UNIT (1) HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY IN PEDAGOGIC PRACTICE 1.

1 Nature of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology takes its meaning from education, a social process, and from psychology, a behavioral science. Therefore, before exploring explicitly the nature of Educational Psychology, it is well to examine the meaning of education and psychology. Aspects of Education The traditional concept of education emphasizes the mastery of subject matter and competence in specific study. As now education is interpreted as the sum of the activities directed at developing the total behavior of human being toward the fulfillment of himself in the society. To live a complete life, we should have education, that is, to know what and when to do, to control emotion and to understand others behavior. In its most psychological sense, the aim of education is to develop a person in such aspects as physical, mental, emotional and social. There is both informal and formal education. The relatively unconscious learning that is inescapable accompaniments of daily living is called informal education. Planned programmes of study represent formal education, school learning. It is the latter aspect of education that people are thinking when they ask about and individuals educational status. Schools have been established as definite formal agencies to meet the educational needs of all age groups. Society has accepted the responsibility for organizing schools, for providing buildings and equipment, the establishing educational rules and regulations, and for guiding the training of teachers through setting up minimum standards. Among the many existing informal agencies are home, monastery, church, playground, library, press, motion pictures, radio, and television. Many educational leaders believe that the last three constitute the most important influences in lives of young people, as well as of adults. By the time a young child is ready for formal school training, he engages in activities appropriate to his early maturing potentialities. Thereby he acquiresSome knowledge concerning his immediate environment Sufficient motor control to meet his personal needs Language skills that enable him to engage in simple conversation Some understanding of personal and group relationships The function of formal education is to set conditions that are favourable for the continued mastery of those knowledge, skills and attitudes begun in the home during early childhood. Attention must be given to the selection of appropriate learning materials and to the gearing of teaching techniques to meet the learners needs. Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. In other words, psychology is the science of human and animal behavior, it
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includes the applications of this science to human problems. An individuals behavior consists not only of his observable acts but also of all of his reactions to inner state and to environmental factors of influence. There are different fields of specializations, such as, Experimental and Physiological Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Personality Psychology, Social Psychology, Educational Psychology, Industrial Psychology, Clinical Psychology and so on. Experimental Psychology investigates basic processes that are shared by various aspects. Experimental Psychologists have sought answers to such questions as: what are the bases for the love between mother and baby? What is the role of brain in memory? All aspects of behavioral development over the entire life span are the concern of Developmental Psychology. Learning, motivation, memory, perception, personality, thinking and so or are studied in Developmental Psychology. Personality Psychology is a field in which individual differences in behavior are studied. Personality psychologists are interested in how personality develops, whether it changes over time, and if so, how. Social Psychology is mainly concerned with the bahaviour of people in groups. The working of personnel departments and the factors that influence job selection are among the topics considered in Industrial Psychology, in which the relationship between people and their jobs is studied. The study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal bahviour is the province of Clinical Psychology. Educational Psychology Educational Psychology is the branch of Psychology which is concerned with the applications of the principles, techniques and other resources of psychology to the solution of classroom problems. Educational Psychology is an applied psychology since it applies the knowledge of psychology to education. It is concerned with understanding, predicting and controlling human behavior in situations that involve learning, growth and adjustment. Educational Psychology is concerned with an understanding of (a) the child: his development, his needs, and his individual peculiarities (b) the learning situation: including group dynamics as they affect learning (c) the learning process: by which learning can be made more effective. The educational psychologists attempt to discover the following facts. 1) The extent to which the factors of heredity and environment contribute to learning 2) The nature of learning process 3) The relationship that exists between maturational level and learning readiness

4) The educational significance of individual differences in rate and limit of learning 5) The inner changes that occur during learning 6) The relation of teaching procedures to learning outcomes 7) The most effective techniques for evaluating progress in learning 8) The value to school people of a scientific attitude toward education The purpose of Educational Psychology is to help teachers and prospective teachers to develop a better understanding of education and its processes. By better understanding, we mean a broader, deeper and more effective understanding. The principles of Educational Psychology help teachers in such a way that they can perform their vital tasks more intelligently.

1.2 Methods of Educational Psychology Concept of Development

In its simplest definition, development is change. Human development is a particular type of change. However, three general criteria must be met to classify a given behavioral change is developmental change. 1. The change is orderly or sequential, part of an organized pattern that appears over time. 2. The change results in a permanent alternation of a behavior. 3. The change results in a new behavior or mode of functioning that is more advanced, adaptive or useful than prior behavior.

Determinants of Development
The determinants of development can be classified into three major categories. 1. The biological foundations: the heredity or genetic basis for growth and change 2. The social environments: which include family, peer group, community, neighborhood, and school. 3. The interaction between biological foundation and social environment: it is in the form of an active, growing, and changing human being who is influenced by- as well as exerts influence on the social environment.

These are the essential elements of ecological perspective to child and human development. Some basic principles of the ecological perspective are as follows: 1. Development is characterized by quantitative change in height, weight and individual biology and by qualitative changes in such processes as memory, thinking, motivation, and perception. 2. The explanations or theories that describe these quantitative and qualitative changes involve both heredity and environment. In other words, human development is the result of the interaction of both heredity and environment. 3. The interaction between heredity and environment is reciprocal or bidirectional.

HEREDITY

ENVIRO NMENT

Methods of Studying Development

There are two primary methods of data collection for human development: longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. 1) Longitudinal Design: The experimenter identifies a group of people and then measures them on some variables of interest (e.g., behavior, attitudes, feeling) at two or more moments in time. By examining the same people, the researcher can see the changes that occur as a result of development over a period of time.

Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Group A

Group A

Group A

2) Cross-sectional Design: The experimenter compares groups of different individuals who are themselves at different ages at one time. Longitudinal designs measure the changes that occur in single individuals over a period of time. Crosssectional designs measure differences at one time among different groups of individuals. Each approach has its strength and weaknesses.

Time 1

Group A

Group B

Group C

Advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs are as follows:

Longitudinal Design Advantages It is more sensitive to changes in individual behavior than crosssectional design. Disadvantages It requires several years to collect data. It is usually expensive.

Subjects may drop out of the study because of death, illness, or moving to another place. Cross-sectional Design Advantages A sizable amount of information can be

gathered in a relatively short time. Disadvantages

Generational effects may be present. It does not reflect individual changes over time.

In order to overcome some of the limitations of both longitudinal design and cross-sectional design, the cross-sequential design has been developed. This design combines both the longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by initially doing a cross-sectional sample of subjects and then following these same individuals longitudinally over time. The cross-sequential approach avoids the drawbacks and biases of both traditional designs.

