ARTICLE IN PRESS

Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Evaluation of cooking energy cost, efciency, impact on air pollution and policy in Nigeria
A.N. Anoziea,, A.R. Bakarea, J.A. Sonibarea, T.O. Oyebisib
b

Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, P.O. Box 013, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Technology Planning and Development Unit, Obafemi Awolowo University, P.O. Box 013, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Received 7 May 2004

Abstract This study evaluated the cooking energy costs and efciencies, the air pollution impacts of cooking energy consumption and the impact of the energy policy in the cooking energy sector in Nigeria. Water boiling and cooking experiments using the common cooking energy sources (fuel wood, kerosene, liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity) and common food items (water, yam and beans) were carried out. Energy surveys were carried out to determine the cooking energy use patterns in the urban and rural areas. It was found that fuel wood is the least expensive cooking energy source and LPG is the most expensive. Energy use efciencies for boiling water were estimated at 25%, 46%, 73%, 79%, 66% and 90% for fuel wood, kerosene, gas, electric immersion coil, electric heating coil and electric hot plate, respectively. Energy intensity was found to be a comparative measure of energy efciency. The impacts of air pollution from household cooking suggested a possibility of signicant air pollutants contribution to the ambient environment using any of the energy carriers considered except electricity. The cooking energy use patterns showed that fuel wood is the predominant energy source for cooking in the rural areas while kerosene is the predominant energy source in the urban areas, revealing that the energy policy in the country had made no impact in the cooking energy sector. Recommendations for improving the energy supply situation were given and for removing the barriers that prevent the implementation of the recommendations. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cooking energy; Cost; Efciency; Impact on air pollution; Policy

1. Introduction A cooking energy crisis exists today in Nigeria. The cooking energy demand far surpasses the supply. Many households have been forced by prevailing circumstances to switch from one source/type of cooking energy to the other. Nationwide consumption of cooking energy is increasing daily due to the growing population estimated at over 102 million in 1996 with an annual growth of 2.83% [1]. Unfortunately, the energy supply (petroleum products) to the household sector has been dwindling over the past 20 years due to economic, social and political problems. The energy resource base of Nigeria is large and diverse. Nigerias oil reserve is put at some 30 billion barrels. The natural gas reserve is in the region of 3.12 trillion cubic
Corresponding author. Tel.: +234 8034066080; fax: +234 036 230290.

E-mail address: ananozie@yahoo.com (A.N. Anozie). 0360-5442/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.07.004

metres, which is at least twice that of crude oil reserves in energy terms [2]. Another major energy resource in Nigeria is coal. The indicated and inferred reserve of coal in the country is estimated at some 1.5 billion tones, which may even exceed the raw energy content of both oil and gas combined. The country receives abundant daily sunshine and has ambient temperatures ranging from about 27 to 36 1C and an average daily solar insolation of about 5.8 kWh/m2-day in the south and about 7.5 kWh/m2-day in the north. It is estimated that the country receives on its land area an annual insolation that is 4000 times the annual production of crude oil in energy terms. Also the country has wood energy, biomass energy, hydro energy and wind energy resources. It is surprising that a country that is blessed with so much abundant energy resources is going through a cooking energy crisis. The need for energy resources management has long been felt in Nigeria. This gave rise to the establishment of

ARTICLE IN PRESS
1284 A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290

the National Centres for Energy Research and Development in three of the nations Universities in 1976 and a fourth centre was later opened in 1980. The Energy Commission of Nigeria was established in 1987 and was charged with the responsibility for overall energy sector planning; the formulation and monitoring of plans and policies to ensure that the nations energy needs in the short, medium and long-term can be met. Researchers at the National Centres for Energy Research and Development and individual researchers have been working to develop renewable energy technologies and better energy efcient cooking appliances [3]. However, it must be pointed out that there are bottlenecks or barriers, which prevent the implementation of the energy policy in Nigeria [4]. The barriers include the following:

