PROCESS ANALYSIS

A form of technical writing and expository writing "designed to convey to the reader how a change takes place through a series of stages". While the traditional process analysis and a set of instructions are both organized chronologically, the reader of a process analysis is typically interested in understanding the chronological components of a system that operates largely without the reader's direct actions (such as how the body digests an apple), while the reader of a set of instructions intends to use the instructions in order to accomplish a specific, limited task (such as how to bake an apple pie). By contrast, the reader of a mechanism description is more interested in an object in space (such as the form and nutritional value of a particular kind of apple). Technical writing Technical writing is a form of technical communication used in a variety of technical and occupational fields, such as computer hardware and software, engineering, chemistry, aeronautics and astronautics, robotics, finance, consumer electronics, and biotechnology. The Society for Technical Communication (STC) defines technical writing as a broad field including any form of communication that exhibits one or more of the following characteristics: (1) communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer applications, medical procedures, or environmental regulations;
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(2) communicating through technology, such as web pages, help files, or social media sites; or (3) providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of the task's technical nature. Overview Technical writing involves the creation of useful documents that can be clearly understood by readers. Good technical writing clarifies jargon, presenting useful information that is clear and easy to understand for the intended audience; poor technical writing may increase confusion by creating unnecessary jargon or failing to explain it. While grammar, spelling and punctuation are of the utmost importance to technical writing, style is not; it can be sacrificed if doing so increases clarity, which is considered more important to the genre. Technical writing is performed by technical writers, who may be professionals or amateurs. These writers usually begin such work by learning the purpose of the document that they will create, gathering information from existing documentation and from subject-matter experts; technical writers need not be subject-matter experts themselves. A good technical writer needs strong language and teaching skills and must understand how to communicate with technology. Advanced technical writers often move into specialized areas such as API writing, document architecture, or information management. Technical writing is often associated with online help and user manuals. It also includes product release notes, product troubleshooting guides,
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tutorials, installation guides, marketing documentation, e-learning modules, web content, legal disclaimers, business proposals, and white papers. While the origins of technical writing can be traced back to antiquity, Geoffrey Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe has been called the first piece of technical writing in English. Technical writing began to be seen as a discipline in and of itself around the time of World War I, growing out of the need for technology-based documentation in the military, manufacturing, electronics, and aerospace industries. In 1953, two organizations concerned with improving the practice of technical communication were founded in the United States: the Society of Technical Writers, and the Association of Technical Writers and Editors. These organizations merged in 1957 to form the Society of Technical Writers and Editors, a predecessor of the current Society for Technical Communication Techniques Technical writing involves analysis of a document's intended audience in order to translate complex technical concepts and instructions into a series of comprehensible steps that enable users to perform a specific task in a specific way. To present appropriate information, writers must understand the audience and their goals. For example, an audience of highly trained scientists will require less explanation of technical terms than a help guide intended for general audiences. The writing also seeks to present an attractive layout for easy reading and comprehension. A writer must understand the medium typically used to
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view the final product. An HTML document, such as a web page, frequently has a different layout than a print document. The use of elements such as hyperlinks and animation will affect the content and form of the writing. Technical documents roadly speaking, technical documentation can be categorized into three types, depending on the style of writing, the level of knowledge transferred, and the target audience: 1. End-user assistance documents help a user understand a software or hardware product. This includes user manuals for computer programs, household products, medical equipment, mobile phones, and other consumer electronics. 2. Traditional technical documentation communicates to a specialized audience. Such documentation includes maintenance guides, repair manuals, engineering specifications, research papers, reference works, annual reports, and articles for technical journals. 3. Marketing communication such as product catalogs, brochures, advertisements, introductory pages for web sites, and press releases are sometimes created by technical writers. Expository Writing Rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing. Four of the most common rhetorical modes and their purpose are exposition, argumentation, description, and narration.