1.3 Educational Psychology and Teaching

Educational Psychology is the foundation stone in the preparation of teachers. It covers the entire range of behavior as related to education. A thorough mastery of Educational Psychology aids the teacher to gain understanding of pupils behavior and to provide for their needs. Teaching is stimulating and guiding the childs learning to assure his attainment of socially approved goals in the most effective way possible. Psychological Aspects of Teaching There exist the psychological aspects in actual teaching. The teacher must be able to (a) direct or guide learning, (b) motivate pupils to learn, (c) helps pupils develop desirable attitudes, (d) improve teaching techniques and (e) recognize and achieve those personal qualities that are conducive to successful teaching. (a) Directional Aspect: The directional phase of teaching becomes effective in so far as a teacher attempts to condition a learner toward meeting progressive changes in his environment. Motivational Aspect: The teacher should aim to arouse the interest of his pupils by giving them attention as individual and by adapting his methods and materials in such a way that they stimulate pupils to gain satisfaction from learning activities. The purpose is not to reduce study to the play level but to introduce some of the play attitude into the learning situation. Learning is a serious business, but it can be undertaken with interest and enjoyment without losing sight of its fundamental purpose.
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(b)

(c)

Attitude Development Aspect: Attitudes are not mere accidents of individual experience. They result from day-by-day living in the home, in the school, and in the community. Technique Aspect: The presentation of subject-matter to be learned can follow logical or psychological approach. The order of presentation constitutes an important factor in subject-matter mastery. The logical approach follows a sequential pattern that is inherent in the subject material. The psychological approach begins with a consideration of the learner, his background, and his state of readiness, and carries him by well-considered steps toward an appreciation of the concepts or generalizations that are to be learned. Personal Aspect: Successful teaching is based upon the components such as intelligence, keenness of observation, and social competence. The individual who has better than the average intelligence, who is quick and careful observer, and who possesses a genuine interest in young people is very likely to be a successful teacher. He can apply the psychological principles in actual teaching. Whether a teacher is working with superior, average, or slow learner, he himself needs to possess a high degree of intelligence so that he will able to understand the responses of his pupils. There are also other desirable personality factors such as patience, industriousness and understanding to be considered. Hence, persons who have an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 120 or higher and who exhibit desirable personality qualities should be encouraged to enter the teaching profession.

(d)

(e)

Fundamental Bases of Effective Teaching

In order to ensure effective teaching, consideration is given to the prospective teachers (a) mastery of subject matter to be taught, (b) Physical and health status, (c) personal attributes and emotional control, (d) understanding of human nature and development, (e) knowledge of and ability to apply the principles of learning, (f) sensitivity to and appreciation of cultural, religious, and ethnic difference, and (h) interest in continued professional improvement and cultural enrichment. (a) Mastery of Subject-Matter: One cannot assume that a persons knowledge of textbook and classroom experience is all that he needs to impart to his students what he has learned. The term master implies that the teacher not only knows what he is teaching, but also can organize and adapt materials in accordance with his students ability and interest level.

(b)

(c)

(d)

Physical and Health Status: The effective teachers need to be free from physical and health difficulties. Teaching is an energy-consuming job. A teachers absence that is caused by ill health interferes with the continuity of the teaching-learning process. Even though he is present, a teacher who does not feel well cannot function as adequately as he could if he is well. Consequently, in most schools and in all teacher training institutions, prospective teachers are screened for health. Personal Attributes and Emotional Control: A teachers over behavior and expressed attitudes exert a powerful influence upon students. Hence it is imperative that he must be honest and sincere person whose ethical standards are worthy of imitation. During his school days, a teacher can be subjected to disobedient students behavior. He needs to be emotionally stable in such a situation. Understanding of Human Nature and Development: Students respect and love the teacher who is calm, cheerful, and understanding of them. Modern teacher education programmes emphasize the teachers understanding of human development patterns. In addition, they include opportunities for actual experiences in working with young people. Knowledge of Applications of Learning Principles: What should be taught, and the why and how of teaching are dependent upon various factors: individual and social needs, learners readiness, learning opportunities and materials. Constant adaptation of the learning principles to existing conditions is basic to teaching effectiveness. The skill can be acquired only through practical experience. Sensitivity to and Appreciation of Differences: The individual who understands differences among students can expect to be a successful teacher. These differences stem from their homes and neighborhood experiences. A young person is a human being with developing potentialities. It is the teachers privilege, as well as his responsibility, to accept the learner as he is and to help him become a constructive and well adjusted citizen. Continued Professional and Cultural Improvement: Teachers education is not completed when he is certified to teach. A teacher needs to modify his approach and methods of teaching according to the demands of current situations. Increasing media for professional improvement are being made available. A few of these are in-service course, professional organizations, psychological and educational journals.

(e)

(f)

(g)

Teaching is an art as well as a skill. Subtle interactions may exert a potent influence upon the degree of teaching effectiveness. Teaching includes the total influence that the teacher exerts on his students, both within and outside the school. A superior teacher possesses the creative proficiency of an artist, the precise attitude of a scientist, and the perfected skill of a craft-man.

UNIT (2) CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

Child development includes physical, cognitive, emotional, social and spiritual aspects. They are normally influenced by two important factors, that is, the heredity factor and the environmental factor. Hereditary or genetic factor influences the childs physical, mental and emotional behavior. Environmental factor includes family, peer group, societys culture and belief, technological resources, teachers and school. In general, child development is divided into six stages. 1. The fetus and neonate: This period begins with conception and ends after birth, extending to about the first few days of life. 2. The infant: This period extends from birth to about three years of age. 3. The preschooler: This period extends from about three years to six years until entrance into formal school. 4. Middle childhood: The period begins with the entrance into formal school and continues to the onset of puberty, twelve to thirteen years of age. 5. Early adolescence: This period begins with the onset of puberty and extends through the high-school years to about seventeen or eighteen years of age. Group identity or peer organization is important in this stage. 6. Late adolescence and youth: This period begins with completion of high school (seventeen or eighteen years of age) and extends until the person attains a sense of social status and a control of resources in adult community (early 20s).

2.1. Physical and Mental Development

During the stage of adolescents development, the sensory organs, including parts of body, have been developed to carry out complex work and duties. The physical growth of girls starts before the adolescence stage with sudden increase in weight and height in a short period of time until puberty at the age of about 12, while the physical growth of boys is slower. The weight and height of boys normally start to increase at about 12.5 years old, puberty begins around 14. However, maximum function of all body system of either sex, including their sensory organs and muscular strength reach its peak around 20.

Although human development in general shows a high degree of consistency, there exist wide differences among individuals in the rate and direction of growth of various characteristics. Teachers need to be alert to these differences among their pupils as well as to the to-be-expected similarities. The child whose physical development is slow or retarded cannot be treated in the same way as the normal child. The child who seems to be physically developed beyond his years also need to special consideration. His power to achieve in learning areas should not be overrated because of his apparent superior degree of physical maturity. If we are to achieve a good citizen that possesses strong, well-built bodies and healthy constitutions, we shall need to become increasingly concerned with the physical growth and development of our children. Healthy physical growth is conditioned by the extent to which a child is provided with sanitary conditions of living, proper diet, sufficient and well-planned exercises and rest, periodic medical examination and care, and non-disturbing emotional experiences.