heating coil. The water boiling test (WBT) was also carried out with other appliances namely, kerosene stove, gas cooker and fuel wood under a tripod stand. The weights of kerosene in the kerosene stove, gas in the gas cylinder and fuel wood before and after the boiling were determined using a weighing balance. The quantity of water evaporated after boiling was determined. The water boiling experimental procedure used here is the standard WBT [6]. The experiments were replicated in triplicates and the average values taken. Similarly, cooking experiments were carried out with 500 g of yam and 270 g of beans in succession using an electric hot plate, kerosene stove, gas cooker and fuel wood under a tripod stand. 2.2. Energy surveys An energy survey was carried out between January 20, 2006 and April 19, 2006 in Osun State, Nigeria with the help of a questionnaire to obtain information from households on the type of energy source used for cooking (fuel wood, charcoal, gas, kerosene and electricity). The survey was conducted in the urban and rural areas using a sample population of about 1000 in each case. 2.3. Performance parameters (a) Energy costs: The calculation of energy costs was based on energy price data given in Table A1 in the Appendix. These price data were collected for the years studied. (b) The thermal efciency for boiling of water was calculated using the following equation [7]: Z M w C p T b T o M e L100=M f E f , (1) where Z is thermal efciency (%), Mw is the mass of water (kg), Cp is the specic heat capacity of water at constant pressure and mean temperature of water (J/kg K), Tb is the boiling temperature, To is the initial water temperature, Me is the mass of water evaporated (kg), L is the latent heat of vapourization of water (kJ/kg), Mf is the weight of fuel burnt and Ef is the caloric value of the fuel. Eq. (1) assumes that the fuel is completely burnt to ashes. If fuel wood does not burn completely to ashes at the end of the test, then a correction can be made to allow for the energy retained in the charcoal by using the equation [8]: M f weight of wood burnt weight of charcoal left 1:4. 2

    

existence of weak institutional framework for implementing energy efcient policies and strategies, general lack of awareness by consumers on the compelling need to conserve energy, lack of supply logistics, limited availability of foreign exchange to acquire energy efcient technologies, lack of sufcient funding for scientists to engage in indepth and extensive research on renewable energy technologies.

The common forms of cooking energy in use in Nigeria are fuel wood, kerosene, liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. In this study, water boiling and cooking experiments using the common household energy sources and common food items (water, yam and beans) were carried out. The experimental data obtained and the energy price data were used to evaluate the cooking energy cost, cooking energy consumption efciency and cooking energy intensity. The effect on air quality arising from consumption of these energy types was computed using emission factors [5]. Energy surveys were carried out in the urban and rural areas of the country to determine the energy mix in household cooking energy use and the results were used to assess the effectiveness of the energy policy in the cooking energy sector. 2. Materials and experimental procedures 2.1. Water boiling and cooking experimental procedures Water (2.25 l) was measured into an aluminium cooking pot. The temperature of water in the pot was taken with a thermometer. A voltmeter and an ammeter were connected in series with an electric hot plate. The water in the cooking pot was heated using the electric hot plate. The time taken to boil the water, boiling temperature, electric current and voltage were measured using a stop-clock, thermometer, ammeter and voltmeter, respectively. The water boiling experiment was repeated using two other electric appliances, the electric immersion coil and the electric external

The total electrical energy supplied was calculated using the equation: E IVt=1000, (3) where E is electrical energy (kWh), I is electric current (A), V is electric voltage (V) and t is time (h). Caloric and density data for the calculation of the total energy supplied by fuel wood, kerosene and gas (LPG) are given in Table A2 in the Appendix.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 1285

(c) The energy intensity was dened as the energy consumed per unit of food material cooked. The rate of heating was dened as energy consumed per unit of time.
c

2004 ) 2001 1995 Energy Cost ( Energy consumption efciencyb (%) Energy intensity (kJ/g of water) Rate of heating (kJ/s) Energy consumeda (kJ) Water evaporated (g) Table 1 Energy consumption and cost analysis for boiling 2.25 l of water Time of boiling (min)

