JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL

RESEARCH, VOL. 88, NO. B4, PAGES 3531-3542, APRIL 10, 1983

On the Theory of Electromagnetic Inductionin the Earth

by Ocean Currents
ALAN D. CHAVE

Institute of Geophysics andPlanetary Physics, Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California at San Diego,La Jolla California 92093

The theory of electromagnetic inductionis extendedto the casewhere the driving electric currentsmust be considered explicitly. Differential equations for independent poloidalmagnetic (PM) and toroidalmagnetic (TM) modes are deriveddirectly from the governing quasistatic form of the Maxwellequations. They are applied to induction by motionalsource fieldsin the oceanby derivingGreen functions for the two modesin a constant depthocean. PM and TM modesare shownto behavein very differentwaysas a functionbothof the oceanvelocity fielddynamics and of the electricalconductivity structureof the earth. TM modesare closelyassociated with the
Coriolis force deflection of water currents and with coastline effects that limit the source currents to

the oceanbasin. PM modesare inducedby nondivergent electriccurrentsthat are fully contained within the ocean. Surfacegravitywavesand a Kelvin wave are examinedin detail. The Kelvin wave result of Larsen (1968) is reevaluated,and becausethe upper lithospherewas modeled as an insulator,significant errorsin his magnetic induction values,caused by neglect of the TM mode, are revealed. The sensitivity of the TM mode magneticfield to lithospheric electrical conductivity suggests the useof tidalinduced electromagnetic fieldsto probethe earth'sconductivity structure.
INTRODUCTION

In this paper, the theory of electromagnetic induction is generalized to includethe casewhere the driving electric
currents must be consideredexplicitly, extending the work

Electromagnetic fieldsare inducedin the earth by external, ionosphericand magnetospheric, current systemsand have long been used to investigatethe electricalconductivity structure of the earth by the geomagneticdepth sounding or magnetotelluric methods. An additional natural source, the dynamo interaction of ocean currents with the ambient geomagneticfield, is important in the
world oceans. Since the crust and mantle of the earth are

of Price[1950] and Weaver[1970]. For inductionby fluid

dynamo action (7 x F), no assumptions about the physics

of the velocityfield (e.g., incompressibility) are required,
thus the result is more general than earlier work. Differential equations governing independent poloidal

magnetic (PM) and toroidal magnetic (TM) modes in the

ocean and earth are derived from first principlesby divid-

electricalconductorsthat couple to the ocean both conductively and inductively,observations of low-frequency electromagneticfields in the oceancontaininformation about both the electrical conductivity of the earth and the circulation of the oceans.

ing the inducingelectriccurrentinto partsthat drive each

mode. Green function solutions for an ocean of uniform

Electromagnetic fields producedby oceanflowsare disand magnetic cussed by Cox et al. [1971], Sanford [1971], and Larsen electricalproperties(electricalconductivity of the earth, and computational methodsto [1973]. Solutions of the Maxwell equations for surface permeability) gravitywaveswere obtainedby Weaver [1965] for an handle any layered or continuouslyvarying profile are infinitely deep oceanand were extendedto long waves in a given. The Green functionsare appliedto induction by finite depth ocean by Larsen [1971]. The surfaceand surfacegravity waves and a Kelvin wave model of the
is the presinternal wave problem was also investigated by Podney tides. An important result of the calculations

depth are then developedby including appropriateboundary conditions on the seasurfaceand seafloor. A feature of the result is the use of separate PM and TM mode response functionsto representthe effect of the medium

[1975], who presented a generalmethodfor solvingfluid ence of boundary layers at the seafloorand sea surface induction problemsusing a magneticvector potential when that profoundlyinfluencethe modal structureof the elecfieldswithin the ocean. In particular,the TM the flow is incompressible. All of these studies indicate tromagnetic that the inducedelectromagnetic fieldsare small, amount- magneticfield must vanish at the sea surface, and the ing to fractions of a/xV/m or a few nanoteslas (nT) near vertical scale over which this occurs depends on the horof self the sea surface. At lower frequencies, tidal signalshave izontal spatialscaleof the flow and the importance been detected in both seafloor- and island-based elecand mutual induction. The tidal induction problem of

tromagnetic data [Larsen,1968]. Low-frequency, meso- Larsen [1968] is reexamined,and his neglectof the TM
scaleand large-scale, ocean-induced electromagnetic fields mode by modelingthe ocean as a thin sheet with insulatis shownto causelargeerrorsin the calcuare discussed by Cox [1980, 1981], who emphasized the ing boundaries
influence of shallow electricalconductivitystructure on the
observed fields.

lated seafloorelectromagnetic fields.

GOVERNINGEQUATIONS

Copyright1983 by the American Geophysical Union.

Paper number 3B0024.
0148-0227/83/003B-0024505.00
3531

Modal Structure of the Electromagnetic FieM

In a homogeneous, one-dimensional electricalmedium, any electromagnetic field may be separatedinto two

3532

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BY OCEAN CURRENTS

independent modes about an arbitrary direction in space usually taken as that in which the medium electricalproperties vary and labeled the z axis. The poloidalmagnetic or PM mode is marked by electric current loops encircling the z axis and coupledto each other, and to the source, by mutual induction. The toroidal magnetic or TM mode consists of current loops in planes containing the z axis which cut acrossthe changingelectricalpropertiesand are coupled by both self and mutual induction. Electric charges,which may be associated with the sourceand with gradientsof electrical conductivity, affectonly TM modes. PM and TM modes produce, respectively, no electric or magnetic fields in the direction of the z axis. Since PM modes are an inductive phenomenon, they vanish in the limit of zero frequency,while DC currentsare the limiting
case for TM modes. PM and TM modes correspond to solutions of the first and second kind of Price [1950] and are called E polarization and B polarization modes by

where and are the induced electric fieldandmagnetic

induction,/z is the magnetic permeability, o- is the electri-

calconductivity, and' is thesource electric current.In

the earth the magnetic permeability has the free space.

value/z0 everywhere exceptin certaintypesof ore bodies.

