters and think of when we usually indulge in them Which of these time wasters can we eliminate without causing too much distress to ourselves.

Procrastination
Procrastination is thinking that there will be a better time to do a certain task or that we should wait until we are in a better mood to do something. Strategies to overcome procrastination

It means letting low priority activities take precedence over high priority tasks We may put off starting or finishing because we want to be perfect (perfectionism) We may not see the relevance of the assignment We may be unsure how to begin writing an assignment Break our assignment into small, manageable tasks. This will allow us to use small sections of time instead of waiting for complete days, which may not eventuate. Set realistic timeframes with flexibility to deal with life crises. Start studying at the same time most days / nights. Focus on one thing at a time and convince ourselves that there is no better time than now. Use the D.I.N. rule (do it now).

Reward ourselves after small tasks. This will help retain motivation. Look at the purpose of what we are doing and remind ourselves of the end goal as a way of seeing the relevance of our study to our life. If we are unsettled, tell ourselves we will work for just 15 minutes (the hardest part is to begin). Challenge any temptation to put a task aside because we don't think we are doing it well enough.

The Top 10 Time Wasters

There are many time wasters that will really eat into our time if we allow them to. To free up our time we need to identify those time wasters, decide what we want to do about them and then take action. 1. Lack of planning, prioritizing and focus.

Without these, we'll find ourselves drifting and working in a scattered and disjointed way, and not spending time on what's most important to us. We'll end up working on activities that aren't moving us towards our vision and if this is so, it's not an effective way to spend our time. We'll feel directionless and our productivity will drop. When we're not fully focused in the moment, we inhibit the momentum required to be effective and to get things done faster and more easily. 2. Procrastination. Putting things off wastes not only our time but also our energy and thoughts. When we procrastinate, much time is spent thinking and worrying about the things we need to do. We give ourselves hard time for not doing them and therefore we're unable to spend our time effectively, especially when crunch time arrives and what we've been procrastinating over finally has to be done. 3. Interruptions. This may be the telephone, people dropping into our office, unanticipated events or visitors, anything that stops what we're doing. Interruptions prevent us from being focused; they pull us away from important things at that moment. Time is wasted when we allow different areas of our life to overlap into each other. Focus and time are lost when we allow our work and personal life to interrupt each other. The same goes for the different things we're working on. Keep them separate and don't allow them to interfere with each other. Focus on each specific thing at a time. 4. Lack of delegation. It's a real waste of our time to think we need to do everything and no one ever does it as good as we. We'll end up doing too much and having insufficient time to focus only on what we're really good at, our gifts, strengths and ability. We miss out on leveraging our time by not delegating people to carry out our basic and routine tasks.

5. Meetings. Meetings can be a time waster if there isn't a specific reason, agenda and timeframe for holding them. It's too easy to fall into the habit of holding meetings without realizing that some of that time could be spent more effectively. A small amount of time clarifying the need and reason for the meeting could save a lot of time in the long run. 6. Crisis management, firefighting. When we're running around like a headless chicken, too much time is wasted through a lack of effectiveness. We're not focused and working on what's important. There are too many urgent items getting in the way. Because we're in such a hurry, things are not done well and often come back to bite us, wasting more time when we need to redo it. 7. Telephone, email and Internet. These can also be interruptions and as with meetings, it's easy to spend quite a bit of time on the telephone or internet without any real reason or intention. Time is wasted when we don't make the best use of the time, when we're unclear about what we want to get out of what we're doing and when we stray off the point and drift. It's so easy to justify to ourselves that we're working hard when in fact what we're doing may serve no useful or effective purpose at all. It may be just a distraction. 8. Not saying 'No'. Taking on too much puts pressure on us and prevents us from working at our best. Not working at our best and most effective means everything takes longer and more of our time is stolen from us. We don't value our time and we don't decide how we want to spend it and therefore, we allow others to make that choice for us. We're not going to spend our time effectively if we allow others to ask too much of us. 9. Lack of organization and untidiness. Clutter zaps our energy and not only leaves us less able to work effectively, but wastes time as we try to sort through it. We may find ourselves looking through the same clutter time and again. Clutter can be a distraction for us and anything that distracts doesn't allow for effective use of our time. When we lack organization, much time can be spent doing the same thing repeatedly or because there aren't the necessary systems or processes in place. Not simplifying robs us of our time. 10. Not enough time-off or time for ourselves.

We need to step back, evaluate and re-energize ourselves in order to be effective. Many people 'try' to do more and more thinking they're using their time better. But in actual fact, this can often result in being less productive and not working on what's most important. We waste time when we keep doing, doing, doing, without enough time for just being and listening to our inner wisdom. Without enough time-off or time for ourselves, our health may suffer and eventually we'll reach a crisis point where we're forced to take even more time off.

Time management Tips and Strategies

Time Management Tips
Time management skills are especially important for small business people, who often find themselves performing many different jobs during the course of a single day. These time management tips will help you increase your productivity and stay cool and collected.
1) Plan each day.