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Cooking energy cost Tables 13 show the energy consumption and cost analysis for boiling 2.25 l of water, cooking 500 g of yam and cooking 270 g of beans, respectively. In 1995, the energy costs of boiling 2.25 l of water (Table 1) were 0.13 naira with electric hot plate, 0.15 naira with electric immersion coil, 0.18 naira with electric heating coil, 0.26 naira with fuel wood, 0.31 naira with kerosene stove and 0.60 naira with gas cooker. In 1995, the energy costs of cooking 500 g of yam (Table 2) were 0.29 naira with electric hot plate, 0.42 naira with fuel wood, 1.23 naira with kerosene stove and 1.44 naira with gas cooker. In 1995, the energy costs of cooking 270 g of beans (Table 3) were 0.44 naira with electric hot plate, 0.52 naira with fuel wood, 1.81 naira with kerosene stove and 2.40 naira with gas cooker. Therefore, in 1995, electricity was the least expensive cooking energy and gas was the most expensive. Households in the urban cities did not know these facts in 1995. In 2001, energy costs of cooking increased generally but a shift occurred in the ranking of energy costs, with fuel wood becoming the least expensive energy source instead of electricity while cooking gas remained the most expensive energy source. In 2004, energy costs increased again generally with fuel wood still remaining the least expensive energy source for cooking all types of food. It was cheaper to boil water with kerosene than with gas (Table 1). The high cost of cooking yam or beans with kerosene stove (in Tables 2 and 3) was because the kerosene stove was used inefciently in those two cases (very high rates of heating and energy intensities). It was about four times costlier to cook yam or beans with gas or kerosene than with electricity. Households did not know these facts in 2004 and did not take advantage of the low cost of cooking with electricity. Many households had the wrong notion that it was very costly to cook with electricity. One of the reasons why electricity is not popular as an energy source for cooking in Nigeria is the erratic nature of its supply. Kerosene and gas, which are products of petroleum reneries, have now become the costliest energy sources for household cooking. About 40 years ago, kerosene was very cheap and available in both rural and urban cities and cooking gas was common in urban cities. Today, as a result of frequent breakdowns of oil reneries, kerosene and gas are costly and inadequate in supply. The energy consumption analysis data established in this study could be used with energy price data in future to calculate energy costs for cooking with the different energy sources as the market prices of the energy sources change with time.

38 19 13 15 18 13 Fuel wood (open air burning) Kerosene (stove) Gas (cooker) Electricitye (immersion coil) Electricitye (external heating coil) Electricitye (hot plate) Estimated with percentage error of about 74%. Estimated with error of about 73%. c Naira, Nigerian currency. d Weight of charcoal left 90 g. e Electric voltage 240 V, Electric current 5 A.
b a

Weight of fuel used (g)

Energy source (Appliance)

250d 40 25

110 90 80 85 85 80

3584 1880 1150 1080 1296 936

1.57 1.60 1.47 1.20 1.20 1.20

1.60 0.84 0.51 0.48 0.58 0.42

25 46 73 79 66 90

0.26 0.31 0.60 0.15 0.18 0.13

0.67 1.03 3.00 0.78 0.94 0.68

0.94 2.82 3.60 1.20 1.44 1.04

ARTICLE IN PRESS
1286 A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 Table 2 Energy consumption and cost analysis for cooking 500 g of yam Energy source (Appliance) Weight of fuel used (g)
c

Time of cooking (min)

Energy consumeda (kJ)

Rate of heating (kJ/s)

Energy intensity (kJ/g of yam)

Energy cost (

1995 Fuel wood (open air burning) Kerosene (stove) Gas (cooker) Electricityd (hot plate)
a b

2001 1.07 4.10 7.20 1.51

2004 1.50 11.28 8.64 2.32

400 160 61

64 45 28 29

5600 7520 2760 2088

1.46 2.79 1.64 1.20

11.20 15.04 5.52 4.18

0.42 1.23 1.44 0.29

Estimated with percentage error of about 74%. Naira, Nigerian currency. c Weight of charcoal left 150 g. d Electric voltage 240 V, Electric current 5 A.