Mental or Cognitive Development

From the early 1920s until his death in 1980 no other person studied the cognitive processes of children more than Jean Piaget. As a zoologist, Piaget was concerned with the adaptive aspects of intelligence. In his view, life is a creative interaction with the environment. In this interaction process, new internal structures are created. As life and new adaptations go on, the structures enlarge and reorganize to better reflect complexities of the world to which one is adapting. Piaget generalized his finding and concluded that all species inherit capacities for adaptation and organization. In adaptation there is a change in behavior. In organization, there is a change in structure to support the adaptation. These two concepts underpin with theory of cognitive development. Piaget ascribes adaptation to the processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is equivalent to perception and understanding. Accommodation occurs when it is necessary to change a scheme to response appropriately. Accommodation can involve fitting new instances into old schemes. Piaget proposed that the cognitive development of children normally goes through four stages according to their age change. 1. Sensorimotor stage (0 2 years) 2. Preoperational stage (2 7 years) 3. Concrete operational stage (7 12 years) 4. Formal operational stage (12 and above) No. Stage Behavior 1. Sensorimotor Look, grasp, act, bite, hit,... (reflexive behaviors) (0-2) Object exists only when it is physically present. 2. Preoperational Object permanence, use symbols and language, mental (2-7) representation of object. Goal-directed behavior. Pay attention to only one aspect. Reasoning is not logical.
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3.

Concrete Law of conservation, transformation, reversibility, operational grouping, classification, seriation concepts develop but (7-12) for concrete objects only. Hands-on problems. 4. Formal Abstract thinking, hypothetico-deductive reasoning, operation quite systematic and well-integrated thinking. Thinking (>12) in symbolic terms. Transfer of learning develop. With his entrance into elementary school the child begins to widen his mental horizon as his mental abilities are continuing to develop through the process of natural growth and the stimulation of learning situations. As the individual passes through the stages of later childhood and adolescence, sensory acuity reaches its peak, perceptual patterns become better organized and refined, greater power of sustained attention is achieved, and memory tends to function more logically. Formal operational stage begins from the age of 12 and the cognitive development usually reaches its peak at the age of 16. During this stage, adolescent can usually think in abstract terms and solve complex problems. They are able to apply mental operations to abstractions. They are able to reason and use deductive and inductive reasoning to prove theorems, laws as well as to derive formulae or generalizations. In other words, their logical and systematic thinking is quite well developed.

2.2 Emotional and Social Development

The term emotion implies a state of being stirred-up or aroused in one way or another. It involves extensive visceral disturbance and includes many feeling tones or varying degrees of satisfaction or annoyance. So, emotion can be defined as an affective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustment and mental and physiological stirred-up states in the individual, and that shows itself in his over behavior. Thus defined, an emotion is a dynamic internal adjustment that operates for the satisfaction, protection, and welfare of the individual. As an individual develops through childhood and adolescence into adulthood, his emotions become more easily classified as fear, anger, disgust, hate, grief, affection, joy, and jealousy. His real emotional expressions can be more readily appeared as he grows in ability to convey his inner feelings to others. An individuals total reaction is affected by his appreciation of values, desires, and ideals, and by his interest in and reaction to personas, institutions, responsibilities, points of view, and ideals of others. Normal emotional functioning has great health value, but extremes of excitement, fear, and worry should be avoided. Emotional disturbances also may be the cause of speech difficulties. Definite speech defects have been known to appear with little or no evidence of physical deformity in the speech organs. Prolonged emotional strain may cause a person to stutter or stammer. The speech of a stammered or stuttered child is relatively normal when he is relaxed and at ease.

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Religious experience is emotional as well as intellectual. The inner joy and peace that are experienced by the sincerely religious person are emotional reactions. Religious gives an individual an opportunity to face lifes problem with confidence. It develops in him an attitude that will serve him well in crises. However, religion should not be lived only on an emotional level but should utilize mental insights as faith is supplemented by reason. The religious experience should become not an emotional indulgence but a way of life. The emotion determines the direction that an individuals behavior will be likely to take in any life situation. Emotional distress and frustration interfere with learning efficiency. A child learns more effectively when he is properly motivated, since he needs to have developed in him the desire to learn. Once this is done, he in turn increases his effort at mastery. As the joy of successful achievement is experienced, there is a lessening effect of fatigue. Motivation of learning activities helps the individual to concentrate on what he is doing and thereby to gain satisfaction. It is likely that stimuli, which produce unpleasant feelings, strong emotion, or definite shock, will affect learning adversely, those stimuli, which produce pleasant feelings, or mild emotions will facilitate learning. Social Development Social growth and development cannot be considered apart from other phases of development. The linkage among these factors is so close that it can be inseparable. Social development can be defined as the progressive improvement, through direct activity of the individual in the comprehension of the social heritage and the formation of flexible conduct patterns of reasonable conformity with this heritage. Social development places emphasis upon the fact that the growth must be progressive. A child or an older individual does not remain socially static. As he is stimulated by social institutions, by the mores and customs of the groups and by his own interests and desires, his inner and outer conduct changes in one way or another. The individual is an active participant in his social growth. As we study the social development of a person from birth onward, we find that he makes a place for himself as an individual among individuals as he resists and as he cooperates, as he retreats and as he combats, as he leads and as he follows. In his relations within his family, in his friendships, in his group allegiances, and in his contributions to the cultural pattern of his times are planted the seeds of social adjustment and character formation. That eventually will blossom forth, under proper guidance, as a flower of worthy human interrelations. According to Eric Eriksons Stage Theory, human psychosocial development can be divided into eight stages. Each of which brings a psychological crisis, involving transition in social relationship. The following table shows these stages and characteristics of psychosocial development. Stage Psychological Characteristics of Psychosocial Development Crisis First year of Trust vs. Sound attachment formed when biological
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life (0-1)

mistrust

Second and Autonomy vs. third year (2- doubt 3)

Fourth to Initiative sixth year (4- Guilt 6)

vs.

Sixth year to Industry puberty inferiority (6-11) Adolescence (12-20)

vs.

Identity vs. Confusion

Young adulthood (21-40) Middle adulthood (41-65)

Intimacy isolation

vs.

Generativity vs. selfabsorption vs.