Planning our day can help we accomplish more and feel more in control of our life. Write a to-do list, putting the most important tasks at the top. Keep a schedule of our daily activities to minimize conflicts and last-minute rushes. 2) Find out where we're wasting time. Many of us are prey to time-wasters that steal time we could be using much more productively. What are your time-bandits? Do you spend too much time 'Net surfing, reading email, or making personal calls? Tracking Daily Activities explains how to track our activities so we can form an accurate picture of what we actually do, the first step to effective time management. 3) Create time management goals. Remember, the focus of time management is actually changing our behaviours, not changing time. A good place to start is by eliminating our personal time-wasters. For one week, for example, set a goal that we're not going to take personal phone calls while we're working. 4) Implement a time management plan. Think of this as an extension of tip # 3. The objective is to change our behaviours over time to achieve whatever general goal we've set for ourselves, such as increasing our productivity or decreasing our stress. So we need to not only set our specific goals, but track them over time to see whether or not we're accomplishing them.
6) Evaluate how we're spending our time.

Keep a diary of everything we do for three days to determine how we're spending our time. 7) Prioritize our tasks. Time-consuming but relatively unimportant tasks can consume a lot of our day. Prioritizing tasks will ensure that we spend our time and energy on those that are truly important to us. 7) Learn to delegate and/or outsource. No matter how small our business is, there's no need for us to be a one-person show. For effective time management, we need to let other people carry some of the load.

8) Get in the habit of setting time limits for tasks. For instance, reading and answering email can consume our whole day if we let it. Instead, set a limit on one hour a day for this task and stick to it. 9) Break large, time-consuming tasks into smaller tasks. Work on them a few minutes at a time until we get them all done. 10) Don't waste time waiting. From client meetings to dentist appointments, it's impossible to avoid waiting for someone or something. Always take something to do with us, such as a report we need to read, a checkbook that needs to be balanced, or just a blank pad of paper that we can use to plan youre next marketing campaign. Technology makes it easy to work wherever we are; our PDA and/or cell phone will help us stay connected. 11) Get plenty of sleep, eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly. A healthy lifestyle can improve our focus and concentration, which will help improve our efficiency so that we can complete our work in less time. 12) Take a break when needed. Too much stress can derail our attempts at getting organized. When we need a break, take one. Take a walk. Do some quick stretches at our workstation. Take a day of vacation to rest and re-energize.

Time Management Strategies

1. Know How You Spend Your Time
Keeping a time log is a helpful way to determine how we are using our time. Start by recording what we are doing for 15-minute intervals for a week or two. Evaluate the results.

2. Set Priorities
One of the easiest ways to prioritize is to make a to do list. Whether we need a daily, weekly or monthly list depends on our lifestyle.

3. Use a Planning Tool

Time management experts recommend using a personal planning tool to improve our productivity. Examples of personal planning tools include electronic planners, pocket diaries, calendars, computer programs, wall charts, index cards and notebooks. Some reminders when using a planning tool are: Always record our information on the tool itself. Review our planning tool daily. Carry our planning tool with us. Remember to keep a list of our priorities in our planning tool and refer to it often.

 Synchronize electronic planners with our computer and recharge the batteries in our planner on a regular basis. Keep a back-up system.

4. Get Organized
Most people find that disorganization results in poor time management. Professional organizers recommend that we first get rid of the clutter.

5. Schedule Your Time Appropriately

Scheduling is not just recording what we have to do (e.g., meetings and appointments), it is also making a time commitment to the things we want to do. Good scheduling requires that we know ourselves. Plan our most challenging tasks for when we have the most energy. Block out time for our high priority activities first and protect that time from interruptions. Try to limit scheduled time to about 3/4ths of our day, leaving time for creative activities such as planning, dreaming, thinking, and reading.

6. Delegate: Get Help from Others

Delegation means assigning responsibility for a task to someone else, freeing up some of our time for tasks that require our expertise. Delegation begins by identifying tasks that others can do and then selecting the appropriate person(s) to do them. We need to select someone with the appropriate skills, experience, interest, and authority needed to accomplish the task.

7. Stop Procrastinating
We may be putting off tasks for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the task seems overwhelming or unpleasant. Try breaking down the task into smaller segments that require less time commitment and result in specific, realistic deadlines. If were having trouble getting started, we may need to complete a preparatory task such as collecting materials or organizing our notes. Also, try building in a reward system as we complete each small segment of the task.

8. Avoid Multi-tasking
Recent psychological studies have shown that multi-tasking does not actually save time. In fact, the opposite is often true. We lose time when switching from one task to another, resulting in a loss of productivity Routine multi-tasking may lead to difficulty in concentrating and maintaining focus when needed.

9. Stay Healthy
Scheduling time to relax, or do nothing, can help us rejuvenate both physically and mentally, enabling us to accomplish tasks more quickly and easily. Learn to manage time according to our biological clock by scheduling priority tasks during our peak time of day, the time our energy level and concentration are at their best. Poor time management can result in fatigue, moodiness, and more frequent illness. To reduce stress, we should reward ourselves for a time management success. Take time to recognize that we have accomplished a major task or challenge before moving on to the next activity.