Table 3 Energy consumption and cost analysis for cooking 270 g of beans Energy source (Appliance) Weight of fuel used (g) 495c 235 100 Time of cooking (min) Energy consumeda (kJ) Rate of heating (kJ/s) Energy intensity (kJ/g of beans) Energy cost (
b

1995 Fuel wood (open air burning) Kerosene (stove) Gas (cooker) Electricityd (hot plate)
a b

2001 1.32 6.04 12.00 2.29

2004 1.86 16.60 14.40 3.52

95 69 46 44

6832 11073 4600 3168

1.20 2.67 1.67 1.20

25.30 41.01 17.04 11.73

0.52 1.81 2.40 0.44

Estimated with percentage error of about 74%. Naira, Nigerian currency. c Weight of charcoal left 190 g. d Electric voltage 240 V, Electric current 5 A.

3.2. Cooking energy efciency 3.2.1. Energy consumption efciency From Table 1, the energy consumption efciency for boiling 2.25 l of water in a covered aluminium pot was estimated at 25% for fuel wood in open air burning, 46% for kerosene stove, 73% for gas cooker, 79% for electric immersion heater and 66% for electric heating coil and 90% for electric hot plate. The electric hot plate was observed to be the most efcient of the three electrical appliances used for cooking. It was also observed that the energy consumption efciency of 25% for fuel wood burning appears to be high. It must be pointed out that efciency of wood cook-stoves depends on several factors such as the type and thickness of material of construction of the cooking pot, moisture content of wood and the rate of heating [9]. Cooking pots made of materials with low thermal resistance would give higher efciencies. The boundary for energy consumption efciency analysis in this study is the household. Therefore, efciency of electric energy use was limited only to the point of consumption (household) and was not extended to the point of generation. It was not possible to calculate the energy consumption efciency for cooking yam and beans

in Tables 2 and 3, respectively, because the specic heat capacities of these food materials were not known. 3.2.2. Energy intensity It was observed in Table 1 that the energy intensity for boiling 2.25 l of water followed the same trend as the energy consumption efciency, noting that low-energy intensity corresponds to high-energy consumption efciency and vice versa. Therefore, energy intensity could be used for comparative ranking of energy consumption efciency. It was observed from Tables 13 that the rate of heating also affects energy intensity. Lower rates of heating would give lower energy intensities (higher efciencies) and higher rates of heating would give higher energy intensities (lower efciencies). It was observed in Table 2 that the rate of heating for cooking 500 g of yam was highest for the kerosene stove compared to the other energy sources/appliances. A similar observation was also made for the kerosene stove in Table 3 for cooking 270 g of beans. It is known that food materials are very sensitive to the rate of heating and that very high rate of heating could cause hardening of food material, leading to excessive consumption of energy. The high rate of heating was responsible for the poor performances of the kerosene stove (high energy intensities) in Tables 2 and 3. A good

ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 1287

practice in the homes is to avoid high rate of heating foodstuffs so as to reduce the energy intensity and thereby increase the efciency of energy utilization. 3.3. Air pollution impacts of cooking energy consumption The predicted criteria air pollutants concentrations from fuel wood, kerosene and LPG combustion during household cooking are presented in Figs. 13. Though four energy carriers were considered in the study, air pollutants from electrical appliances were ignored because when cooking is conducted using electricity, they are minimal
1.00E+10 Log of Concentration (g/m3) 1.00E+08 1.00E+06 1.00E+04 1.00E+02 1.00E+00 PM SO2 NOX Pollutants CO TOCs

2.25 Litres of Water 500 g Yam 270 g Beans

Fig. 1. Air pollutants from fuel wood consumption for cooking.

Log of Concentration (g/m3)

1.00E+10 1.00E+08 1.00E+06 1.00E+04 1.00E+02 1.00E+00 PM SO2 NOX Pollutants

2.25 Litres of Water 500 g Yam 270 g Beans

CO

TOCs

Fig. 2. Air pollutants from kerosene consumption for cooking.

1.00E+10 Log of Concentration (g/m3) 1.00E+08 1.00E+06 1.00E+04 1.00E+02 1.00E+00

2.25 Litres of Water 500 g Yam 270 g Beans

PM

SO2

NOX Pollutants

CO

TOCs

Fig. 3. Air pollutants from LPG consumption for cooking.