For generality,it will be left arbitraryin the derivations. A conceptthat is often confusedis the role of electric charge under the quasistatic approximation. The total

electric current in (3) isY---o + o-E,and a consequence

of the neglect of displacement currents is that /'is nondivergent,meaningthat the time rate of changeof electric chargeis zero. Nevertheless,electricchargesare associated with conductivitygradientsand sourcecurrents, but
the electric currents which move these chargesproduce no

magnetic effects (0t- 0 in (2)). Theelectrostatic fields

that they produce are not small. Backus [1982] givesan
elegant discussionof the quasistaticapproximation as a singularperturbationproblem. He showedthat the quasistaticelectricfield is an exponentiallyweighted,local run-

Larsen[1973] and Preisendorfer et al. [1974]. PM and TM

modes are sometimes labeled transverseelectric and mag- ning mean of (V x )//zcr, with an averaging time netic modes, respectively; this usage is avoided here T = /o-, where is the electricpermittivity. For the conbecauseof different meaningsfor those terms in explora- ducting oceansand earth, T rangesfrom picoseconds to

tion geophysics. Price[1950]showed that onlyPM modes nanoseconds,and the averaging effect is unimportant
can be induced in the earth by external current systems, unlessperiodsof this order are of interest in the physical but sourceswithin the earth may produceany combination problem. When extendingthe electromagnetic fields to
of them.

the atmosphere above the earth, errorscan be significant,

as T --, oo when o- --, 0. Solutionsto the quasistaticequations can still be obtained, but they do not correspondto reality.

PM and TM modes are important conceptsbecausethey

is made. In effect, this linearizes the problem, and the approximationis not always valid. For example, in the earth's core the source current is the ' x/7 motional term, but the induced magneticfield is sufficientlylarge Preisendorfer et al. [1974] and Podney [1975] discuss that the resulting Lorentz force will affect the velocity some of the characteristics of the water velocity fields field. PM and TM mode solutionsare obtained by expanding which produce PM and TM modes in the ocean. Seawater moving in vertical planescontainingthe propagationdirec- the field componentsand source current into irrotational tion of a wavelike disturbance produces PM modes, while and nondivergent parts using the Helmholtz decomposivelocity componentsout of this plane produceTM modes. tion theorem. A Cartesian coordinatesystemwith z posiThis suggeststhat TM modes are intimately associated tive upward is used throughout this paper; extension to with the Coriolis deflectionof a moving body on the rotat- spherical coordinates is straightforward. Using (1), the ing earth and are significantonly for flows with charac- magneticinduction may be written. teristic periods comparableto that of the rotation of the = v x v x + v x (II.;) (4) earth. Exceptionsto this occur when the velocity field is

respond in very different ways to conductive structure. Becausethey include no electric currents in the z direction, PM modes are less sensitive to low-conductivity zones than to high-conductivityzones, couplingacrossthe former by mutual induction. By contrast, the vertical electric currents associated with TM modes are deflected by electric charges that build up on low-conductivityinterfaces and cannot penetrate them effectively, while highconductivitymaterial presentslessof an obstacle.

Equations(1)-(3) can be solvedfor separate PM and TM modesif the assumption that the induced electromag

neticfields and/ do not modify the source current T'

compressible, as in acoustic waves [Webband Cox, 1982]

and when discontinuitiesin the source electric current, as occur at coastlines,are included in the model. Derivationof the Equations
The approximations to the Maxwell equations used to study electromagnetic induction in the oceans are dis-

Note that the Hertz vector separation, as used by Weaver

[1970], is obtained by replacing H with o-H in (4). The

source current is expressible as the sum of its vertical component, a tangentially irrotational part, and a divergenceless part

yo= .zO + VnT+ V x (Y.;)

(5)

cussed by Sanford [1971 ] and Larsen[1973]. All electric

current terms except for the conduction current are neglected,giving a model of the quasistatic type, yielding

where the subscripth refers to the horizontal components. Differential equations for and II are then derived by

v.//=0

(1)

substituting (4) into (2) and (3), separating (5) into PM

and TM mode parts, and assuming that/z and o- vary only
in the z direction

v xE+

=o

(2)

v x

(3)

V2 _/xo'Ot = -/xY

(6)

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BYOCEAN CURRENTS

3533

in (1)-(3) and (13), justifyingthe assumptions usedear(7)

lier.

where the electricfield is given by

The source currentdecomposition (5) and (9)-(10) can be relatedto (13) by usingstandard vectorcalculus. The
vertical source current is

E = -V x (,,I,) + V (,II//zo--. T/o-)while II is associated with TM modes.

(8)

Jp= tr('nxje n)
while the current functions become

(14)

From (4) and (8), it is clearthat represents PM modes,

The scalarfunctions T and Y in (5) are solutionsof the Poissonequations

h2y = o.(n. n-}-n.n) Fz-- o.(n. n)V z

V2T= tr(Vnx'n)' Jz + tr(VnXz)' Jen
where the vertical and horizontal

(15)
(16)

=-(v x 75 Vnet -- V yo

(9) (10)

components are

separated due to their generallydifferent spatialscalesin

at continent-ocean boundaries, then conditions on (9) and derivatives of . For large-scale, barotropic flows the (10) are required. Applying the divergencetheorem in verticalvelocity termsin (15) and (16) can be neglected. two dimensions to (10) yieldsthe boundary condition Then PM modes are produced by the horizontally divergent part of the water velocityfield and by lateralchanges in the verticalmagneticfield, while TM modesare induced where is the outward unit normal to the discontinuity by the horizontal velocity field interactingwith the horizontalgeomagnetic field and by the verticalcomponent of edge. From (5), the PM modefunction mustsatisfy fluid vorticityinteracting with the verticalmagneticfield. oY -- 0 (12) An immediate consequence for quasigeostrophic flow,
on the boundary. This means that the PM mode source 1981], is the dominanceof TM modes. For small-scale current V x Y must form closed loops within the ocean flows, the full expressions in (15)-(16) are necessary, basins,an unsurprisingresult in view of its divergenceless althoughthe first part of (15) is unimportantwhen
form.

If lateral discontinuities in o arepresent, aswould occur H

the ocean andthe approximation IOz/l

H << 1, where

is the ocean depth, has been used to eliminate vertical

O,T-fn .