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Exposition Expository writing is a type of writing where the purpose is to explain, inform, or even describe. It is considered to be one of the four most common rhetorical modes. The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. Examples include:

Business letters How-to essays, such as recipes and other instructions News stories Personal letters Press releases Reports Scientific reports Term papers Textbooks Wills Encyclopedia articles Cuisines

Argumentation The purpose of argumentation (also called persuasive writing) is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,
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discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation with the additional aim to urge the reader to take some form of action. Examples include:

Advertising copy Critical review Editorials Job evaluation Job application letter Letter of recommendation Letters to the editor Rsums

Another form of persuasive rhetoric is satirical rhetoric, or using humor in order to make a point about some aspect of life or society. Perhaps the most famous example is Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal." Description The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that which is being described. Descriptive writing can be found in the other rhetorical modes. Examples include:

Journal writing Poetry

Narration

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The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. Narration is an especially useful tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order, usually chronological. Working with narration helps us see clear sequences separate from all other mental functions. Examples include:

Anecdotes Autobiography Biography Novels Oral history Short story

Fiction-writing modes Each fiction-writing mode has its own purposes and conventions. Agent and author Evan Marshall identifies five fiction-writing modes: action, summary, dialogue, feelings/thoughts, and background (Marshall 1988, pp. 143165). Author and writing-instructor Jessica Page Morrell lists six delivery modes for fiction-writing: action, exposition, description, dialogue, summary, and transition (Morrell 2006, p. 127). Author Peter Selgin refers to methods, including action, dialogue, thoughts, summary, scene, and description (Selgin 2007, p. 38).

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Graphoanalysis Graphoanalysis Is the analysis of strokes in hand writing of any language or note taking system (it was first developed on short hand) and its deviation from "textbook standard"; to make predictions of psychological traits. Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. The core tenet is that every stroke of handwriting has a meaning which can be understood only within the context of the other strokes present in the handwriting. Basic Traits are the meanings that are ascribed to individual stroke structures. These scores are derived from the frequency and intensity of the stroke structure. Evaluated Traits are the meanings ascribed to clusters of individual stroke structures. This indicates how the trait is made manifest in the personality. A professional Graphoanalyst bases their report exclusively on the Evaluated Trait scores. Graphoanalysis is the system of handwriting analysis created by Milton N Bunker. He first studied handwriting analysis around 1913. By 1929 he had enough confidence in his system to form the American Grapho Analysis Society. In 1949 he incorporated the International Grapho Analysis Society (now the International Graphoanalysis Society or IGAS). Since 1961, IGAS has been the sole owner of all material, and intellectual property rights relating to Graphoanalysis.

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While the roots of Graphoanalysis are in the writings of Abbe Michon, the influence of Crpieux-Jamin, and other European graphologers are visible, very little material published by Bunker, The American Grapho Analysis Society, or The International Graphoanalysis Society has acknowledged these roots. During the late fifties, the Perspectograph was developed. This is a bar chart which shows the distribution of slant for upstrokes. Circa 1962 The Green Sheet was developed. This sheet lists most of the traits defined by Graphoanalysis, under the area of personality which the trait affects. For example, Literary leanings is only found in the subsection Cultural Aptitudes. This sheet has been officially revised several times, the most recent being in 2002. Several former members of IGAS have released versions of this sheet, with a number of additions, and changes. The Personality Wheel was developed in the early seventies. The original version (? 1974) correlated with the charts used for the Psychogram. Later versions diverged considerably from it. By 1978 it simply listed the traits, as found on The Green Sheet in a wheel. In the early 1990s, IGAS changed the definition, and scoring of some traits, without providing any explanation. The most popular theory is that the changes were a result of litigation against a Graphoanalyst, regarding the validity of handwriting analysis.