[10]. Also pollution at the point of generation of electricity was not considered since the household is the boundary for this study. For the purpose of good representations of the air pollutants whose concentrations are relatively low, logarithm plots are employed. From these gures, it is evident that air pollutant is directly proportional to the quantity of fuel consumed in cooking, provided that all other factors remain constant. When 2.25 l of water was boiled (Table 1), the energy consumed (for all the four energy carries considered) was less than that consumed for cooking 500 g of yam (Table 2), while that consumed for cooking 270 g of beans (Table 3) was more than that consumed for either the water or the yam. Air pollutants concentrations from the fuel consumed for all the energy carriers follow this same trend. Emissions during the water boiling is less than that during the yam cooking while that from beans cooking is greater than those during either the water boiling or the yam cooking. Typically, when the water was boiled, particulate emission during open air burning of fuel wood was 4.33 106 mg but when the 500 g of yam was cooked, this became 6.92 106 mg while the beans cooking released 8.56 106 mg. For open air burning of fuel wood, the energy consumption for yam cooking was about 1.6 times that required for the water boiling while energy consumption for the beans cooking was about 1.98 times that required for the same water boiling. All the air pollutants (particulates, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and the total organic compounds) released during these cooking activities also follow the same trend. When Nigerias daily household energy demand of about 263 kg of coal equivalent per annum [11] is combined with an assumption of the use of about 50% of these for cooking, the common experience in the developing countries [12], the daily cooking energy consumption in the country per household would be about 0.8344 kg of fuel wood or 0.398 l of kerosene or 0.06 kg of LPG, depending on several factors considered favourable to users. From these, the anticipated range of daily air pollutants are: particulate matter2.71 1061.44 108 mg; sulphur dioxide1.13 1051.89 107 mg; oxides of nitrogen9.55 1062.04 109 mg; carbon monoxide2.39 1061.05 109 mg and total organic carbons2.67 1059.55 108 mg. On the average, these results suggest a possibility of signicant air pollutants contribution to the ambient environment during household cooking using any of these energy carriers except electricity. Since cooking activities take place in the kitchen (an indoor environment) most of the time, the health risk associated with air pollutants generated is very high. Smoke from fuel wood burning has been found to have negative impacts on human health. Indoor air pollution is believed to be a major contributor to respiratory ailment in developing countries. A number of studies link smoke from biofuels with acute respiratory infection, low birth weight, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer and eye infections [13]. The health risk associated with air pollutants generated during cooking

ARTICLE IN PRESS
1288 A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 Table 4 Urban and rural energy use pattern in Osun state, Nigeria Energy source Fuel wood Charcoal Kerosine LPG Electricity Total Urban pattern (%) 12 19 42 10 17 100 Rural pattern (%) 33 17 33 4 13 100