(11)

which is nearly horizontallynondivergent [Hendershott,

At any horizontal boundary, the usual conditionson the

k >> Ivn/l,

where k is the appropriate hydroGREEN FUNCTIONS

tangentialelectricand magneticfields, the normal magnetic induction, and the total normal current must hold. The necessary requirementsfor the functions and II are

dynamic wave number.

continuity of , Oz//x, H//x, and OzH//xo-- T/tr. Since

the boundaryconditionsare not coupled, the PM and TM

Green function solutions of (11) and (12) are useful because the electromagnetic fields produced by any modes givenby (4)-(8) are independent. oceanic velocity field can be calculated from them by The governing equations (4)-(10) are completely gen- integration. The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system eral since no requirement, except for the linearization with z positive upward is used; where necessary,the horalready mentioned, is made on the source current. PM izontal coordinates are x east and y north to conformwith modes areproduced by the divergenceless partof oceanographic practice.The seasurface is located at z = 0
while TM modes are driven by the correspondingdiver-

gent part, and (7) containsconductivity gradientterms constant. The time dependenceof all variablesis taken to that indicate the presenceof electric charge effects. The be proportional to e-it,and the response to an arbitrary ionospheric inductionproblemtreatedby Weaver[1970] time function can be constructed using the Fourier and othersis obtainedfrom (4)-(8) by settingY, T, and transform. Jz to zero and matching a solutionof the LaplaceequaThe PM mode Green function satisfies
tion, which is usuallyassumedto hold in air, at the earth's surface for the appropriatesourcefield morphology. The TM mode function H vanishes as a consequence of the boundaryconditions. For motional induction in the sea, the sourcecurrent is

and the seafloor is at z---H,

which is assumed to be

V2 + ito/zo' =
with the boundaryconditions

(17)

Y -- o-(Vx

(13)

q, + x/ Oq,=0 q,- A/ Oq,= 0

8 is the Dirac functions

z=0

z = -H

(18)

where is the ocean velocity fieldand ff is the geomagneticinduction, with Otff= Wxff = W.ff = 0. The velo- where
city field must satisfythe appropriatehydrodynamic equations. Coupling of the velocity and induced electromagnetic fields is negligiblesince the induced magneticinduc-

delta function.

The two response

X=-q I=0
(19)

tion IZtl <<

andthe Lorentzforceon the waterparti-

cles is many orders of magnitude smaller than hydrodynamicbodyforces. This removespossible nonlinearities

A=

3534

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BY OCEAN CURRENTS

containall of the information on the permeabilityand conductivity structure above and below the oceannecessary to solve (17)and (18). The double spatialFourier transform pair

with the boundary conditions

II=0
z=0
K

H- K0zH=/z-- T
by

(26)
Z Im

---;f dx dy ei(x+Y) f
(20)

wherethe response function,analogous to (18), is given

1 ff-oo dde-(x+(Y)f f = (2rr)

equation and is convenient for the solution of many hydrodynamic problems.
large-scale ones, the ocean may be considered to have a

K=o-7ff lz___.

trII

(27)

is usefulbecause it changes (17) to an ordinary differential The inhomogeneous boundary condition in (26) leadsto a
surface term in the Green function solution of (25). This is easily seen by performing the substitutionII -- II + ,

form of For many oceanicelectromagnetic problems, especially where II satisfies(25) and the homogeneous
(26), and is addedto satisfythe full boundary condiuniform conductivity o'0. Exceptionsto this may occur tions. The solution follows the procedureof the last secwhen the thermocline, where conductivitychanges rapidly, tion to yield

(28)

is of interest, as in the examination of small-scaleinternal waves. Taking the permeability as its free spacevalue and

where

applyingthe method of variation of parameters to (17)

gives
o'0 o'0

(29)

g,(z,z') =- e i(x'+y') e +Rt.

-lz-z'l

.PMo-2flHo-B(z+z')

2/3(1 r, PMD PM,,-2flH'

+Ra....

.PM ofl(z+z')_l_D.PMD.PMo-2flHolz-z'l

a -.t. ,. ,.

(21)

where the reflection coefficients are

and
o

/xo

/xo

dz' gn (z.z') (.)f-Oz' +p.0 (z) z=-.

(22)
where

(30)

/xo

/xo

E(z) = K/o'oe-(H+z)--e-(H-z) (31)

flK/o'0+l I+RtTMe -2H

f12=2 + 2_ io/z0o'0

(23) Note that TM modes are perfectly reflected with a phase

inversion at the sea-air interface, accounting for the difference in form between (21) and (28). There are two sea-air and sea-earth interfaces, and the reflection sourcesfor TM modes in (30): the sourcecurrents on the coefficients (22) determine what fraction of the elecright-hand sideof (7) and the discontinuity in OzII at the tromagneticfields remain in the ocean. seafloor. The former have characteristic length scalesof

The terms in (21) represent a seriesof reflections at the

within the ocean is

The solution of (6) for any source function at any point order the depth of the ocean, while the latter vary as the

inverse horizontal wave number of the oceanflow produc-

surfaceterm is dominant, as can easily be verified by scale -----tXo fH dz' g.(z,z')(z') (24) analysis of (28)-(31).

ing the currents. For large-scale flows (kH << 1), the

wherethe spatial dependence in (24) is recovered through

(2o).
The TM mode Green function satisfies

Green functions for an ocean of varying conductivity

similarto (21) and (28) can easilybe obtained by replacing the exponential terms with the appropriatebasis functions, which must be calculatednumerically. Such Green functions may be of importance in the study of internal

V2H+ tztrOz(OzH/tztr) + io/zo-H = 8(:g-:g') (25)

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BYOCEAN CURRENTS

3535

(flh)/flj, 0 = waves in the thermocline, since the electricalconductivity where qj = Ixj/flj, Qj = Ixj coth of the jth varies significantlyover distancessimilar to the hydro- Rj = rj coth(fljhj)/flj, hj is the thickness layerfrom the surface, andflj is givenby (23) with dynamicscalelength.
and r0replaced by/xj and rj. The sequence terminates
Calculationof the Response Functions
in a half space. From (33) and (34) it is clear that the magnetic perroles in their effect on PM and TM modes. It is only

play complementary The PM and TM mode response functions(18) and meabilityand electricalconductivity
(27) contain all of the information on the structureof the earth needed to calculate the reflection coefficients(22) and (29) and the electromagnetic fields. Self inductionin

because/x is nearlyinvariant in the earthandatmosphere,

while r varies over many orders of magnitude,that the

the oceanin (22) and (29) is represented by the fl term; in the absence of self induction,fl can be replaced by the
horizontal wave number. If coupling to the earth is not

different formsseenin (21), (28), and (31) are obtained.