Late Integrity adulthood despair (66 and above)

needs are satisfied and developed an optimistic attitude. When biological needs are not satisfied, distrusting and insecure personality may form. Begin to take some personal responsibility for feeding, dressing and bathing. If everything goes well, the child will develop a sense of self-sufficiency. If the childs effort failed and was criticized, the child may develop shame and self-doubt. Sense of self-confidence developed when the child gets well along with the family members. Sense of guilt developed if the child only thinks of himself and conflicts socially with family members. Sense of competence developed when the child can adapt socially with school and neighborhood. Sense of inferiority developed when the child fails to adapt socially. Develop an integrated image of oneself as a unique person if the adolescent gets along with his peer group and becomes leadership model. Strive to work hard for selfactualization. Develop sense of confusion and negative self if adolescent was rejected by his peer group. Young adult has a tendency to mix with opposite sex. Isolate remains themselves to resolve their conflicts. A successful man is free to direct his attention more fully to the assistance of others. Unsuccessful person is incapable of solving social issues. By looking back, he finds that his life is meaningful and satisfactory. A poor old man finds that his life is meaningless and unsatisfactory.

2.3. Stages of Development

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Moral concerns principles of right and wrong behavior and the difference between good and evil. Morality involves the ability to distinguish right form wrong and to act according to rightness or honesty of behavior. Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) developed a model of moral development based on the theory of Piaget (1932), which explained that moral development is determined by cognitive development. Piaget assumed that the way the individuals consider moral issues depends on their level of cognitive development. Using this assumption, Kohlberg eventually derived a stage of theory based on investigation of the nature and progression of individuals reasoning. A brief description of Kohlbergs six stages of moral development is shown in the following table and diagrams. Level I. Preconventional (early childhood) Stage 1.Punishmentobedient orientation Description Comply rules to avoid punishment

self

Comply rules to get awards, or sharing in 2. Instrumental order to get return. hedonism or Sel Ot concrete f her reciprocity II. Conventional (middle childhood) 3. Good boy- Confirm rules according to others approval good girl or disapproval orientation
Sel f

4. Authority Rigidly confirm to societys rules, regulations and laws, avoid censure or rule maintaining breaking. orientation
So cie ty S e l Social People obey laws because they are necessary f 14

III.

Post- 5.

conventional (Adolescence)

contract orientation

for social order. They agree that rules could be changes for the better.
So cie ty S e Contract l f

6. Universal Conform to internal principles such as justice and equality. May violate societys principle rules if conflict with personal code of ethic orientation (universal principle)
Universal Principles of Justice for All So cie ty S e Contract l f

UNIT (3) PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING 3.1 Learning Theories

Learning theories are classified under three broad categories: S-R theories, cognitive field theories and humanistic theories. (i) S-R Theories: (a) Classical conditioning (b) Operant conditioning (ii) Cognitive Field Theories: Gestalt theory (iii) Humanistic Theories: Social learning theory

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Classical Conditioning: (Ivan Pavlov: Russian Physiologist) Classical conditioning may be defined as ,a process which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquire all the characteristics of natural stimulus. Classical conditioning is sometimes called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. Model of classical conditioning is given below.
Before Conditioning UCS (food powder) CS (sound of bell) Conditioning UCS (food powder) CS (sound of bell) After conditioning CS (sound of bell) CR (saliva) UCR (saliva) UCR (saliva)

UCR (saliva)

Figure: Model of classical conditioning The principles of classical conditioning can be used in the following areas of animal and human behavior. 1. Developing of good habits (cleanliness, respect for elders and teachers, punctuality, etc.) 2. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear (smoking, drinking alcohol, anxiety and fear, etc.) 3. Training of animals (animal training in the zoo and circus, etc.) 4. Use in psychotherapy: (de-conditioning emotional fears in mental patients) 5. Developing positive attitudes (favorable attitudes towards learning, teachers, the school, etc.)
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6. Teaching alphabets, numerals and skills (language, mathematics, science, etc.) Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner) Operant conditioning can be defined as any learning which is based on response contingent upon reinforcement and does not involve choice among experimentally defined alternatives. The term operant emphasizes the fact that behavior operates upon the environment to generate its own consequences. Thorndikes basic laws of learning (1) The Law of Effect: When a modifiable connection between S-R has been made, it was strengthened if it resulted in satisfaction and was weakened if it led to annoyance. The teacher can use the law of effect in the following ways: (a) The classroom experiences should be satisfactory and pleasant. (b) Learning materials and experience must be meaningful and understandable in terms of the students personal life. (c) School experiences and activities must be arranged in such a way that learners may have some degrees of confidence and success in their work. (d) School activities should be organized in increasing difficulty order so that the students may progress without any failure. (e) Materials should be provided in varied ways so that novelty may be maintained. (f) Guidance, praise and encouragement should be properly used. (2) The Law of Exercise: This law is sub-divided into law of use and law of disuse. The law of use states that other things being equal, the more frequently a modifiable connection between S-R is made, the stronger the connection will be. The law of disuse states that other things being equal, when a modifiable connection between SR is not made a over a period of time, the strength of that connection is weakened. The teacher can use the law of exercise in the following ways: (a) More and more opportunities should be given to the students to use and repeat the knowledge they get in the class. (b) Review of the learning material is necessary. (c) Drill strengthened the bondage between S-R. (3) The Law of Readiness: When a modifiable connection is ready to act to do so is satisfying, but when it is not ready to do so is annoying. Readiness is dependent upon both maturation and experience of the learner. The teacher can use the law of readiness in the following ways: (a) Teacher must wait till learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness.

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(b) Aptitude tests and readiness tests may be given to determine the thoroughness of learners. Skinners Operant Conditioning B.F.Skinner developed his own method and apparatus to study operant conditioning. He developed a simple apparatus, commonly known as Skinner Box. This apparatus was devised to study a lot of behavior in a short time in an objective way. Several operations are involved in the process of operant conditioning. They include shaping, extinction, spontaneous recovery and reinforcement. Reinforcers are divided as positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers and punishers. Negative reinforcers and punishers are grouped together as aversive stimuli. However, reinforcers strengthen desired behavior.

S (reinf.)

Figure: Reinforcement in operant conditioning B.F Skinner originally conducted series of experiment on animals in conditioned laboratory conditions. He formulated certain laws of behavior. He prepared grounds for the applications of those laws in human behavior. He was fully conceived that principles of operant conditioning promise equal success in school learning. He developed a system of learning known as programmed learning or programmed instruction. The operant conditioning can be applied in teaching-learning situation in the following ways: 1. School can use principles of operant conditioning to eliminate the element of fear from school atmosphere by using positive reinforcement. 2. Reinforcing stimuli should follow the response immediately for an effect on the behavior. 3. The programmed instruction proceeds in a serial order from initial behavior to terminal behavior by reinforcing behavior in each step. 4. In programmed instruction, objectives are defined in observable and measurable ways. The initial and terminal behavior are defined in operational terms. 5. The teacher can plan his work in advance, specify the terminal behavior and survey all the conditions of school environment which can provide reinforcement to the students. The teacher may plan contingencies of reinforcement and provide reinforcement at the most appropriate time to the learners. He may involve the students in