10. Avoid Traffic

Traffic jams are a huge time waster for many people. People literally sit n traffic two to three hours per day to get to work or another destination. Often times traffic is unavoidable

however other times one can think outside of the box to address the situation. Because when we are in traffic, we are almost always wasting time.

Advantages of Time Management

Time Management refers to making the best possible use of available time. The advantages of time management are many, and well worth the time it takes to learn how to properly manage our time. Effective time management can drastically improve the quality of our everyday life.

a. Reduction of Stress
One of the great advantages of time management is reduction of stress. When we effectively manage our time and have an organized and prioritized schedule, we lead a life that has significantly less stress. By completing tasks on time and not procrastinating, we reduce the amount of stress that can result from putting tasks off.

b.

Peace of Mind and Sense of Achievement

Proper time management can also bring us some piece of mind, and help us to feel more relaxed. With a proper schedule, we have time left over to do the things that we enjoy and can find more time to relax. We dont have to worry about how we are going to get everything finished on time, because our schedule is set so that everything gets done in an organized manner. When we are not rushed and overworked we gain a sense of peace and relaxation.

c.

Increased Energy

When we don't manage our time well, we are constantly running around trying to get everything done, and that can be a tiring process. When we arent running around trying to complete a task, we are trying to sort through the jumbled mess of information that is clamoring for attention in our thoughts. We'll have time for the gym and other activities that'll really start to boost our energy. If we achieve proper time management however, we are able to complete a task all at once and then move on to the next task at our leisure. The relaxed pace that comes from managing our time is a great benefit, and can help us to have increased energy.

d.

Increased Productivity

One of the main advantages of time management is an increase in productivity. When our time is managed, we can complete more tasks and can get more done than we ever imagined. Instead of rushing through our tasks at work and not doing a proper job, we can take our time and produce quality results. Our increased productivity can help us get a promotion at work, earn more money for ourself, or meet our goals faster.

e.

Financial Stability

We can gain greater financial stability when our time is managed correctly. Not only will we find the time to get more done at work, but we may also find the time to work extra hours, resulting in more money. Our newfound attentiveness to our work may also get us a raise and thus increase our income. The financial benefits do not end there, with the spare time gained through proper time management, the potential for financial gains are endless. We may find the time to look into investment opportunities, start a small business, or discover other means of generating extra income. Time management allows us to be more productive, and productivity can lead to greater financial stability.

f.

Stronger Family Bonds

One of the important advantages of time management is the creation of more family time. Since our time is managed properly, everything is completed within its set limits, and we no longer have to neglect our family to get more work done. When we spend more time with our family creating lasting memories, the results are stronger family bonds. With good time management skills we are able to spend the spare time we have with our family.

g.

Better Health

An increase in the amount of time that we have can help us to achieve better health. If we have more time, we can cook ourselves healthy meals, instead of eating unhealthy fast foods. We may also find the time to exercise and keep ourselves in better shape. A reduction in stress, another one of the advantages of time management, can also help us live a healthier life. With more stress we are less likely to develop digestive problems, ulcers, or headaches. With good time management we get an overall greater sense of well being, and an increased ability to better care for ourselves.

Towards Empowerment
Empowerment
Empowerment is the process of increasing the capacity of individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes.

Empowerment is based on the idea that giving employees skills, resources, authority, opportunity, motivation, as well holding them responsible and accountable for outcomes of their actions, will contribute to their competence and satisfaction.

The process of empowerment

The process which enables individuals/groups to fully access personal/collective power, authority and influence, and to employ that strength when engaging with other people, institutions or society. In other words, Empowerment is not giving people power, people already have plenty of power, in the wealth of their knowledge and motivation, to do their jobs magnificently. We define empowerment as letting this power out (Blanchard, K)." It encourages people to gain the skills and knowledge that will allow them to overcome obstacles in life or work environment and ultimately, help them develop within themselves or in the society. Empowerment occurs through improvement of conditions, standards, events, and a global perspective of life. Empowerment includes the following, or similar, capabilities:

The ability to make decisions about personal/collective circumstances The ability to access information and resources for decision-making Ability to consider a range of options from which to choose (not just yes/no, either/or.) Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making Having positive-thinking about the ability to make change Ability to learn and access skills for improving personal/collective circumstance. Ability to inform others perceptions though exchange, education and engagement. Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong

Workplace empowerment
Empowerment of employees in the work place provides them with opportunities to make their own decisions with regards to their tasks. Nowadays more and more bosses and managers are practicing the concept of empowerment among their subordinates to provide them with better opportunities. According to Thomas A Potterfield, many organizational theorists and practitioners regard employee empowerment as one of the most important and popular management concepts of our time. Companies ranging from small to large and from low-technology manufacturing concerns to high-tech software firms have been initiating empowerment programs in attempts to enhance employee motivation, increase efficiency, and gain competitive advantages in the turbulent contemporary business environment.