When the earth is modeled as a conductinghalf space, the reflectioncoefficients(22) and (29) reduceto

included in the model,the lowerreflection coefficient (29)

is -1 and all of the TM mode energyis trappedwithin the
ocean. This does not hold for the PM mode since induc-

M= R u-- (fl0-fll)/(fl0+fll)
(35)

tive couplingof horizontal currents acrossan insulating Rz TM---(rrlfl0--rr0fll)/(rrlfl0+rr0fll) region is possible. Assumingthat reflections off of the conducting iono- wherek = /2+tj2 and the suffixon fl refersto the

sphere maybe neglected, the firstof (18) is givenby

ocean(0) or earth (1) conductivity. Terms like (35) are commonly obtained in the analysisof terrestrial radio

X --

/x0

(32)

wave propagation.

IntegratedGreenFunctions For continuously changing electrical media, suitable For barotropic flow, the watervelocityis uniform across transformationsexist to convert the homogeneousforms of the Fourier transforms of (6) and (7) to nonlinear the water column. For this case, the Green functions (21) and (28) may be integrated directlyto yield Ricatti equations

G,(z) =

PM + (RM_l)(etZ+R[Me-2te-tz) (Rt. -1) (e-t(+Z)+RMe-t(-z))

2
PM PM -2fill 2fl2 (1-RA Rt e )

(36)

Ga(z) --

(RM---1) (e-t(+Z)-e-t(-z)) _ 2(etZ +RJMe-2t e-tz)

f12

(37)

/x0zA + f12A2=/x 2

r0z K+ f12K2 = r 2

In both (36) and (37), the first terms are independent of depth, while the second termsrepresent boundary layers (33) whichare importantnear the seasurfaceand seafloor. In

the absence of self and mutual induction, the surface These equationsare valid in any source-freeregion and boundary layerhas a width of 0(k-l), wherek is the can be integrated numerically by standard methods. This
form finds use in the formulation of linear inverse prob-

hydrodynamic wavenumber. For the inductive case,the widthsof theseregions depends in a complex wayon the lems usingthe Backus-Gilbert formalism[e.g., Parker, wave number and frequency nature of the flow and, 1977] and is often computationallyfaster than recursive through the reflection coefficients, on the conductivity
layered algorithms.

If the earth is modeledas a stackof layersof varying similar in form to (36) and (37). Both (31) and (37) vanthickness,permeability,and conductivity,recursionrela- ish at the seasurface as a consequence of (26). tions for (18) and (27) can be obtained. These are conIt is instructiveto examine the caseflH << 1, which venientlyexpressed as continuedfractions corresponds to large spatial scale, low-frequency flow where the oceanappears to be shallow. For this limit, the A=Qi+ first elementof (30) may be neglected, and (31), (36), Qi+Q2+q]-Q:

structure of the earth. Note that the surface term (31) is

and their vertical derivatives may be approximated by

QN-I-'QN
(34)
K=RI+

expanding the exponential termsto firstorder. From (4)

and (8), the horizontal electric and verticalmagnetic fields are proportional to G, and 0z, while the horizontalmagnetic and vertical electric fields are proportional to OzG, and . The former are independentof depth in the water

r-R Ri+R2+r-R

column, while the latter changein amplitudeand nearly

RN-I+RN

reverse theirphase overthe same regi'on. Thisis reminis-

3536

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION SY OCEAN CURRENTS

cent of the thin sheetapproximation [Bullardand Parker,

1971] where the horizontal electric field is the same on both sidesof the sheet, but the horizontal magneticfield undergoesa step change. This means that the thin sheetlike approximationmay easily be introducedin the present form of the induction equations.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION BY OCEAN FLOWS

ksinhkH

-otxoo'o [F,sinhk (z+H)-iFzcoshk (z+H) ]

SurfaceGravity Waves

wherethe x and t dependence in (38) have beendropped. The drivingterm on the right-hand sideof (39) represents electriccurrentsflowinghorizontallyin alternatedirections along the peaks and troughs of the wave, closed at

In this section the electromagnetic fields produced by infinity, and decaying exponentially with depth in the surface gravity waves, previously treated by Weaver watercolumn. Solutionof (39) with (21) and (24) yields

x -- 2 kflsinh kH
z= 2 kflsinh kH

12tSsinh k (z + H) _

k (RIM--1)(e-(n+Z)-RPMe-(n-z)) + A l(e"Z+RMe-2"ne -"z)

x

t, PMo PM.,-2flH
A x L t:

(40)

Fz [21coshk(z+H) +
where

fl (RIM- 1)(e-O(n+Z)+Rme-O(n-z)) + ,42(eZ+R'Me -2ne-z)

1 - RPMRPMe -2n

(41)

[1965], Larsen[1971], and Podney [1975], will be derived.

The wave motion to be consideredis restrictedto frequencies much higher than the rotation frequencyof the earth, so that the Coriolis force may be neglected. The effect of
continent-ocean boundaries is deferred to the next section.

.4 = (flsinhkH+kcosh kH) - R; M(flsinh kH- kcosh kH)

.42= R M(flcoshkHksinhkH)- (flcoshkH+ksinhkH)

and spatial variation of the geomagneticfield will be and the Fx and Fz terms are written separately. These with the quasistatic approxineglected. The oceanis assumedto be an incompressible, solutionsare exact, consistent inviscid fluid, and the fluid velocity is small so that non- mation. The first terms in (40) and (41) displaythe linear terms in the Navier-Stokes equations can be exponentialdecayof the electromagnetic fieldswith depth, dropped. Then the velocity field 'P'can be derived from a causedby the baroclinicnature of the water velocityfield, stream function which satisfiesthe Laplace equation, while the secondterms are a result of the boundarycondiwith sea surface (z = 0) boundary conditions tions. The electromagneticfields may be obtained from

0t -I- g = 0, 0t -- 0z = 0, and a seafloor(z = -H) (4) and (8). The magnetic field produced by eachof Fx boundary conditionOz4 = 0 [Phillips, 1977], where is and Fz is circularly polarized since the water motion folthe surfacedisplacement and g is the acceleration of gravity. For waves progressing in the x direction with a unit

lows ellipticalpathsconfinedto the x-z plane.