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teaching-learning process so that students interest may be maintained in the learning. Cognitive Field Theory (or) Gestalt Theory Gestalt is a German word which means pattern, shape, form or configuration. Gestalt psychologists believe that we react to pattern of our own perceptions, when we face a problem, depending upon the set of stimulating conditions in the environment. We learn, not by associating bits of experiences but by organizing them into a meaningful whole in the total situation. When we struggle with a problem, the solution may come to us all of a sudden. This quick change in our perception is called insight. Gestalt psychologists conducted most of their experiments in the field of perception. On the basis of their experimental studies, certain laws of perceptual organization have been developed by them. These laws include law of figure and ground, principle of pragnanz, law of transposition, law of similarity and law of proximity. In cognitive learning theory, motivation and purpose are much the same. The learners goal is the end result he anticipates and desires. The goal controls the behavior of the learner. The teachers responsibility is to help the learner find worthwhile goals which may be clear and realistic. The teacher must know about what is familiar to students and then he must introduce elements of novelty but not too rapidly. Good teacher must pace his presentation to maintain the interest and attention in learning. The teacher must make an effort to expose relationship. Review outlines, analogies and use simple diagrams serve a great purpose to organize the subordinate ideas. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts because of the importance of patterns and relationships. The position of Jerome Bruner is more consistent with the cognitivegestaltist position. Bruner insists that the final goal of teaching is to promote the general understanding of the structure of a subject-matter. When a student understands the structure of a subject, he or she sees it as a related whole. Grasping the structure of a subject is the understanding it in a way that permits many other things to be related to it meaningfully. Bruners theory has four major principles: motivation, structure, sequence and reinforcement. First Principle: Motivation Motivation specifies the conditions that predispose an individual to learn. Bruner believes that almost all children have a build-in will to learn such as curiosity. Teachers must manage and enhance this motivation so that children will see that guided exploration is more meaningful and satisfying than the spontaneous learning they achieve on their own. Bruner first principle is a justification of formal schooling. Second Principle: Structure The second principle states that any given subject area, any body of knowledge, can be organized in some optimal fashion to that it can be transmitted to and understood by almost any student. If properly structured, any idea, or problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form of simple enough so that any particular learner can understand in a recognizable

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form. According to Bruner, the structure of any body of knowledge can be characterized in three ways: mode of presentation, economy, and power. Third Principle: Sequence Since Bruner believes that intellectual development is innately sequential, moving form enactive through iconic to symbolic representation, he feels it is highly probable that this is also the best sequence for any subject to take. Thus teacher should begin teaching any new subject with wordless message, speaking mainly to the learners muscular responses. Then the student should be encouraged to explore the use of diagrams and various pictorial representations. Finally, the message should be communicated symbolically, through the use of words. Fourth Principle: Reinforcement Bruners fourth principle is that learning requires reinforcement. In order to achieve mastery of a problem, we must receive feedback as to how we are doing. The timing of reinforcement is crucial to success in learning. Feedback must be made understandable to the learner. Humanistic Theories of Learning: Social Learning Theory Humanistic psychology is regarded as the third force, i.e., it uses the principles of behaviorism as well as those of Gestalt psychology. The central concept of humanism is the self, and this self has the attributes of consciousness, planning, and flexibility. It could function as a determinant of behavior in the sense that an incoming stimulus might be evaluated and classified in terms of existing habit and belief system. According to psychologist Albert Bandura, major part of humanistic learning consists of observational learning. Observational learning can be defined as learning through observing the behavior of another person, a model. For Bandura, learning takes place in the context of social situation. During social interaction, an individual may learn to modify his or her behavior as a result of how others in the group are responding. According to Bandura, observational learning takes place in four steps: (a) attention, (b) remembering, (c) reproducing, and (d) motivation. Attention is paying attention and receiving the most crucial features of another persons behavior. Remembering means the learner remembers the models distinct behavior. Reproduce this behavior or action in similar situation. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior is the final step of observational learning. Instead of learning occurring through trial and error and carry out the behavior being reinforced and failure punished, many important skills are learned through observational processes. Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills in which shaping is inappropriate such as pilot training and brain surgery. Not all behavior that we witness is learning. One crucial factor that determines whether we later imitate a model is the consequence of the models behavior. A child is more apt to imitate an adult-models (parents or teachers) response when the adult is being reinforced for that response. It is known as

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vicarious learning. Reinforcement and modeling can go together create potent conditions for behavior change. The following are the significance of observational learning in the classroom. (a) The teachers like and dislike regarding subject-matter may become obvious to the students and the result is imitative attitude. (b) Negative teacher behavior may also be imitated by the students. (c) A teachers attitude toward social groups can also have significant effect. (d) Teachers should provide conditions for learning in the classroom not only by what they say but also by what they do.

S-Modelling

Attention

Symbolic coding Cognitive orgn. Rehearsal

Anticipated S(reinf.)

Figure: Reinforcement in social learning theory

3.2 Information Processing Model

Information processing model views human learning by memory system. As in this framework human memory information must receive input, which then must be processed, relocated, and finally, made available for output. Three operations correspond to discrete stages in the information processing model of memory. The initial stage is called encoding because sensory events are coded here and changed to a format that the brain can understand. Information that is not properly coded is lost and is of no use. The second stage is storage stage. During this stage the incoming material is assigned a location, and it usually remains there until it is either needed or lost altogether. The third stage is retrieval. In this stage, previous stored material is reclaimed due to a current demand. According to the information-processing theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1977), the process of encoding, storage, and retrieval are believed to be involved in the control of memory events as they relate to three principal storage structures known as sensory memory, short-term memory and longterm memory.

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Memory starts with a sensory input from the environment (see figure). The input is held for a very brief time- several seconds at most- in a sensory register that is associated with the sensory channels: vision, hearing, touch, and so forth. From the sensory register, information may be passed on to the shortterm memory (STM), where it is held for 20 to 30 seconds. Some of the information reaching the STM is processed in rehearsal buffer. The term buffer refers to a holding stage in which information is processed in certain ways by being rehearsed. Rehearsal means that attention is focused on an item of information: perhaps it is repeated over and over, or perhaps it is processed in some other way so as to link it up with other information, which has already been stored in memory. Information processed in the rehearsal buffer may be passed along to the long-term memory (LTM). The information not so processed is lost, or forgotten. When items of information are placed in the LTM, they are put into organized categories where they reside for days, months, years, or a lifetime. When an individual remembers something, a copy of the item is withdrawn, or retrieved, from the LTM.

memory output retrieval

sensory input

sensory register

rehearsal buffer
STM
only a few items

storage

A, A, A B, B, B C, C, C D, D, D E, E, E F, F, F G, G,G LTM

large amount of info.