Empowerment in management
The three keys that managers must use to empower their employees are:
1. share information with everyone 2. create autonomy through boundaries 3. replace the old hierarchy with self-managed teams

Elements of Empowerment
Vision Balance of autonomy & dependence Courage

Vision
Vision is defined as taking a stand for a preferred future. Vision implies Acting congruently Agreeing to change Taking responsibility

Balance of autonomy & dependence

Autonomy in decision making and action relative to servicedecisions are made and actions taken based on expertise (knowledge and reason). Dependence grows out of a reluctance to risk or to take responsibility for the future. Useful dependency Confirms and validates us. Clarifies organizational frameworks. Helps us feel connected. Protects us from problems. Helps us learn from others.

Courage
Facing harsh realities. Examining our own contribution to problems Putting our authentic view into words in a straight-forward manner.

Stimulating innovation and change- coping with temporariness

An organizations employees can be the impetus for innovation and change or they can be major stumbling block. The challenge for managers is to stimulate their employees creativity and tolerance for change. The field of OB provides a wealth of ideas and techniques to aid in realizing these goals. Coping with Temporariness: With change comes temporariness. Globalization, expanded capacity, and advances in technology have combined in recent years to make it imperative that organizations be fast and flexible if they are to survive. The result is that most managers and employees today work in a climate best characterized as temporary. Evidence of temporariness is everywhere in organizations. Jobs are continually being redesigned; tasks are increasingly being done by flexible teams rather than individuals; companies are relying more on temporary workers; jobs are being subcontracted out to other firms; and pensions are being redesigned to move with people as they change jobs. Workers need to continually update their knowledge and skills to perform new job requirements. For example, production employees at companies such as caterpillar, Ford, and Alcoa now need to know how to operate computerized production equipment. That was not part of their job descriptions 20 years ago. Work groups are also increasingly in a state of flux. In the past, employees were assigned to a specific work group, and that assignment was relatively permanent. There was a considerable amount of security in working with the same people day in and day out. That predictability has been replaced by temporary work groups, teams that include members from different departments and whose members change all the time, and the increased use of employee rotation to fill constantly changing work assignments. Finally organizations themselves are in a state of flux. They continually reorganize their various divisions, sell off poor-performing businesses, downsize operations, subcontract non-critical services and operations to other organizations, and replace permanent employees with temporary workers. Todays managers and employees must learn to cope with temporariness they have to learn to live with flexibility spontaneity and unpredictability. The study of OB can provide important insights into helping in better understanding a work world of continual change, how to overcome resistance to change, and how best to create an organizational culture that thrives on change. Computerization, the Internet, and the ability to link computers within organizations and between organizations have created a different workplace for many employees a networked. It allows people to communicate and work together though they may be thousands of miles apart. It also allows people to become independent contractors, who can telecommute via computer to workplaces around the globe and change employers as the demand for tier services changes. Software programs, graphic designers, system analysts, technical writers, photo researchers, book editors, and medical transcribes are a few examples of jobs that people can now perform from home or other non-office locations.

Network culture
Network culture. As digital computing matures and meshes with increasingly mobile networking technology, society is also changing, undergoing a cultural shift. Just as

modernism and postmodernism served as crucial heuristic devices in their day, studying network culture as a historical phenomenon allows us to better understand broader sociocultural trends and structures, to give duration and temporality to our own, a historical time. Network culture extends the information age of digital computing. But it is also markedly unlike the PC-centred time that culminated in the 1990s. Indeed, in many ways we are more distant from the era of PC-centred computing than it was from the time of centralized, mainframe-based computation. Another salient aspect of network culture is the massive growth of non-market production. Led by free, open-source software such as the Linux operating system (run by 25 per cent of servers) and the Apache Web server (run by 68 per cent of all websites), non-market production increasingly challenges the idea that production must inevitably be based on capital. Produced by thousands of programmers who band together to create software that is freely distributed and easily modifiable, non-market products are increasingly viable as competitors to highly capitalized products by large corporations. Whether network culture plants the seeds of greater democratic participation and deliberation, or whether it will only be used to mobilize already like-minded individuals, remains to be seen. The question we face at the dawn of network culture is whether we, the inhabitants of our networked publics, can reach across our micro-clustered worlds to coalesce into a force capable of understanding the condition we are in.

Power tactics and power in groups (coalitions).

Power Power is the ability to get things done in the way one wants them to be done. It is the means to achieve influence. In practice, organisational members generally have and need more than one form of power in order to make things to happen. Power is the ability to get things done in the way one wants them to be done.

Power Tactics
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions People use different
tactics to gain power and wield power. Power tactics are used by individuals on their own, within groups (inter-group) and between groups (intergroups) in order to influence people and events. Influence can be used in a positive or negative way. When used positively, we can expect beneficial outcomes.