Larsen [1971] providesa thoroughdiscussion of the

effects of self and mutual induction on surface wave elec-

(1 m) surface height,the velocity components (u,v,w) in the (x,y,z) directions are

tromagneticfields, and only an outline will be given here. For the deep ocean, electromagnetic induction by both Fx
and Fz is comparable at periods under a minute since u

u-- ocoshk(z+H) ei(_o,t)

sinhkH
v--O

(38)
sinhkH

and w are of similarsize, while at longerperiodsinduction by Fx becomessmall as the water motion is predominantly
horizontal. Mutual induction with the earth is

w---iosinhk(z+H) ei(_o,t)

insignificant for short-periodwavesbecausethe fields are very weak near the seafloor; this can be approximated in

(40) and (41) by settingR'Mto zero. The infiniteocean modelof Weaver [1965]is obtained by alsolettingH -- oo with the dispersionrelation connectingangular frequency and expandingthe self inductionterm fl in a first-order << k2. For wind waves,even o and hydrodynamic wave number k given by Taylor seriesfor o/x0r0 self inductionis small, and fl k. oo 2 -- gk tanhkH. Figure 1 showsvertical profilesof the magneticfield By substituting (38) into (5) and (10) and using(7), it components from 1 m high, 5-s period wind waves and can be shownthat no inducedTM modesexist (II--0), sinceboth the drivingand surface termsin (30) vanish. 10-s period swell. Exponential decay of the fields is
Since Coriolis and boundary effectshave been neglected, apparentas well as prominent boundaryeffectsat the sea

this is expected. From (8), the TM mode electricfield

within the ocean is nonzero since T does not vanish.

surface and smaller ones at the seafloor.

Since self and

mutual induction are not dominant, the boundary layers

These terms represent the electrostaticfields required to

ensure that the total electric current is zero.

have thicknesses near k-1, or 6 m for wind wavesand

25 m for swell. The cusp near the surfacein the horizontal component indicates a phase reversal. Above this

The PM mode potential is a solution of

CHAVE: EM INDUCTIONBY OCEAN CURRENTS

3537

point the magnetic field is circularlypolarized and retrograde, and the sensereversesbelow it. Model power spectrafor wind waves and swell-induced electromagnetic fields can be obtained by combining

3OO

I-

200
,,,
-r

oo

100
0

,,,

(40)-(41), which give the field amplitudeper unit wave

height, with the Pierson-Moskowitz amplitude variance

-100
0 3000 6000

'30'00' '60'00

spectrum [Phillips, 1977]

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

>

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (krn)

1.0

E((o) -- 2rag2' e -0'74((/(m)-4 (42) (o5

with (omthe peak frequency, where the phase velocity of the waves equals that of the wind producingit, and a is a semi-empirical, dimensionless constant in the range 0.001-0.006. The Pierson-Moskowitz spectrumrepresents the statistical effects of complex, nonlinear wave-wave interactionsand wave breaking. The advantage of com9 .s
,.-' 1.0

J o.s
9 0.6
,-7 0.4

_(2 0.5
0.0
0 3000 6000

o_ 0.2

o.o

' ' '30'00''60'00

'" OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (krn)

spectraare independent of wave height and depend only from a Kelvin wave propagating north alongthe Californiacoast on the distribution of wave periods. Theoretical spectra at 30N with a surfaceheight of 1 m at the coastline. The ocean conductivity is 3.2 S m-1, are containedin the work by Chaveand Cox [1982] and depthis taken as 4 km, the seawater

bining (42) with (40)-(41) is that the electromagnetic(rightpanels)field amplitude and phase observed at the seafloor

Fig. 2. The horizontalelectric (left panels)and vertical electric

are qualitatively like thoseobtained by Fraser[1966].

Kelvin Wave

and the mantle consistsof a 100 km insulator overlying a 0.05

Sm -1 half space. The horizontal fields areseparated intooffshore

(solid)andlongshore (dashed) components.

with astronomicaldriving forces whose form is well detertrapped,nondispersive, analytic simplicity and their consistency with coastalobser- mined. Kelvin wavesare coastally wave solutionsof the linearized shallow vationsof sea level [Hendershott, 1981]. Due to the low free progressive frequency of the tides, the Coriolis force plays a prom- water equations inent part in the dynamics, and both PM and TM mode Otu -- fv = --gOx contributions to the electromagnetic fieldsare expected. (43) Otv Jr' fu =--gCy Tidal flow is governed by the Laplace tidal equations
Kelvin waves are often used as tide models due to their

8t + H(OxU+OyV)= 0

MAONETICFIELD (nT)
10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1
120

where ; is the sea surfacedisplacement, H is the constant oceandepth, and f--211sink is the Coriolis parameter, with 11 the rotation frequency of the earth and X the lati-

tude. For fixed X, (43) are physical descriptions on a flat

f plane which is tangent to the earth at the given latitude. The solution for a coastlinealong x--0, with the ocean occupying x < 0,-H < z < 0, is given by

40

---ek(f/o,)x ei(ky-(ot)
/ /
u=O

v= gk
MAGNETICFIELD (nT)
10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1
120
z

(44)

w= -i(o( +1)(;
for a unit (1 m) surfacedisplacement, and the hydrodynamic dispersion relation is (o 2 -- gHk2 connecting angular frequency (o and hydrodynamic wave number k for

'

40

shallow water waves. The coordinates (x,y) refer to the offshoreand longshoredirections. The surfacedisplace-

ment and longshore velocity both decay exponentially offshoreat a rate that is dependent on both water depth Fig. 1. Vertical profilesof the inducedhorizontal(top) and verti- and latitude, while there is no offshore velocity commay be neglected cal (bottom) magnetic fields produced by onemeterhighsurface ponent. The verticalvelocitycomponent gravitywaves of 5-s (solidlines)and 10-s(dashed lines)periodin sincew/v = O(kH) << 1. The longshore wavelength is a 100-m-deep ocean. The geomagnetic field has an amplitudeof quite large: for a water depth of 4 km at the semidiurnal 3 x 104nT, and the ocean conductivity is 3.2S m-] while the period, k-1 -- 1350kin. It is convenient to re-express earth conductivity is 0.05S m-1. Horizontal lines are drawnto
o

,,'

indicate the seafloor at 0 m and the sea surface at 100 m.

The

(44) in geographic coordinates, denoted by primes,for a

v'= v cosa). The

cusp in the top panel seen near the sea surface indicates a 180

coastline striking at a clockwiseangle a with respect to

changein the phaseof the horizontalmagneticfield.

geographic north (u'= v sin a,

3538

CHAVE: EM INDUCTIONBY OCEAN CURRENTS

cn 100
0

transform of e.
100

The offshore variation is recovered

,.,
i i

< -100

-lOO

using(20), while the longshore and time dependences are identicalto that of (44). The electromagnetic fieldsare easily obtained by applying (4) and (8).