Figure: Information-processing model of learning

3.3 Psychological Models of Teaching

Teaching models merely suggest how various teaching and learning conditions are interrelated. Basic Teaching Model

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Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a basic teaching model. It divides the teaching process into four components. (See figure)
A Instructional Objectives B Entering Behavior C Instructional Procedures D Performance Assessment

Figure: A basic teaching model Lines which connect components later in the sequence with earlier ones are called feedback loops. The three feedback loops in the figure connect performance assessment with each of the earlier components of the model. Instructional objectives are those (box A) the student should attain upon completion of a segment of instruction. Entering behavior (box B) describes the students level before instruction begins. It refers to what the student has previously learned, his intellectual ability and development, his emotional state, and certain social and cultural determinants of his learning ability. Entering behavior is a more precise term than its usual alternativeshuman ability, individual differences, and readiness. This precision may come at the price of seeing the student as fewer complexes, less able, and less experienced than he may in fact be. Schools tend to definite entering behavior in terms of the traditional curriculum rather than in terms of student ability, experience, and interest. A student with the more abstractive ability and interest of the mathematician, therefore, may be viewed as having a higher level entering behavior than that of a student whose major interest and ability are in creating the visual, geometric forms of modern painting and sculpture. Although the model gives priority to the selection of instructional objectives over the assessment of entering behavior, in practice these two components must interact. Instructional procedures (box C) describe, the teaching process; most decisions a teacher makes are on these procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes in student behavior which we call learning or achievement. Procedures must vary with the instructional objectives. Performance assessment (box D) consists of the tests and observations used to determine how well the student has achieved the instructional objectives. If performance assessment indicates that the student has fallen short of mastery or some lesser standard of achievement, one or all of the preceding components of the basic teaching model may require adjustment. The feedback loops show how the information provided by performance assessment feeds back to each component. The model indicates that teaching includes a broad range of decision and practice- much of which requires little or no personal contact between teacher and student. The widespread use of technology devices, team teaching, and no graded instruction will undoubtedly modify the traditional nature of the personal contact between teacher and student. Depending on the requirements
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of the instructional situation, particularly on the entering behavior of the student, the classroom of the future will provide more or less personal contact than the conventional classroom does now. Accordingly, the model implies a greater emphasis on teacher competence than on personal charisma without, of course, objecting to useful combination of the two. Computer Based Teaching Model The most complex teaching model is one developed by Lawrence Stolurow and Daniel Davis (1965). In this model the computer replaces the teacher in making decisions and providing the actual instruction. Storulow and Davis divide the teaching process into two phases. The pretutorial phase has a single purpose: to select for a particular student a teaching programme that will achieve particular instructional objectives. The tutorial phase has two purposes: to put the programme which has been selected into use, and to monitor the students performance to discover whether a new programme may be more suitable than the original one.
stud. cha. apt. ach. lev. object. topic final l p. time search for a teachin g progra mme more than one evaluate alternatives implem ent teachin g model

locate one programme no progr. chang e input using prio. sched ule increase Pe l accept low Pe change t / Pf

review material & test

INPUT

Search & Evaluation

OUTPUT

Figure: The pre-tutorial phase of computer based teaching model The above diagram indicates the decisions the computer must make before instruction actually begins. This phase includes decisions on instructional objectives and entering behavior. For instructional objectives, three factors must be considered: (i) the final level of performance, Pf, (ii) to be achieved a given topic or subject matter, T, (iii) within a given time, t. For entering behavior, the decisions are somewhat more difficult. Figure shows the two aspects considered: the students achievement level, Pe, or what he has already learned that is relevant to the instructional objectives and his aptitude level, Ap, or set of skills, which is not necessarily tied to a particular subject.

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Given particular instructional objectives and entering behavior, the computer must now search for a suitable programme of instruction. This search can have one of the three results: more than one programme may be located; only one programme may be located; or no programme may be located. When more than one programme is available, economic factors select the programme which costs the least or requires the least amount of time. The real problem arises when no progarmme is located. In this case, the computer either rejects the student or changes the instructional objectives or the required behavior. Figure suggests three such changes: raise the students entering behavior by a review exercises (increase Pe level); accept high-aptitude students whose entering behavior is above minimum; give students more time for pratice (increase t), change the topics (change T), or raise or lower the acceptable level of final performance ( Pr ). The tutorial phase consists of two functions. The teacher function puts the program selected in the pre-tutorial phase to work. The professor function is more complex. It decides whish changes to make in the program if the program is not effective. It also monitors the responses of the students as they proceed through a programme. If, for example, the teaching strategy or content is too demanding, the professor function decides on the basis of the performance records of a large number of students to provide a new strategy or content. We can now compare this computer-based teaching model with the basis teaching model and with conventional instruction. The pre-tutorial phase of the computer-based model embraces the first three components of the basic teaching model: instructional objectives, entering behavior, and instructional procedures. The teaching programme , as Stolurow and Davis call it, corresponds to instructional procedures. Their model ingeniously demonstrates how adjustments must be made in all three components so they can function together smoothly. The tutorial phase includes chiefly the third and fourth components of the basis teaching model. The teacher function actually uses the procedures previously selected. The professor function is an on-going performance assessment used to make adjustments in both instructional objectives and procedures. You may view the computer-based model as a detailed analysis of the possible interrelationships of the components of the basis teaching model. In conventional instruction, the classroom teacher must make the decision made by the computer. He must decide what to teach (objectives), to whom (entering behavior), and how (procedures ). And he must determine the extent of the students success ( performance assessment ). All decisions are interrelated and interdependent. Frequently the teacher has only one program available for students of widely varying entering behavior. As a result he tries to teach students subject matter which they have already mastered or for which they are not adequately prepared. Since the professor function in the computer model has access to a store of knowledge and alternative programs which the teacher can not have, Stolurow and Davis believe that only computers have the

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capacity to make all the decisions and accommodations and enlightened pedagogy required.

UNIT (4) MENTAL HEALTH AND ADJUSTMENT

Mental health is a psychological state of well-being, characterized by continuing personal growth, a sense of purpose in life, self-acceptance, and