1. Legitimacy. Relying on ones authority position; request is in accord with organizational policies or rules.. 2. Rational persuasion. Logical arguments and factual evidence; request is reasonable. 3. Inspirational appeals. Enveloping emotional commitment; appeal to values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

4. Consultation. Increase motivation and support; involve people in deciding how the pan will be implemented. 5. Exchange. Reward with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request. 6. Personal appeals. Ask for compliance based on friendship or loyalty 7. Ingratiation. Use flattery, praise, or friendship prior to making request 8. Pressure. Use warnings, demands, and threats. 9. Coalitions. Enlist other people to persuade others.

Power in Groups : Coalitions

Seek to maximize their size to attain influence. Seek a broad and diverse constituency for support of their objectives. Occur more frequently in organizations with high task and resource interdependencies. Occur more frequently if tasks are standardized and routine. Coalitions Clusters of individuals who temporarily come together to and achieve a specific purpose. Seek to maximize their size to attain influence Seek a broad and diverse constituency for support of their objectives. Occur more frequently in organizations with high task and interdependencies. Occur more frequently if tasks are standardized and routine.

resource

Managerial empowerment and entrepreneurship

Managerial empowerment
Manager or a person to have a power and authority to act.

Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is the act of being an entrepreneur or "one who undertakes innovations, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods ". This may result in new organizations or may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to a perceived opportunity. The most obvious form of entrepreneurship is that of starting new businesses (referred as Startup Company); however, in recent years, the term has been extended to include social and political forms of entrepreneurial activity.

An entrepreneur is an enterprising individual who builds capital through risk and/or initiative. Entrepreneur in English is a term applied to a person who is willing to help launch a new venture or enterprise and accept full responsibility for the outcome Entrepreneurs are driven by passion to succeed in their business or profession. To reap the rewards of their own efforts and ideas is secondary to following the dream wherever it may lead. For some people, the opportunity to operate a company their own way far out balances any perceived financial security available through employment. Indeed, many entrepreneurs either dont fit well in an employee environment or have no faith in the future of employment as a career option. Instead, the dream of taking the risks, testing their own ideas, and charting their own course in life is the overarching entrepreneurial imperative Entrepreneurship is truly empowering for many people. Living the dream of owning their own business is their passion. Independent business is also the backbone of the economy. As a result, the dream of self employment for many, is beneficial to all.

Prevention of moral dwarfism especially terrorism

MORAL DWARFISM The term dwarfism was restricted to the field of medicine. But in todays scenario we find that our society as such is a dwarf, morally. Anti-social elements and activities have become the top most concern, because of their undue influence on the society. The gloomiest of all anti-social activity is the act of TERRORISM, the word which the world hates the most today.

TERRORISM
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for a religious, political or, ideological goal; and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians).

Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.[

Types of terrorism
The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.

Civil disorder A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community. Political terrorism Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.

Non-Political terrorism Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective. Quasi-terrorism The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasiterrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.[73] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different. Limited political terrorism Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state. Official or state terrorism "referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions. It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

A Proven, Nonviolent Technology to Prevent Terrorism

Terrorism is the most critical issue facing our world today. To strengthen and augment our governments current antiterrorism efforts, we urgently need a more fundamental approach that neutralizes the very basis of terrorism, preventing terrorist attacks before they begin. How can we prevent future terrorist attacks? The first step is a foreign policy that rests on a simple principle: We're prepared to defend ourselves, but we threaten no one. Such a foreign policy should have four elements. 1. Noninterference Our government should never interfere in other countries' disputes, never arm foreign governments, and never give terrorists a reason to pressure our government. The idea that our government acts to defend human rights around the world is absurd. It replaces democratically elected governments with dictators like the Shah of Iran or Augusto Pinochet. And it rarely comes close to achieving any of its goals. Too often Americans have fought and died for nothing. Any American who wants to fight for or send money to a foreign government or revolutionary movement should be free to do so (even though that's currently illegal). But our government should stay out of such conflicts. When the U.S. no longer imposes its way on foreign people, those people will have no reason to fear us or hate us.

2. No Foreign Aid or Military Assistance The Constitution doesn't authorize our government to use your money to support foreign governments. It's not only unconstitutional, it's unfair. As Fred Smith has pointed out, foreign aid taxes poor people in rich countries for the benefit of rich people in poor countries. And by giving tons of money and military hardware to Israel's enemies, the politicians can say we have to give massive aid to Israel to keep it from being destroyed. Every American should be free to send money or weapons to any government anywhere. But you shouldn't be taxed for that purpose. Without our government arming dictators, the dictators' subjects would have no reason to hate us or fear us. 3. Security against Attack If the world's bad people want to conquer America, they'd have to pulverize American cities until we submit to being occupied. In 1983 Ronald Reagan said America should protect itself against missile attacks. Unfortunately, he gave the job to the Department of Defense which is really the Post Office in fatigues. And so 18 years later we're no closer to being protected than we were in 1983. We should rely as little as possible on politics and bureaucracy to achieve anything. The government should simply post a reward say, $25 billion to go to the first private company that produces a functioning, foolproof missile defense. We'd probably have it within five years. Will that make us 100% secure? Of course not. Nothing will. But it will make us far safer than we are today. And it will eliminate a principal excuse for meddling in other countries' affairs, so that foreign people have no reason to hate us or fear us. 4. Target the Aggressors, Not the Innocent Even with a missile defense, America could be threatened by a foreign ruler. But a Libertarian President would target the aggressor himself not his innocent subjects. He would warn the ruler that an actual attack against the US would trigger the posting of a reward of, say, $100 million for the person who kills the ruler. Everyone would be eligible to collect the reward including the ruler's guards and wives.