3000 6000

'3000 ' "6000

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

The assumptionthat the conductivity of the continent occupying x > 0, -H < z < 0 is identicalto that of the oceanis implicitin (48) and (49). While this is not a realistic model of the earth since continental material has a

=12

I
8

low electricalconductivity, the electromagnetic fields are

insensitive to the nature of the coast-continent transition

<

3000

6000

3000 6000

at offshore distancesmuch larger than a few times the depth of the ocean. Mathematical proof of this is presented in the appendix. Since significant differences between the electrical conductivity under the oceans and

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (kin)

continents probablyextendsto depthsof 10-100 km, the

real zone over which (48)-(49) are in error is somewhat

Fig. 3.' The magnetic fieldcomponents for the modelof Figure2.

See Figure 2 captionfor details.

largerthan a few kilometers, but it is not nearlyas largeas an inversehydrodynamic wavelength k-1. Figures2 and 3 showthe electricand magneticfieldsas
a function of offshore distance from a Kelvin wave of 1-m

geomagnetic field is assumed to be geocentric with the two

components Fy'= F0cosh, Fz'= -2F0sinh, where F0 3.7 x 10 4nT is the geomagnetic fieldstrength. Sincepointsnear the coastline(i.e., within one hydrodynamic wavelength) are of special interest, the boundary conditions on (9) and (10) given by (11) and (12) must
be usedin separating the sourcecurrentterms, to yield
i oJo-ogFz

surface displacementat the shore of a 4-km-deep ocean propagatingnorth along the California coastat 30N. The earth conductivitymodel consistsof a nearly insulating

(5 x 10 -7 S m-l), 100-km-thick layer overlying a 0.05 S m-1 half space.The deepconductivity is like that
observedin magnetotelluric experiments[Filloux,1981].
The hydrodynamic parametersand conductivitymodel are

putational method was totally different. Larsen invoked ---f2_oo2 [ek(f/a')x--elc] (45) the thin sheet approximationfor the ocean, modeled the o9 o-ogFz

similarto thoseusedby Larsen[1968], although his com-

f2-co2

ek(f/,,,)X_ekX

earth as an insulator overlying a superconducting mantle

(46)

jz o = trogkFy'sinot ekCr/,,,)x

(47)by different choice of

at 150km depth, made the continentan insulator,and solvedthe Maxwell equations numerically.The solutions of Figures2 and 3 are nearlyidenticalto thoseof Figure6 of Larsen [1968]except for a 180 phase difference caused

horizontal coordinate orientation. The induced TM mode is zero, but a large electrostatic

the electricfield and wherethe y and t dependence of (44) is understood.The term given by (46) in (8) dominates vertical source current vanishesfor north-southstriking swamps the induced PM mode component. The vertical coastlines.In the absenceof rotation (f--0), the TM modesource currents do not vanish,and (46) in particular

exists asa consequence ofthecoastline discontinuity in 70

and (11)-(12). Thismeans thattheelectromagnetic fields induced by shallow waterwaves(e.g.,tsunamis) propagating alongthe coastline exhibit exponential offshoredecay, a fact notedpreviously by Larsen[1968].
Taking Fourier transforms in the x coordinate of
w
'r

300
200 100
0

100
0

-100
!

(45)-(47), substituting into (21)-(24) and (28)-(31), andusing(36)-(37) gives the PM andTM modepotential
functions

3000

6000

6'

'o'oo' 6ooo

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

2.5

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (kin)

> 1.0

= -i(otxoo'ogFz' f2-o02 [k(f/)-t-i 1 1

fI = --/xoo'og
(k(f /)-Fi'rl)

G.(z)

(48)

'2.0

1.,5
1.o

3 0.8
5 0.6
D. 0.4

0.5

__. 0.2

f2--O2 k(f /)+iw

[kF'sin(z Gn (z) flea 1'] (z)

k+iq

0.0

., ,"-,- ,-"'"%,, 0 3000 6000

o.o
,.,

) ' ,3000 '60'00

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km) (49)

"' OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

Fig. 4. The horizontal electric (left panels) and verticalelectric

where (k+io)-1 is the one-sided (x < 0) Fourier

(right panels)field amplitude and phase for the samemodelof Figure3 exceptthat a 100-kmlayerof conductivity 0.005S m-1 is substitutedfor the insulator. The horizontal components are separated into offshore (solid) and longshore(dashed)components.

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BY OCEAN CURRENTS

3539

electricfield is the open circuitvalue -Jz/O'o, sinceno

current flows through the insulating seafloor. Larsen's results with an insulating continent show transient
differences in a zone a few tens of kilometers wide cen100
0

30O
200

tered on the coast,especially in the verticalmagneticfield, validatingthe conclusions of the appendix. Figures4 and 5 show the electricand magneticfields

-1 O0
0 3000 6000

lOO .......

, 'o'oo' 'o'oo
OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

for an earthmodelof conductivity 0.005S m- to 100-km depth,followed by a half space of conductivity 0.05 S m-
with the same wave model as Figures 2 and 3. The dramatic differencesare causedby a large, induced TM mode component that is eliminated in the earlier model
o.4

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

9 0.3
"0.2

1.s
1.0

and in the resultsof Larsen[1968] by the electrical isolation of the ocean. As before, the electrostatic terms dominate the electric field, and the vertical electric field is

,o.1
o o.o

0.5
3000 6000

nearlythe open-circuit value. The magnetic fieldis greatly

changed in the region between the coast and one hydrodynamicwavelengthoffshore,where the TM mode is largest. The vertical magnetic field, which is entirely PM mode, is nearlythe samein Figures3 and 5. Figures6 and 7 break the horizontalfield resultsof Figures 4 and 5 down by modes. The electricfield TM mode is mostly the electrostatic term near the shoreline, but after this decays,at about two hydrodynamic wavelengths offshore, the PM mode is dominant though small. The offshore component is larger than its longshorecounterpart due to orientation of the inducing current in the offshoredirection, but this changesnear the coastas the PM mode current must turn to form closedloops. The

3000 6000 0.0 0

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

Fig. 6. The horizontal electric field componentsof Figure 4 separated into PM (left panels)and TM (right panels) modes. The offshore (solid) and longshore(dashed)components are
shown.