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positive relations with others. By simple definition, mental health refers to the condition of an individual resulting from the normal organization and functioning of his mind. Psychologists have identified a number of distinct dimensions of mental health. These include self-acceptance, or self-esteem, characterized by a positive evaluation of oneself and ones past experiences; personal growth reflected in ones sense of continued psychological growth and development; a sense that ones life has purpose and meaning; positive relation with others; environmental mastery, the capacity to manage effectively in the surrounding world; and autonomy, a sense of self-determination and the ability to control ones own life. Self-acceptance, relations with others, environmental mastery, and autonomy usually improve as a person ages and gains life experience. However, many people find that their personal growth and sense of purpose in life begin to decline in midlife. Some psychologists regard mental health as the ability to maintain a balance between positive and negative emotions, such as elation and sadness. In this view, a person who displays emotional extremes in either direction is less well-adjusted. Other psychologists emphasize the role of ones environment in influencing well-being. This perspective sees mental health reflected in a persons overall happiness with various domains of life, such as social relationships, work, and community life. A mentally healthy person is one who is mentally at ease or one who is well adjusted to the persons and objects around him. The characteristics of a mentally healthy person are given below. 1. Being generally happy in spite of shortcomings. 2. Reasonably independent in actions and decisions. 3. Self-confidence 4. Being fairly relaxed and at ease with themselves and with others 5. Awareness of sensitivity to the feelings of others 6. Eager attention to new tasks A number of different aspects of life can influence mental health. Researchers identified critical areas that influence ones mental health. These areas are working life, family life, and the social role that one occupies in the community. Negative experiences in these areas, such as an unreasonable boss or a turbulent family life, can reduce ones overall sense of well-being. Another important influence on mental health is stress. In general, people experience stress when the demands placed on them exceed the resources they have available to meet those demands. Significant sources of stress include major life events, such as divorce, death of husband or wife, loss of job, and illness in family. These events can overwhelm a persons ability to cope and function effectively. In addition, one source of stress may lead to another, as when financial hardship follows job loss. People may experience chronic stress when confronted with a continuing set of demands that reduce their ability to function. Examples of such demands include working long hours under difficult circumstances and

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caring for a chronically ill relative. Economic hardship, unemployment, and poverty can also produce chronic stress and undermine mental health. Some studies suggest that genetic factors may partly determine ones level of happiness and mental health. People seem to display a characteristics level of well-being, with some people usually feeling happy and others typically feeling sad or unhappy. Researchers have found that although peoples moods change in response to both positive and negative events, the effect wears off over time. For example, people who win the lottery or receive an unexpected promotion may feel happier at first, but over time they return to their former characteristics level of mental health. Research suggests that ones genetic background that is, the genes inherited from ones parents explains more than half of the differences in peoples characteristic mood levels. Genes may also partly determine the range of ups and downs that people feel, including whether people have large mood swings or remain stable from day to day.

4.1 Mental Health

The ability to cope with adversity can be crucial for the mental health of the individual. Coping means successfully dealing with problems that arise in life. People differ substantially in the way they cope with adversity. Some people engage in emotion- focused coping, a strategy that focuses on managing ones emotions. Examples of this coping strategy include distracting ones attention from the problem, venting ones emotions, or sharing emotions with others. A second form of coping, problem focused coping, involves efforts to reduce stress by solving the problem. People who use this strategy take active steps to overcome the problem, such as seeing a counselor to repair a relationship or looking for a new job in response to problems at work. They may also seek advice from friends and family members. Some people use coping skills more effectively than others. However, research has shown that people can learn new coping skills. For example, counselors can teach children how to handle difficulties in school. Adults can be taught skills to cope with stressful life events, such as job loss and divorce. Teaching people coping skills before they encounter adversity, or early in the stages of a crisis, appears an effective method of preventing poor mental health. Learning effective coping strategies also directly improves mental health by improving ones sense of mastery and self esteem. Social support from friends and family members also promotes good mental health. This support can take several forms. Other people can offer concrete help in crisis, such as providing shelter to families victimized by a natural disaster or alerting an unemployed person to a job opportunity. In addition, other people can provide an important source of emotional support. Friends respond with concern, empathy, and advice to a person facing difficulties or loss. They boost confidence and self esteem by offering reassurance and
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compliments. Self help groups provide support by enabling people with similar problems to share their experiences and emotions. Conversely, research has shown that negative social interactions, such as constant criticism and belittlement from other people, can undermine mental health. Other ways of maintaining good mental health involve physical activities. For example, research has shown that regular aerobic exercise helps to boost self esteem, relieve depression, and improve concentration. Relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing and meditation, also help to combat the effects of stress.

4.2 Cyberage Adjustment

Mental health and human sanity depend on the satisfaction of those needs and passions which are specifically human, and which stem from the conditions of the human situation: the need for relatedness, transcendence, rooted ness, the need for a sense of identity and the need for a frame of orientation and devotion. If one of the basic necessities has found no fulfillment, insanity is the result; if it is satisfied but in an unsatisfactory way --- considering the nature of human existence --- neurosis (either manifest or in the form of a socially patterned defect) is the consequence. The life fear and the death fear (from original eros / thanatos tribe concepts). The life fear is the anxiety which occurs when the individual becomes aware of creative capacities within himself the assertion of which would bring about the threat of separation from existing relationship; it is the fear of having to live as an isolated individual. The death fear, on the other hand, is the fear of losing ones individuality, of being swallowed up in the whole. All his life each human being is pushed forward by the need to be an individual and express himself more fully and drawn back by the fear that by so doing he will cut himself off from the rest of society. There are two possible solutions to this dilemma, that of the NORMAL person who whole heartedly accepts the standards of his society as his own and that of the CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL who is prepared to stand alone and create his own standards. The neurotic or maladjusted can accept neither of these solutions because his anxiety in the face of individual autonomy keeps him from affirming his own capacities, and his anxiety in the face of dependency on others renders him incapable of giving himself in friendship and love. In short, the maladjusted or neurotic is a person who can neither assert his own spontaneity as an individual nor permit himself to become submerged in the mass --- he is a rebel who fears his rebellious tendencies and therefore keeps them repressed. Man has to relate himself to others; but if he does it in a symbiotic or alienated way, he loses his independence and integrity; he is weak, suffers, becomes hostile, or apathetic; only if he can relate himself to others in a loving way does he feel one with them and at the same time preserve his integrity.
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It follows that mental health cannot be defined only in terms of the adjustment of the individual to his society, but that it must be defined in terms of the adjustment of society to the needs of man, of its role in furthering or hindering the development of mental health. Whether or not the individual is healthy, is primarily not an individual matter, but depends on the structure of his society. A healthy society furthers mans capacity to love his fellow men, to work creatively, to develop his reason and objectivity, to have a sense of self which is based on the experience of his own productive powers. An unhealthy society is one which creates mutual hostility, distrust, which deprives him of a sense of self, except in as much as he submits to others or becoming automaton. Society can have both functions; it can further mans healthy development, and it can hinder it; in fact most societies do both, and the question is only to what degree and in what direction their positive and negative influence is exercised. The technology of virtual reality (VR) is giving modern cyberage people whole new worlds to explore, but as Professor Glenn F. Cartwright has warned in 1994, they must proceed with caution. Few scientists working on virtual reality (VR) and its applications today have considered the effects of such technology and on consciousness or the human mind. There are many questions that remain to be answered. For example, what happens when people enter an alternative reality and cannot tell it from the real world? What happens to the normal mind when it loses contact with reality? What will happen if people find they cannot, or do not want to, return to the real world? And what will happen to people if they become lost in cyberspace? Strangely, the developers of virtual reality (VR) and computer networking seem largely unconcerned by the possible dangers inherent in launching individuals into another reality. Few of them have given any thought as to whether or not all cybernauts will return safely, unscathed by their VR experience. VR has been with people fir millennia in the form of imagination, literature, theatre, and more recently, radio, film, and television. However, the modern definition of VR has come to mean a computer-mediated, multisensory experience, one designed to trick human sense and convince people that they are in another world. The term cyberspace was originally defines as a consensual hallucination. For the present purpose, cyberspace may be described as the sharing by two or more individuals of a virtual reality (VR) experience. For example, operating a virtual puppet in a video game represents an individual virtual reality. When another players puppet enters the first puppets space and begins to interact, the common space they share is cyberspace. Just as VR is a way of sensing, feeling, and thinking individually, so cyberspace (CS) becomes a way of communicating, participating, and working together. By entering the world of CS, people can change how they