This response would spare both innocent foreigners and Americans. Only those who try for the reward would be at risk. Americans wouldn't fight and die invading a foreign country. If you believe assassination is an unsavory act, what's the alternative killing thousands of people? Once we stop bullying innocent foreigners, they will have no reason to hate us or fear us. Peace for All Time These policies will produce a strong national defense, instead of the strong national offense we now have. And terrorists will have no reason to attack us. Then we must find a way to permanently stop politicians from playing with loaded weapons. Here's a start a proposed Peace Amendment to the Constitution: Except in time of war as declared by Congress, the United States will deploy no military personnel or weapons outside the boundaries of the United States; will not provide money, military equipment, or other resources to foreign governments; and will not attack any foreign power. Upon any violation of this article, Congress will immediately institute impeachment proceedings against the President. If such an amendment had been enforced over the past 55 years, it would have . . .

Prevented the deaths of almost 100,000 American military personnel; Saved each American family thousands of dollars in foreign aid most of which went into the pockets of foreign dictators; Saved a trillion dollars in unnecessary military costs; and Allowed people around the world to like us for what we are, instead of hating us because of our government's meddling.

And it's 99% probable that the September 11 attack would not have occurred. This constitutional amendment is the only kind of gun control that truly makes sense.

Altruism (prosocial behaviour/helping behaviour)

Altruism refers to prosocial behaviors that are carried out without expectation of obtaining external reward (concrete reward or social reward) or internal reward (self-reward). Altruism is the desire to help another person even if it involves some personal cost to the helper. Altruism is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures, and a core aspect of various religious traditions, though the concept of 'others' toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism is the opposite of selfishness.

Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of duty and loyalty. Altruism is a motivation to provide something of value to a party who must be anyone but oneself, while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g., a god, a king), or collective (e.g., a government). Pure altruism consists of sacrificing something for someone other than the self (e.g. sacrificing time, energy or possessions) with no expectation of any compensation or benefits, either direct, or indirect (e.g., receiving recognition for the act of giving). Much debate exists as to whether true altruism is possible. Some argue that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument is subjective, depending on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as 'benefits'. The term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it usually contrasted to egoism, which is defined as acting to the benefit of one self. Prosocial behavior is any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person. Types of Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior (broadest term) Action intended to benefit another Can be done to gain either external or internal reward Benevolence (slightly narrower term) Action intended to benefit another, but not to gain external reward) Pure altruism Action intended to solely benefit another No external reward to the helper No internal reward to the helper Some argue there is no such thing as pure altruism

Goals of Prosocial Behavior Gaining Genetic and Material Benefits Inclusive Fitness Reciprocal Aid Gaining Social Status and Approval Managing Self-Image Managing Our Moods and Emotions

Helping behavior
Helping behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to help the others, with reward regarded or disregarded. It is a type of prosocial behavior (voluntary action intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals,[1][2] such as sharing, comforting, rescuing and helping).

Perspectives on helping behavior

Kin selection theory

Kin selection theory explains altruism in evolutionary perspective. Since natural selection aids in screening out species without abilities to adapt the challenging environment, preservation of good traits and superior genes are important for survival of future generations (i.e. inclusive fitness). Kin selection refers to the tendency to perform behaviors that may favor the chance of survival of people with similar genetic base.
Reciprocal altruism

Reciprocal altruism is the idea that the incentive for an individual to help in the present is based on the expectation of the potential receipt in the future.
Negative-state relief model

The negative-state relief model of helping states that people help because of egoism. Egoistic motives lead one to help others in bad circumstances in order to reduce personal distress experienced from knowing the situation of the people in need. Helping behavior happens only when the personal distress cannot be relieved by other actions. Therefore the model explains why peoples avoidance behavior from people in need: this is another way of reducing distress.