also depends on ventilation [14]; the higher the indoor ventilation, the higher the rate of removal of the air pollutants. This ventilation strength, however, is an indication of the possibility of the outdoor environment becoming a receptor of some of the air pollutants. Though emissions from fuel combustion during cooking may contain several air pollutants, those that are of great concern (i.e. criteria air pollutants) include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone and particulates. Direct impacts of these pollutants on human health have been established. Clinical evidence of increased sensitivity amongst asthma sufferers has been established for SO2 [15] while it was concluded that all cause mortality increase by 3.5% with every increase of 100 mg/m3 in 24-h average of NO2 [16]. Action of sunlight on NOX in the presence of VOCs produces ozone (this perhaps is one of the possible impacts of cooking on outdoor air quality). Some respiratory symptoms were attributed to increase in ozone level in the environment [17]. Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas, which can cause fatal asphyxiation [18]. Particulates from fuel combustion are usually ne particles (or PM2.5) and they typically contain soot, acid condensates, sulphates and nitrates as well as a major fraction of trace metals and other toxics present in the air [19]. Also, the emitted organic compounds may be in form of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which are strongly carcinogenic [20]. Impacts of air pollution on health can have short- or long-term effects [21]. A fundamental issue emanating from these air pollution impacts of the cooking energy is how Nigeria will make cleaner energy carrier available to her teaming population. Some control measures required for the reduction of air pollutants from combustion of rened petroleum products which include kerosene and LPG have been suggested [22]. Also, the deforestation effects caused by fuel wood burning are not desirable. The rate of deforestation in the country is very high, ranking ninth in the world and has reduced the forest from about 20% of its total land size to just 9.61% [23]. The continued rapid loss of forest cover would be ecologically, environmentally and economically disastrous for the nation. 3.4. Impact of energy policy in the cooking energy sector The results of the energy survey are shown in Table 4. The table shows the cooking energy use pattern in the urban and rural areas in Osun State, Nigeria. The energy use pattern in the urban area was 12%, 19%, 42%, 10% and 17% for fuel wood, charcoal, kerosene, gas and electricity, respectively; and in the rural area 33%, 17%, 33%, 4% and 13% for fuel wood, charcoal, kerosene, gas and electricity, respectively. It was observed that the dominant energy source for cooking in the rural areas is wood energy (fuel wood and charcoal) and it has been estimated that over 70% of the population live in the rural areas [24]. This is because wood energy is the cheapest energy source and is readily available. The current trend may be attributed to farming, the main economic

activity of rural areas in developing countries, which makes biomass available in abundance [25]. The dominant energy source for cooking in the urban areas is kerosene (42%) followed by wood energy (31%) and the least popular is LPG (10%). It was observed that the number of households in urban cities in the country presently cooking with charcoal is growing while the number cooking with kerosene and LPG is decreasing against the common practice in urban areas of the other African countries. In those countries, rened petroleum products are commonly used [26] and combination of these with electricity and other alternative energy technologies have been identied as an important way to reduce fuel wood consumption [27] and guarantee for the reduction of associated air pollutants in the households. This perhaps can be attributed to the on-going cooking energy crisis in Nigeria as identied in this study and elsewhere [28]. The results of this study show that the energy policy in the country has made no impact at all in the cooking energy sector by not reducing the consumption of wood energy and thereby not ensuring cleaner air for the country and by not providing alternative energy sources for cooking. The following strategies, which will reduce energy costs, improve energy efciency, reduce pollution from fuel wood burning and make other energy sources apart from fuel wood and charcoal available in the household sector, should be implemented without further delays: (1) The use of fuel wood should be discouraged. Even though it is the cheapest energy source, the energy efciency is low, the energy intensity is high and the atmospheric pollution and deforestation effects are the highest. Adoption of improved wood stoves to substitute open air burning of fuel wood should be vigorously encouraged and implemented. Improved kerosene stoves, which have efciency of about 60%, should be introduced and this could enjoy rapid market penetration [29]. There is need to introduce a vigorous tree planting program. (2) The utilization of natural gas for domestic purposes should be introduced. Natural gas is environmentally friendlier than fuel wood or kerosene and can be utilized for domestic cooking. Natural gas can be transported through pipelines and can be safely bottled as compressed gas and sold to households. In addition, the domestic consumption of natural gas will reduce drastically the ared gas in the Niger Delta oil producing area thereby decreasing the quantity and the environmental impact of greenhouse gases on the Nigerian ecosystem [28].

ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 1289

(3) Electricity should be generated using natural gas rather than coal or fuel oil. The abundant natural gas in the country, which is wasted by aring, can be used to generate more electricity. Electricity generation by coal or fuel oil introduces large amounts of pollutants into the air. (4) Renewable energy sources should be developed. Fuel wood and petroleum products are the major energy sources used in the homes at the moment. We cannot go on using fuel wood because of the environmental pollution problems, and petroleum products are fossil fuels that are exhaustible. Therefore, concerted efforts should be directed at developing alternative, non-conventional, renewable energy sources for both domestic and industrial consumption. This will increase the quantity and variety of energy sources in the market and will help to stabilize prices of energy. It will also make the social life of the people to be insulated from the negative effect of instability in the prices of petroleum products and electricity tariffs. Renewable energy sources such as solar and biogas energy is being used in developing and developed economies of the world. Solar equipment for domestic cooking purposes, which can be afforded by the average citizens, should be developed locally to tap from the abundant supply of solar energy in the country. Solar plants for industrial drying purposes are also possible. Action should therefore be taken to encourage local development and production of solar-operated devices for domestic and industrial applications. The raw materials for the fabrication of solar devices should have low import duties. Biogas technology, which produces gas with low environmental pollution, will also reduce both domestic and industrial wastes. Recommendations for removing the barriers [4] to implementation of the above strategies in Nigeria should include the following: (1) Sanctions should be clearly spelt out for violators of the energy policy. (2) The Energy Commission of Nigeria should be revitalized and empowered to enable it perform its overall coordination and monitoring of the energy policy. (3) The existing National Centres for Energy Research and Development should be strengthened and well funded for research and rapid dissemination of renewable energy technologies. (4) National Centres for Energy Research and Development and the Energy Commission of Nigeria should organize free training programs and seminars, demonstrations and pilot projects in energy conservation and renewable energy in each state of the country. (5) Information is a powerful tool for change leading to better choices of energy types. The citizens need to be informed of the need for energy efciency and conservation programs through media campaigns. (6) The government should completely disengage itself from ownership and management of energy related companies.

(7) Private companies should be encouraged to market solar equipment in Nigeria. Private companies should be encouraged to go into construction and erection of biogas plants in the country especially in the rural areas. 4. Conclusions Fuel wood is the least expensive energy source in Nigeria and because it is readily available it has become the dominant household energy source for cooking. This is a dangerous situation because of the pollution, deforestation and ecological problems associated with fuel wood burning. It is cheaper to cook with electricity than kerosene or gas. The energy consumption analysis data established in this study could be used with energy price data in future to calculate energy costs for cooking with the different energy sources as the market prices of the energy sources change with time. The energy intensity was found to be a comparative measure of efciency. The rate of heating affects the energy consumption efciency and the energy intensity. A good practice in the homes is to avoid high rate of heating foodstuffs so as to reduce the energy intensity and thereby increase the efciency of energy utilization. The impacts of air pollution from household cooking suggested a possibility of signicant air pollutants contribution to the ambient environment using any of the energy sources considered except electricity. The country needs to implement strategies, which will put into effect the goals of energy policy in the cooking energy sector. 5. Appendix Tables A1 and A2.
Table A1 Energy price dataa Energy source Energy price, 1995 Fuel wood Kerosene Gas (LPG) Electricity
a b b

per unit 2001 2.67/kg 20.00/l 120.00/kg 2.60/kwh 2004 3.75/kg 55.00/l 144.00/kg 4.00/kwh

1.05/kg 6.00/l 24.00/kg 0.50/kwh

Market Prices at Ile-Ife. Only electricity is sold at the ofcial price. Naira, Nigerian currency.

Table A2 Other data and conversions Caloric value of fuel wood Caloric value of kerosene Lower caloric value of cooking gas (LPG) Density of cooking gas Density of kerosene Conversion factor (1 kWh) Exchange rate: 1USA dollar 16 MJ/kg [30] 47 MJ/kg [30] 23 MJ/m3 [31] 0.50 kg/m3 [31] 780 kg/m3 [32] 3.6 103 kJ 140 Nigerian naira