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Validity The validity of Graphoanalysis has been demonstrated by Crumbaugh, James C & Stockholm, Emilie (1977). This study has been replicated by other researchers. A major shortcoming is the lack of published studies of both the individual stroke structures, and the clusters of individual stroke structures. Thus far, there have been no comprehensive, systematic research studies of either the strokes, or the stroke clusters. There is some published research that implies that stroke clusters do correlate with some sub-scores, on various psychological tests. The published reliability studies on Graphoanalysis have used very few --typically less than five --- analysts. The immediate consequence is that it is demonstrated to have high reliability. The only Normative project was The IGAS Trait Norm Project published in 1980. The critics of this study had a field day, demonstrating poor research design and methodology.

The Green Sheet The Green Sheet is the worksheet used by Graphoanalysts, to organize their report. This sheet contains 119 traits to be evaluated from the Basic Traits.

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This data is then combined, to produce the scores for the evaluated traits, which are used to write the final report. The general recommendation is that raw scores of at least one hundred occurrences, or potential occurrences of a stroke structure be obtained. Vocabulary Terms used in Graphoanalysis have a specific, technical meaning. The common dictionary meaning is often only marginally related to the technical meaning used by the Handwriting Analyst. Effect of Reality The effect of reality is a textual device identified by Roland Barthes the purpose of which was to establish literary texts as realistic. Barthes first suggested this concept in his 1968 essay "The Reality Effect," in which he argues that untheorized descriptive "residues" of the text produce effects of reality through their dissembling of the tripartite sign--in the absence of any signified, Barthes argues, the textual signifiers for "real" objects had for their actual signifieds only the concept of realism itself; further, Barthes suggested that the origins of this textual device came through the development of an "aesthetic finality of language" present in the use of the rhetorical device of ecphrasis in "Alexandrian neo-rhetoric of the second century" (The Reality Effect in Barthes 1989). Barthes also showed that this effect of reality was a key problem of historical analysis and writing in that historical writing proclaimed an unproblematic realism that was in fact just this textual device in action ( The Discourse of

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History in Barthes 1989 - online version The Discourse of History). It was this aspect of the effect of reality that Ankersmit showed helped to explain both the evolution of historical enquiry and the problematic textual nature of history (Ankersmit 1989). The concern with realism and the constructed nature of historical and literary facts that both Barthes and Ankersmit expressed is also to be found in the field of Discursive psychology; and Jonathan Potter has analysed similar problems and issues in his Representing Reality Creative writing Creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, or technical forms of literature, typically identified by an emphasis on narrative craft, character development, and the use of literary tropes. Due to the looseness of the definition, it is possible for writing such as feature stories to be considered creative writing, even though they fall under journalism, because the content of features is specifically focused on narrative and character development. Both fictional and non-fictional works fall into this category, including such forms as novels, biographies, short stories, and poems. In the academic setting, creative writing is typically separated into fiction and poetry classes, with a focus on writing in an original style, as opposed to imitating preexisting genres such as crime or horror. Writing for the screen and stage screenwriting and playwritingare taught separately, but fit under the creative writing category as well. Creative writing can technically be considered any writing of original composition. In this sense, creative writing is a more contemporary and
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process-oriented name for what has been traditionally called literature, including the variety of its genres. In her work, Foundations of Creativity, Mary Lee Marksberry references Paul Witty and Lou LaBrants Teaching the People's Language to define creative writing. Marksberry notes: Witty and LaBrantis a composition of any type of writing at any time primarily in the service of such needs as 1. the need for keeping records of significant experience, 2. the need for sharing experience with an interested group, and 3. the need for free individual expression which contributes to mental and physical health.