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communicate, participate, interact, and work with one another. And new thoughts, perceptions and ideas may emerge as a result of their interactions in CS. Psychological Aspects of VR In addition to affecting more fragile individuals, VR may affect persons not considered at risk, making it difficult for them to adjust to a new psychology in VR. Ordinary psychological principles, ones that contemporary psychologists take for granted in the real world, either do not exist or operate quite differently in the virtual world. The important differences are as follows: 1. Reality contact 2. Parallel communication / lives 3. Alternate realities / states 4. Embodiment & disembodiment 5. Gender swapping 6. The virtual ego-center 7. The de-centered self 8. Multiple identities 9. Distributed being 10. Dissociative reactions and psychotic breaks Reality contact is often used by psychologists and psychiatrists as a measure of successful adjustment to the world around people and as an indicator of mental health. In fact, a lack of reality contact is often associated with poor adjustment or even mental illness. Paradoxically, though, it is precisely this loss of at least some reality contact that is the price of admission to the VR. Online discussions in computer conferencing indicate they include personal experiences and other material that are usually not discussed face-toface during normal seminars or meetings. Computer conferencing is today thought of as a parallel form of communication and the sharing of information there occurs on a different plane. To a casual observer, the online discussions would appear to involve a different group of people; to the informed observer, however, such communications concern a somewhat different aspect of existence --- a kind of parallel life. Alternate realities, associated with artificial reality and altered states, are nothing new. As early as the mid- 1970s, computer conferencing was recognized as an altered state of communication. The creation of multi-user dungeons (MUD) in 1979 lent a recreational aspect to computer communication, and today work is progressing to improve the social possibilities of VR by adding audio, video, and interactive windows to MUDs. In the near future, the Internet will support more and more non-textual applications such as the Talk Internet, the digitization and transmission of actual voices. More non-textual applications find their way into the internet, the number and variety of alternative states will increase. It is highly possible that the psychological quality of these altered states may range from broad euphoria to mild dislocation to serve psychotic breakdown.

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One of the most remarkable things about VR and CS is the potential not only to shed ones body, but to gain a new and perhaps vastly different body. But giving people a new, and possibly superior, body in VR raises potential problems. In the virtual world, one is neither expected nor required to keep realworld attributes, such as size or gender. Consequently, the VR world becomes a place of experimentation and exploration. Gender swapping is the deliberate assumption of the opposite gender as an experiment to try on a different persona and experience a different facet of existence. Such counterfeit gender experiments have both positive and negative after-effects. With computers controlling and extending human senses, it becomes possible to project ones ego-center away form its usually perceived site to another location entirely. The prospect of electronically projecting the egocenter into a virtual body, or to any VS beyond the real body, is a totally new phenomenon. Creating a virtual ego-center de-centers the self. While this de-centering can be illuminating and instructive, it can also be destabilizing and destructive. If it is possible in VR to enter an alternate state, become disembodied, swap genders, create a virtual ego-center, decenter the self, and assume a different identity, then it will also be possible to assume more than one identity at the same time. While often viewed in the real world as a manifestation of mental illness or personality disorder or maladjustment, having multiple, serial, and simultaneous personae in cyberspace (CS) may not only be possible, but may even encouraged as a part of interacting with another people. If one can assume, in VR or CS, multiple identities, either serially or simultaneously, then perhaps the self can be reintegrated --- recreated as a single entity with multiple ego-centers. Such distributed beings or persons might differ from an ordinary individual by excelling at problem solving, for instance. They could see the problem form different angles all at once, thus providing to be on the path to broad-mindedness and enlightenment. On the other hand, the distributed being might grow to be intolerant of others who had not attained the same level of perceptual proficiency. In short, VR and / or CS could potentially alter social interaction, human consciousness, and even what it means to be human. More urgent still are VRs serious implications for mental or psychological health. VR may bring with it new kinds of emotional disturbances and mental illness. The twenty-first century may well be the century of technologically induced disaffection; characterized by an increased sense of loneliness, alternation, powerlessness, and disembodiment. Modern psychologists must now try to prevent these mishaps and side-effects of VR and CS experiences; it is also deemed appropriate for educational psychologists to resume research on consciousness and learning. In order to make the school or college the foremost center for the enhancement of mental health and cyberage psychological adjustment......

4.3 Adjustment Mechanisms

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Adjustment may be defined as the process by means of which the individual seeks to maintain physiological and psychological equilibrium and propel himself toward self-enhancement. It refers to a state of harmonious relationship between the individual and his environment. The human needs, his drives and urges push the individual toward the realization of certain interests and ideals. When the resulting behavior is satisfactory to the person and the society, there is said to be proper adjustment. However, if the behavior responses are not adequate or satisfying another patter of behavior is acquired. This changed behavior is generally referred to as adjustment mechanism. There are several types of adjustment mechanisms, such as aggression, sublimation, withdrawal, rationalization, projection, regression, day-dreaming, compensation, identification, repression and so on. Aggression is a typical reaction to frustration among school children. The school boy who is frustrated by a playmate on the school playground is likely to attack the playmate directly. Small children attack the frustrating object directly, and immediately in their environment. Teachers should therefore expect aggressive behavior both in and out of the classroom. Sublimation may be defined as the unconscious process whereby a persons urges and drives are up-stepped from lower to higher forms of behavior. Through sublimation a person finds released of energy into channels that will be satisfying both to him-self and to society in general. Music, art and literature are sublimated expressions of emotional energy. Rationalization is a process by which a person attempts to find a more or less plausible but inadequate reason to justify an opinion, feeling, action, or situation. A person is rationalizing when he gives a minor or a faked reason or conduct that is actually motivated by some other reason that would be painful or unpleasant to admit. Rationalization is an unconscious mechanism, when false reasons are given knowingly, they are lies, not rationalizations. Compensation includes all attempts to lessen a feeling of inferiority. Some parents compensate for their limitations by providing special training for their children. They may attempt to force their children into vocations which they themselves had wished to enter but had failed to do so. The scholastically inferior student may compensate for his academic weakness by developing himself physically or by becoming the leader of a gang. This mechanism can be used wisely by directing socially acceptable ways.

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