ARTICLE IN PRESS
1290 A.N. Anozie et al. / Energy 32 (2007) 12831290 mortality: a combined analysis within the aphea project. Am J Epidemiol 1997;146:17785. Whittemore AS. Asthma and air pollution in the Los Angeles area. Am J Public Health 1980;70:68797. Badr O, Probert SD. Sinks and environmental impacts of atmospheric carbon monoxide. Appl Energy 1995;50:33972. Wei F, Teng E, Wu G, Hu W, Wilso WE, Chapman RS, et al. Ambient concentrations and elemental compositions of PM10 and PM2.5 in four Chinese cities. Environ Sci Technol 1999;33:4193288. WHO. Selected heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environmental health criteria 202. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1998. Maynard R. Key airborne pollutantsthe impact on health. Sci Total Environ 2004;9(13):3345. Sonibare JA, Akeredolu FA. Gaseous emissions from consumption of rened petroleum products in Nigeria and reduction strategies. In: Proceedings of 34th annual conference and general meeting of the Nigerian society of chemical engineers (NSChE), 2527 November, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria, 2004. p. 518. FEPA. Federal Environmental Protection Agency, Biological diversity in Nigeria, FEPA report, 1992. CBN/NISER. The impact of structural adjustment policy on Nigerian agricultural and rural life. A Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) report, 1992. Pokharel S. Spatial analysis of rural energy system. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 2000;14(8):85573. Karekezi S, Majoro L. Improving modern energy services for Africas urban poor. Energy Policy 2002;30:101528. Pokharel S. Promotional issues on alternative energy technologies in Nepal. Energy Policy 2003;31:30718. Sonibare JA, Akeredolu FA. Natural gas domestic market development for total elimination of routine ares in Nigerias upstream petroleum operations. Energy Policy 2006;34(6):74353. Dzioubinsbi O, Chipman R. Trends in consumption and production: household energy consumption. Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), United Nations, 1999. website /http://www.un.org/ esa/papers.htmS assessed on May 14, 2006. /www.kayelaby.npl.co.ukS assessed on March 14, 2006. Vision EngineerLPG properties. /www.visionengineer.com/env/ alt_lpg_prop.phpS assessed on March 14, 2006. Ministry of Technology. The efcient use of fuel, third ed. London: Her Majesty Stationery Ofce; 1969.

References
[1] FOS. Annual abstract of statistics. Lagos, Nigeria: Federal Ofce of Statistics; 1997. [2] Dioha IJ, Baba IM, Sambo AS. Potential of natural gas in Nigeria energy mix. Nigerian J Sol Energy 2003;14:15. [3] Sambo AS. Documentation of solar energy systems developed and ready for mass production. Sokoto, Nigeria: Sokoto Energy Research Centre; 1991. [4] Osuji RU. An evaluation of institutional framework for renewable energy education in Nigeria. Nigerian J Sol Energy 2003;14:258. [5] EPA. Compilation of air pollutant emission factors, vol. I: stationary point and area sources, fth ed. Research Triangle Park NC, USA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Air Quality Planning and Standards; 1995. [6] VITA. Testing efciency of wood burning cook stoves, provisional international standards. Volunteers in technical assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA, 1982. [7] Performance estimation of stoves. Website for environmentally sound biomass stoves, 1981. /www.cookstove.netS assessed on March 14, 2006. [8] Gerald F, Patricia M, Lloyd T. Stove and trees. London and Washington, DC: International Institute for Environment and Development; 1986. [9] Bhattacharya SC, Albina DO, Khaing AM. Effects of selected parameters on performance and emission of biomass-red cookstoves. Biomass & Bioenergy 2002;23:38795. [10] Morawska L, Zhang JJ. Combustion sources of particles. 1. Health relevance and source signatures. Chemosphere 2002;49:104558. [11] Obueh J. Using a household energy technology to promote small scale enterprises in rural communities in Nigeriathe Egaga stove experience. Boiling Point 2001;47:289. [12] Pokharel S. Energy economics of cooking in households in Nepal. Energy 2004;29:54759. [13] World Health Organisation WHO. Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel. Geneva, 1992. [14] Jungbluth N, Kollar M, Kob V. Life cycle inventory for cooking, some results for the use of liqueed petroleum gas and kerosene as cooking fuels in India. Energy Policy 1997;25(5):47180. [15] DOH, Quantication of the effects of air pollution on health in the United Kingdom, Department of Health, UK, 1998. p. 78. [16] Touloumi G, Katsouyanni K, Zmirou D, Schwartz J, Spix C, Ponce de Leon A, et al. Short-term effects of ambient oxidant exposure on [17] [18] [19]

[20]

[21] [22]

[23] [24]

[25] [26] [27] [28]

[29]

[30] [31] [32]