nearly identical, while the horizontal magneticfields differ in phase and amplitude. The TM mode magnetic field must vanish at the sea surface, while the PM mode component is smallerat the sea surfaceand shifted by almost 180 in phase. Figure 8 illustrates theseresults.
DISCUSSION

magneticfield PM and TM modes are similar in magnitude near the coast, but the TM mode decaysquickly, and
the field is PM mode at distance offshore. The relative

The theory and examples presented illustrate some of

the important effectsof oceandynamics,coastlines, and

the electrical structure of the earth on the mode structure

sizes of the offshore and longshore components are

governed by the electric current direction. The discussionon the water depth dependenceof the

of the electromagnetic fields producedby oceancurrents. Sincethey react in very different waysto distantas well as fields when]13HI<< 1 is valid for theKelvin wave fields. local variations of structure of the ocean and earth, the By comparingthe sizes of the two TM mode terms in PM and TM modes should be examined separatelyin the (49), it can be shownthat the second,surfaceterm is analysisof oceanicelectromagnetic fields. There are addilarge, while the vertical current term is completelynegligi- tional, computationalreasonsfor separatetreatment of the ble. This means that the horizontal electric fields and modes, as seen in the response function expressions verticalmagneticfield at the seafloorand sea surfaceare

100

200

200

..........

.
,., 0
-100

100

-r
-lOO

-lOO

30'00' 6000

-lOO

3000

6000

3000' ' 60'00

o'oo

o'oo
clo

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

lO

-
o

6
4

"

_o
z

'-' z
<

2
0

4 0

< o
0 3000 6000
0 3000 6000

<

0
o 3000 6ooo

....
0 3000 6000

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

Fig. 5. The magnetic field components for the model of Figure 4. See Figure 4 captionfor details.

Fig. 7. The horizontal magnetic field componentsof Figure 5 separated into PM (left panels) and TM (right panels) modes. The offshore (solid) and longshore(dashed)components are
shown.

3540

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BY OCEAN CURRENTS

lOO

2OO

o
100

the TM mode if low-conductivitymaterial is present, but the electromagnetic fields will penetrate the mantle to

depths of 0<ll

if theyarenot. Fora semidiurnal Kel-

-100
-200

vin wave in 4 km of water and an earth conductivityof

0.05 S m-1, thislengthscale is over300 km.

'o'oo' 'o'oo
OFFSHORE DISTANCE (km)

-100

,50'00 60'00

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (kin)

The electrical conductivity of the lithospherecannot be measured effectively by external source field techniques
under the ocean. Due both to the band-limited nature of

12
" 'z

8 4

<
'

0-,
0

?'-,-;
,5000

6000

3000

6000

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (krn)

OFFSHORE DISTANCE (kin)

the ionospheric variations at the seafloor and to the inherent insensitivity of PM modes to low-conductivity material, the magnetotelluric method cannotdetectcritical low-conductivity zones near the surface. Ocean island electromagnetic data are limited at high frequencies by the perturbingeffect of the low-conductivity islandon electric currentsin the ocean [Larsen,1975]. Controlledsources offer a very sensitive method to measure the electrical conductivity of the crustand mantleto depthsof 20 km or

and Cox,1982]but are not Fig. 8. The magneticfield of Figure 5 shownat the seafloor more [Cox, 1980, 1981; Chave (solid) and sea surface(dashed)for the offshore(left panels)and likely to penetrateto the base of the lithosphere. Investilongshore (rightpanels) components. gation of tidal-induced electromagnetic fields offers a
means to bridge the gap between Moho and asthenosphere. Sincethe TM mode ,vanishes at the sea surface, of the magneticfield are required. (33)-(34) and in the controlled source calculations of seafloormeasurements The electricfield will prove less useful due to the electroChaveand Cox [1982]. The results of the last section suggestthat the Kelvin static effect, which is less dependent on conductivityat wavemodelpresented by Larsen[1968]is incomplete, and depth. A number of good data sets have been collected the comparison with seafloormagneticfield data is prob- from the seafloor, and no technologicallimitation that ably invalid. The observation of significant tidal induced would prevent year-long time seriesfrom being obtained 1982). magneticfields at island and coastalsites by Larsen and exists(J. H. Filloux, privatecommunication, The grossshapeof the electromagnetic fieldsin Figures Cox [1966] and Larsen [1968] remainscogent, and the thin sheet model yields the correct magnetic result at the 2-7 is determined by how well the source currents and, sea surface. It is interestingto note that the seafloorelec- ultimately, the velocity field of the oceantide are known. tric field data of Larsen [1968] remain consistent with a Larsen [1968] fit a Kelvin wave to coastaltide data since Kelvin wave in the presenceof both PM and TM modes. only limited information on open ocean tides was then field wave number Comparing Figures2 and 4 showsthat the electricfield is available. From (43)-(47), the source of a Kelvin wave is a function of geographic latitude and polarized nearly offshore in the region between 0 and 1000 km with a phase that is not greatlyaffectedby addi- water depth, while the inducingcurrent amplitudedepends height of the wave. On the real earth all of tion of the induced TM component. This is due to the on the surface dominanceof the electric field by the electrostatic term in these quantitiesvary, resultingin a continuumof source the nearshorearea, and both the resultsof this paper and field wave numbers. Variation of the source field freof Larsen [1968] include it. The single magneticcom- quency at a fixed wave number, presumed to occur in ponent measuredby Larsen is not matchedby either the induction by ionosphericcurrents, and variation of the fieldwavenumber at fixedfrequency havesimilar insulatingor conductingearth modelsof the last section, source suggestingan intermediate near-surfaceconductivity or effects on the induced currents in the mantle. This means
errors in the Kelvin wave initial phase.
The influence that mutual induction with the earth

that tidal-induced fields are sensitive to electrical conduc-

advent of precise satellite altimetry this can only improve further. Corresponding advancesin the understanding of ionosphericcurrent systemsare unlikely due to the great complexityof the physicalprocesses which producethem. Global ocean tides contain three predominant species by electromagnetic meanshasbeenmentioned [e.g., Cox et al., 1971; Sanford, 1971 ], but a betterunderstanding of types' the semidiurnal,diurnal, and long-periodtides. Of the electrical conductivity of the oceanic lithosphere is these, the latter is small and poorly constrainedby sea required for their proper interpretation. For low- level data. Both the semidiurnal and diurnal tides are frequency oceancurrents,near-surface structure will affect applicablefor induction studies. The solar tide S2 cannot

exerts on tidal induced electromagnetic fields, especially the effect of near-surface,low-conductivitymaterial on the TM mode, is manifest in Figures 2-7. Similar behavior should be expectedfor the electromagnetic fields induced by oceancurrentswith large spatialscales. For example, Cox [1981] showed that current leakage through the seafloor, which is a TM mode phenomenon, exerts a profound influence on the electromagneticfields of barotropic, quasi-staticwater currents such as western boundary currents. This has important implicationsfor the interpretationof seafloorcablemeasurements of transport. The feasibilityof long-term monitoringof ocean currents

tivity over a wide range of depths. The oceanicsource fields offer some advantagesover their ionosphericcounterparts due both to the presenceof the TM mode and to the completespecification of the inducingcurrentsby the water velocity field and the geomagnetic field. The latter is relatively well known from many years of ship and airborne surveys. Recent improvements in global ocean tide modelingyieldsthe M2 surfaceheightwith an accuracy of