Supporting studies
1) Guilt feelings were induced to subjects by having participants accidentally ruin a students thesis data or seeing the data being ruined. Some subjects experience positive events afterwards, e.g. being praised. Results show that subjects who experience negative guilt feelings are more motivated to help than those who had neutral emotion. However, once the negative mood was relieved by receiving praise, subjects no longer had high motivation in helping.
Empathy-altruism hypothesis

Helping behavior may be initiated when we feel empathy for the person, that is, identifying with another person and feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing.
Responsibility prosocial value orientation

A strong influence on helping is a feeling of and belief in one's responsibility to help, especially when combined with the belief that one is able to help other people. The responsibility to help can be the result of a situation focusing responsibility on a person, or it can be a characteristic of individuals (leading to helping when activated by others' need). Staub has described a "prosocial value orientation" that made helping more likely both when a person was in physical distress and psychological distress. Prosocial orientation was also negatively related to aggression in boys, and positively related to "constructive patriotism". The components of this orientation are a positive view of human beings, concern about others' welfare, and a feeling of and belief in one's responsibility for others' welfare.[

Social exchange theory

According to the social-exchange theory, people help because they want to gain goods from the one being helped. People calculate rewards and costs of helping others, and aim at maximizing the former and minimizing the latter, which is known as a minimax strategy.

Spirituality (clarifications with regard to spirituality)- strong sense of purpose- trust and respect- humanistic practices- toleration of fellow human beings expressions.
What is spirituality? Spirituality has been defined in numerous ways. These include: a belief in a power operating in the universe that is greater than oneself, a sense of interconnectedness with all living creatures, and an awareness of the purpose and meaning of life and the development of personal, absolute values. It's the way you find meaning, hope, comfort, and inner peace in your life. Although spirituality is often associated with religious life, many believe that personal spirituality can be developed outside of religion. Acts of compassion and selflessness, altruism, and the experience of inner peace are all characteristics of spirituality. Many Americans are becoming interested in the role of spirituality in their health and health care. This may be because of dissatisfaction with the impersonal nature of our current medical system, and the realization that medical science does not have answers to every question about health and wellness. What is the history of spirituality and health care? In most healing traditions and through generations of healers in the early beginnings of Western medicine, concerns of the body and spirit were intertwined. But with the coming of the scientific revolution and the enlightenment, these considerations were removed from the medical system. Today, however, a growing number of studies reveal that spirituality may play a bigger role in the healing process than the medical community previously thought. How does spirituality influence health? Spiritual practices tend to improve coping skills and social support, foster feelings of optimism and hope, promote healthy behavior, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety, and encourage a sense of relaxation. By alleviating stressful feelings and promoting healing ones, spirituality can positively influence immune, cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels), hormonal, and nervous systems. Again, the health benefits of religion and spirituality do not stem solely from healthy lifestyles. Many researchers believe that certain beliefs, attitudes, and practices associated with being a spiritual person influence health. In a recent study of people with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), those who had faith in God, compassion toward others, a sense of inner peace, and were religious had a better chance of surviving for a long time than those who did not live with such belief systems. Qualities like faith, hope, and forgiveness, and the use of social support and prayer seem to have a noticeable effect on health and healing.

Faith: A person's most deeply held beliefs strongly influence his or her health. Some researchers believe that faith increases the body's resistance to stress. In a 1988 clinical study of women undergoing breast biopsies, the women with the lowest stress hormone levels were those who used their faith and prayer to cope with stress. Hope: Without hope -- a positive attitude that a person assumes in the face of difficulty -- many people become depressed and prone to illness. In a 35 year clinical study of Harvard graduates, researchers found that those graduates who expressed hope and optimism lived longer and had fewer illnesses in their lifetime. Forgiveness: A practice that is encouraged by many spiritual and religious traditions, forgiveness is a release of hostility and resentment from past hurts. In 1997, a Stanford University study found that college students trained to forgive someone who had hurt them were significantly less angry, more hopeful, and better able to deal with emotions than students not trained to forgive. Another survey of 1,400 adults found that willingness to forgive oneself, and others, and the feeling that one is forgiven by God, have beneficial health effects. Some researchers suggest that emotions like anger and resentment cause stress hormones to accumulate in the blood, and that forgiveness reduces this build up. Love and Social Support: A close network of family and friends that lends help and emotional support has been found to offer protection against many diseases. Researchers believe that people who experience love and support tend to resist unhealthy behaviors and feel less stressed. In a clinical study of a close knit Italian American community in Pennsylvania, researchers found that the death rate from heart attack was half that of the United States' average. Researchers concluded that the strong social support network helped protect this population from heart disease. Prayer: The act of putting oneself in the presence of or conversing with a higher power has been used as a means of healing across all cultures throughout the ages. Today, many Americans believe that prayer is an important part of daily life. In a 1996 poll, one half of doctors reported that they believe prayer helps patients, and 67% reported praying for a patient. Researchers are also studying intercessory prayer (asking a higher power to intervene on behalf of another either known or unknown to the person praying; also called distance prayer or distance healing). Although it is particularly difficult to study the effect of distance prayer, current research in coronary care units (intensive care units in hospitals devoted to people with severe heart disease, like those who just suffered a heart attack) suggests that there is benefit. Compared to those who were not prayed for, patients who were prayed for showed general improvements in the course of their illness, less complications, and even fewer deaths.