Those who support creative writing programs either as part or separate from the English discipline, argue for the academic worth of the creative writing experience. They argue that creative writing hones the students abilities to clearly express their thoughts. They further argue that creative writing also entails an in-depth study of literary terms and mechanisms so they can be applied to the writers own work to foster improvement. These critical analysis skills are further used in other literary study outside the creative writing sphere. Indeed the process of creative writing, the crafting of a thought-out and original piece, is considered by some to be experience in creative problem solving. It is also believed by some in the academic sphere that the term "creative writing" can include "creative reading" which is the reading of something not typically understood to be a creative piece as though it were creative. This expanded concept further addresses the idea of "found" materials being

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of literary value under a newly assigned meaning. Examples of this might be product assembly directions being considered "found poetry." Programs of study: Creative Writing programs are typically available to writers from the high school level all the way through graduate school. Traditionally these programs are associated with the English departments in the respective schools, but this notion has been challenged in recent time as more creative writing programs have spun off into their own department. Most Creative Writing degrees for undergraduates in college are Bachelor of Fine Arts degrees (BFA). Some continue to pursue a Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing, the terminal degree in the field. At one time rare, PhD. programs are becoming more prevalent in the field, as more writers attempt to bridge the gap between academic study and artistic pursuit. Creative writers typically decide an emphasis in either fiction or poetry, and they usually start with short stories or simple poems. They then make a schedule based on this emphasis including literature classes, education classes and workshop classes to strengthen their skills and techniques. Though they have their own programs of study in the fields of film and theatre, screenwriting and playwriting have become more popular in creative writing programs, as creative writing programs attempt to work more closely with film and theatre programs as well as English programs. Creative writing students are encouraged to get involved in extracurricular writingbased activities, such as publishing clubs, school-based literary magazines or newspapers, writing contests, writing colonies or conventions, and extended education classes.
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Creative writing also takes places outside of formal university or school institutions. For example, writer Dave Eggers set up the innovative 826 Valencia in San Francisco, where young people write with professional writers. In the UK, the Arvon Foundation runs week long residential creative writing courses in four historic houses. In New Zealand, creative writing courses at NZIBS are popular because they are home-study to diploma level. In the classroom Creative writing is usually taught in a workshop format rather than seminar style. In workshops students usually submit original work for peer critique. Students also format a writing method through the process of writing and rewriting. Some courses teach the means to exploit or access latent creativity or more technical issues such as editing, structural techniques, genres, random idea generating or writer's block unblocking. Some noted authors, such as Michael Chabon, Kazuo Ishiguro, Kevin Brockmeier, Ian McEwan, Karl Kirchwey, Rose Tremain and reputed screenwriters, such as David Benioff, Darren Star and Peter Farrelly, have graduated from university creative writing programs. Controversy in academia Creative writing is considered by some academics (mostly in the USA) to be an extension of the English discipline, even though it is taught around the world in many languages. The English discipline is traditionally seen as the critical study of literary forms, not the creation of literary forms. Some academics see creative writing as a challenge to this tradition. In the UK and Australia, as well as increasingly in the USA and the rest of the world,

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creative writing is considered a discipline in its own right, not an offshoot of any other discipline. To say that the creative has no part in education is to argue that a university is not universal. Those who support creative writing programs either as part or separate from the English discipline, argue for the academic worth of the creative writing experience. They argue that creative writing hones the students abilities to clearly express their thoughts. They further argue that creative writing also entails an in-depth study of literary terms and mechanisms so they can be applied to the writers own work to foster improvement. These critical analysis skills are further used in other literary study outside the creative writing sphere. Indeed the process of creative writing, the crafting of a thought-out and original piece, is considered by some to be experience in creative problem solving. It is also believed by some in the academic sphere that the term "creative writing" can include "creative reading" which is the reading of something not typically understood to be a creative piece as though it were creative. This expanded concept further addresses the idea of "found" materials being of literary value under a newly assigned meaning. Examples of this might be product assembly directions being considered "found poetry." Despite the large number of academic creative writing programs throughout the world, many people argue that creative writing cannot be taught. Louis Menand explores the issue in an article for the New Yorker in which he quotes Kay Boyle, the director of creative writing program at San Francisco

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State for sixteen years, who said, all creative-writing programs ought to be abolished by law.

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