10% in the open ocean [Schwiderski, 1980], and with the

CHAVE: EM INDUCTION BY OCEAN CURRENTS

3541

be useddue to the very largesolarheatingeffecton its a fewtimes -H. Thisaccounts for the similarity of Figionospheric part. The magneticfield at the semidiurnal ures 5 and 6 to the resultsof Larsen[1968].

M2 tidalfrequency contains at mosta limitedionospheric

part [Larsen, 1968], and its diurnalcounterpart should similar way. At the continent edge,the tangential electric behavein a similar way. The influenceof ionospheric and magnetic fieldsand the normalmagnetic induction partson the fieldscanbe removed by comparing seafloor must be continuous and the normal electric current must datato observatory dataat inland sites for similar geomag- vanish,requiringthat
netic latitudes.

For a conductive seafloor, the solutions proceed in a

One potentially important quantity has beenneglected

ikOzO- OxII0-- ikOzc

in the analysisof this paper: the influence of seafloor OOz*0 + ikIIo = OOz*c (A3) topography in the electromagnetic fields. Sanford[1971] -o#xoo'oko + 8xOzHo-- 0 and Sklarz[1975] have applied perturbation methods to electromagnetic induction by large-scale ocean flow to refer to the oceanand continent. examine this effect. They showthat the largest change at x -- 0. The subscripts *c satisfies Laplace's equation with boundary conditions producedby topography is variationnf t_h_o. inducing given at x = 0 by (A3), at z --H given by (18) for zero currents by perturbationof the velocity field. This is accountedfor by the tide model of Schwiderski [1980].

Deflection of horizontal induced currents by the topograand(A3) canberearranged to give phymustalsobe considered, especially if the reliefis large interest, OxOzIIo and the surfaceelectricalconductivity is low [Sklarz,

conductivity, and finiteness conditions as x and z approachinfinity. The solution in the continent is of no

1975].Since the magnetic fieldis an integral measure of

o --

neglected,exceptlocally.

electrical current, the influenceon it is expectedto be smaller thanfor the electric field. Topographic corrections on x = 0. The potentialis expandedas before into the can be obtainedby perturbation or boundaryintegral zero-order solutions (48) and (49) and the first-order equation methods. In addition,only topography with a boundary terms.Fourier series like (A2) stillappear, and length scale that is a significant fraction of a tidal the newterms aresignificant onlynearthe boundary. The wavelength is expected to produce longdistance changes effectis oneof modeconversion from TM into PM modes in the electric currents, and small-scale topography can be in a narrow boundarylayer. Additional correctionfor
current leakage through the mantle into the continent
APPENDIX: EM INDUCTION BY A KELVIN WAVE FOR AN INSULATING CONTINENT

o#oo'ok

(^4)

must be made; this is a two-dimensional problem not

treated here.

In the text, equations (6)-(7) for the driving currents

givenby (45)-(47) are solved for the ocean in x--0,

,4cknowledgments. C.S.Cox provided hisusual, unique physical insightduringmany fruitful discussions throughout this work.

possibledeep structural differencesbetween them.

-H < z < 0, when the continent in x > 0, backnearly 20 years, provided the impetus for thisinvestigation. -H < z < 0 has the same conductivity as the ocean. R.L. Parker and G. Backusclarifiedsome troublesomemathematiAdditional conditions on (6)-(7) are required if the con- cal details. This work was supportedby the National Science Foundation under grants OCE81-10399 andEAR 81-20949 andby tinent is modeledas an insulator,a far more realistic the Office of Naval Research. approximation. In both cases the mantleconductivity is the sameunder both oceans and continents, neglecting REFERENCES

Hisinterest in electromagnetic induction byocean tides, stretching

G., The electric field produced in the mantleby the Consider first the insulatingseafloorand continent Backus, dynamo in the core,Phys. EarthPlanet. Inter.,28, 191-214, modelusedby Larsen[1968]. In the text it is shownthat 1982. the insulatingseafloorrequiresII--0 in the ocean. For Bullard,E. C., and R. L. Parker,Electromagnetic induction in the oceans, in TheSea,V.4 Pt. 2, editedby A. E. Maxwell,pp. an insulating continent the total electric currentJx must 695-730, Wiley,New York, 1971. vanish at the continent edge, requiringthat = 0 at A.D., andC. S. Cox, Controlled electromagnetic sources x = 0. Usingthe linearity of (6), the solution is separated Chave, for measuring electrical conductivity beneath the oceans, 1, into = 0+ 1, where0 is givenby (48) and 1 Forwardproblemand model study, J. Geophys. Res., 87,
satisfies

5327-5338, 1982. Cox, C. S., Electromagnetic inductionin the oceansand infer-

8z2Xt rl -- 2xtrl =0

xtrl--0 onz--O,z=-H
The solutionis expressible as a Fourier series

137-156, 1980. (A1) Cox, C. S., On the electrical conductivity of the oceanic litho-

enceson the constitution of the earth, Geophys. Surv., 4,

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637-693, Wiley, New York, 1971. XlI1 ,4 sin jz exp J. H., Magnetotelluric exploration of the North Pacific: =E ,,o .,2+j27r 2x (A2) Filloux,

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j--1

H'

/./2

Progress reportand preliminary soundings near a spreading

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tion =0

at x--0

in the usual way. Due to the

3542

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Larsen,J. C., Low frequency (0.1-6.0 cpd) electromagnetic study

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(Received September 16, 1982; accepted December30, 1982.)