What illnesses and conditions respond well to spirituality? Programs with a strong spiritual component, such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), show that spiritual disciplines may be especially effective for drug and alcohol addiction. The regular practice of prayer and meditation is strongly associated with recovery and abstinence from drugs. Results from several studies indicate that people with strong religious and spiritual beliefs heal faster from surgery, are less anxious and depressed, have lower blood pressure, and cope better with chronic illnesses such as arthritis, diabetes, heart disease, cancer, and spinal cord injury.

One clinical study at Duke University found that people who attend regular religious services tend to have better immune function. In another clinical study of 232 older adults undergoing heart surgery, those who were religious were 3 times less likely to die within the 6 months after surgery than those who were not. Not one of the 37 people in this study who described themselves as deeply religious died. Of course, the studies are not comprehensive, and many people find help in spiritual resources for numerous conditions. Can spirituality have a negative impact on health? Some experts warn that religious beliefs can be harmful when they encourage excessive guilt, fear, and lowered self-worth. Similarly, physicians should avoid advocating for particular spiritual practices; this can be inappropriate, intrusive, and induce a feeling of guilt or even harm if the implication is that ill health is a result of insufficient faith. It is also important to note that spirituality does not guarantee health. Finally, there is the risk that people may substitute prayer for medical care or that spiritual practice could delay the receipt of necessary medical treatment. How can I receive spiritual counseling when I am in the hospital? Many hospitals have access to counselors from organized religions. If you would like spiritual counseling or someone to pray with, ask your doctor to refer a counselor. What is the future of spirituality in medical practice? Many medical schools in the United States have included spiritual teachings in their curricula. However, what role, if any, a doctor should play in assisting or guiding patients in spiritual matters remains controversial. In addition, given that there appears to be a growing belief in the connection between spirituality and health, scientists in this field feel that research should begin to focus on assessing the validity of this connection, a better understanding of why there is this connection, and how it works. There is also interesting research emerging that evaluates the impact of religion and spirituality (both the child's and the parents') on the health of children and adolescents.

Managerial Skills
Management is a challenging job. It requires certain skills to accomplish such a challenge. Thus, essential skills which every manager needs for doing a better management are called as Managerial Skills. According to Professor Katz, there are three managerial skills, viz., 1. Conceptual Skills, 2. Human Relations Skills, and 3. Technical Skills.

1. Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skill is the ability to visualise (see) the organisation as a whole. It includes Analytical, Creative and Initiative skills. It helps the manager to identify the causes of the problems and not the symptoms. It helps him to solve the problems for the benefit of the entire organisation. It helps the manager to fix goals for the whole organisation and to plan for every situation. According to Prof. Katz, conceptual skills are mostly required by the toplevel management because they spend more time in planning, organising and problem solving.

2. Human Relations Skills

Human relations skills are also called Interpersonal skills. It is an ability to work with people. It helps the managers to understand, communicate and work with others. It also helps the managers to lead, motivate and develop team spirit. Human relations skills are required by all managers at all levels of management. This is so, since all managers have to interact and work with people.

3. Technical Skills
A technical skill is the ability to perform the given job. Technical skills help the managers to use different machines and tools. It also helps them to use various procedures and techniques. The low-level managers require more technical skills. This is because they are in-charge of the actual operations.

4. Communication Skills
Communication skills are required equally at all three levels of management. A manager must be able to communicate the plans and policies to the workers. Similarly, he must listen and solve the problems of the workers. He must encourage a free-flow of communication in the organisation.

5. Administrative Skills
Administrative skills are required at the top-level management. The top-level managers should know how to make plans and policies. They should also know how to get the work

done. They should be able to co-ordinate different activities of the organisation. They should also be able to control the full organisation.

6. Leadership Skills
Leadership skill is the ability to influence human behaviour. A manager requires leadership skills to motivate the workers. These skills help the Manager to get the work done through the workers.

7. Problem Solving Skills

Problem solving skills are also called as Design skills. A manager should know how to identify a problem. He should also possess an ability to find a best solution for solving any specific problem. This requires intelligence, experience and up-to-date knowledge of the latest developments.

8. Decision Making Skills

Decision-making skills are required at all levels of management. However, it is required more at the top-level of management. A manager must be able to take quick and correct decisions. He must also be able to implement his decision wisely. The success or failure of a manager depends upon the correctness of his decisions.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

TIME MANAGEMENT

TOWARDS EMPOWERMENT

References:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki//stress_management www.cls.utk.edu/pdf/ls/Week3_Lesson22.pdf www.helpguide.org/mental/stress_relief meditation yoga relaxation.htm www.stresstips.com/ nature.berkeley.edu/ucce 0/ag-labor/7labor/13.htm www.mindtools.com www.georgekohlrieser.com/userfiles/file/.../5.GK_PFM_Conflict.pdf www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_skills healthcenter.ncsu.edu/counseling-center/...health.../interpersonal-skills/ www.studygs.net/timman.htm en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management www.cob.sjsu.edu/nellen_a/time_management.htm www.steppk.org/ www.iisd.org/publications/pub.aspx?id 290