WOOD

What is Wood? Wood is a hard, fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It has been used for thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material. It is an organic material, natural composite of cellulose fibers (which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. What is Timber? Trees or wooded land considered as a source of wood. What is Lumber? Lumber is wood material that has been manufactured. Lumber is supplied either rough or finished. Rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and other items requiring additional cutting and shaping. Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 1. Appearance

From left to right: Woods can have different appearances in terms of their color, texture, sizes and shape. 2. Moisture Content defined as the weight of water in wood over the weight of ovendry wood. Wood is hygroscopic. It picks up or gives off moisture to equalize with the relative humidity and temperature in the atmosphere. As a result, a change in the strength is evident. Fiber Saturation Point is the moisture content below which the physical and mechanical properties of wood begin to change. It is usually taken as 30% moisture content on oven-dry basis.

3. Shrinkage it occurs when the wood loses its moisture. With respect to shrinkage characteristics, wood is anisotropic. It means that the amount shrinkage of the wood is different in different axes.

It shrinks most in the direction of the growth rings (tangential), half as much across the rings (radially) and slightly along the grain (longitudinal).

Shrinkage values of common woods/trees in the Philippines 4. Specific Gravity SG from 0.3 to 0.9 are usual ranges of woods used as a structural member. Lightweight and floats in water. Lower SG, the easier it is to be cut with a sharp tool. Higher SG, higher no. of growth rings per inch.

Specific Gravity of common woods/trees in the Philippines 5. Thermal Conductivity is a measure of the rate of heat flow through one unit thickness of a material subjected to temperature gradient. Woods have much less thermal conductivity compared to metals. It is a good heat insulator. It increases as density, moisture content, temperature or extractive content increases.

6. Electrical Conductivity The electrical conductivity of wood varies slightly with applied voltage and approximately doubles for each temperature increase of 10 oC. It varies greatly with moisture content. It increases as the moisture content increases. 7. Combustibility In general, woods are combustible but there are some special treatments to aid this property. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 1. Orthotropicity It is the uniqueness of the mechanical properties in the direction of the three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, tangential and radial.

2. Elasticity it implies that deformations produced by low stress are completely recoverable after loads are removed. When loaded to higher stress levels, plastic deformation or failure occurs. There are 12 constants are needed to describe the elastic behaviour of wood a. 3 Modulus of Elasticity (E) It is determined from bending rather than from axial test for woods. b. 3 Modulus of Rigidity (G) also called as shear modulus, indicates the resistance to deflection of a member caused by shear stress. c. 6 Poissons Ratio (v) the ratio of traverse strain to axial strain.

When a member is loaded axially, the deformation perpendicular to the direction of the load is proportional to the deformation parallel to the direction of the load.

3. Strength It is defined as the ability of a member to sustain stress without failure. The following criterion is considered for the determination of the strength of wood: a. Hardness It is the resistance to denting and wear. It is the resistance to indentation using the Janka Hardness test, measured by the load required to embed an 11.28-mm (0.444 in) to half of its diameter.

Janka Harndess and other Mechanical Properties of common woods in the Philippines b. Stiffness it is the resistance to deflection and bending when loaded. Stiff woods are not necessarily strong. They may resist bending up to a point and then brek suddenly. c. Toughness - It is the resistance to shock loading. Tough woods will deflect before breaking. Even before fracturing, the fibers tend to hang together and resist separation. d. Resistance to Warping - Warping is the twisting, bending or bowing distortions shown by some woods. It was greatly affected by the method of sawing and curing. e. Nail-holding Resistance - Nail-holding resistance for harwoods is greater than for softer woods. However, woods that are so hard that they tend to split when nailed, lose much of their holding ability. Preboring to 75% of the nail size avoids splitting. f. Workability - It is the ease in sawing, shaping and nailing. It is more evident in soft, low-density woods than for hardwoods, but usually they cannot be given a high polish.
Common Modes of Warping of Woods

Common wooden furniture has high degree of workability to the extent that they can be shaped into different forms. g. Natural-decay Resistance Resistance of woods to decay caused by extreme environmental conditions and termites is a good criteria of the strength of wood. h. Paint-holding Ability Discoloration of wood due to time is a great deal for maintaining the beauty and aesthetics of wood.

SOURCES OF WOODS
SUSTAINABLE SOURCES Sustainable sources have a constantly regenerating supply over the course of a year. These sustainable sources can exhibit seasonality, but regenerate nonetheless. - Woods from logging - Woods from saw mills - Woods from pallet plants NON-SUSTAINABLE SOURCES Non-sustainable sources occur one time. These sources can provide a spike in the overall wood availability, but are short-lived. - Clearing a site for development - Trimmings from trees and woody bushes

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD 1. Hardwood 2. Softwood HARDWOOD Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved deciduous trees. Hardwoods are porous.

Hardwoods are angiosperms. Contract with heat and moisture Stronger, denser, & homogeneous than softwoods (good for framing system) Good for interior finishes & for furniture Resist fire better than softwood Nearly impervious to water (some varieties) Cost: high

WOODS CLASSIFIED AS HARDWOOD NARRA Scientific Name: Pterocarpus Indicus Color: Deep Orange Golden To Darker Red Tones Description: Narra is considered the most valuable wood in the Philippines, and is therefore very restricted. Special permits are required for export of finished products. - Most often used for furniture, flooring, and panels. MAPLE Scientific Name: Acer Saccharum Color: Creamy White To Light Reddish Brown Description: White Maple is widely used for furniture, and is often used for very pale products with a soft sanded surface.

OAK Scientific Name: Quercus Rob. Color: Pale/light Description: Lead time for production in Oak will most often be about 6 months, until producion is stable, after which 3 months production time is normal. It is good decay resistance. MAHOGANY Scientific Name: Swietenica Macrophylla Color: Red brownish with Orange Tone Description: Mahogany has been planted in the Philippines since the 70s. Originating in Brazil, where it is now an endangered species, this plantation

species can now be acquired on sustainable basis. It may contain some small firm knots, but is available in good quality for furniture purposes.

ACACIA Scientific Name: Acacia Auriculaeformi, Racosperma Aurculiforme Color: Dark Brown, With Very Distingt Sap Wood (yellow) Description:The Acasia grows wild everywhere in the Philippines, and is often used for local handicrafts, and especially suited for turning into bowls and plates.

YAKAL Scientific Name: Shorea Laevis Color: Yellow To Golden Red Description: Yakal is a hard and golden Mahogany type which is used for frequently used products and surfaces. Ideal for outdoor use also.

ROSEWOOD Scientific Name: Petersianthus Quadrialatus Color: Very Dark With Lighter Flames Naturally Occuring Description: Philippine Rosewood is a very beautiful dark and flamy wood. It has for many years been used for local boat making due to its strength and durability. This wood is primarily used for interiors and flooring. TEAK Scientific Name: Tectona Grandis Color: Brown Description: Teak is one of the world's best timbers. It's usage is multiple, but mainly furniture, decking, and various kitchen accessories. Especially well suited for outdoor use. SOFTWOOD Softwoods are generally needle-leaved coniferous trees that bear their seeds in cones.

Softwoods are nonporous. Softwoods are gymnosperms. Contract with heat and moisture Solid but soft Have lower density than hardwoods (good for acoustic & thermal insulation) Good for interior finishes & for furniture Flexible and strong Not water resistance Cost: low

WOODS CLASSIFIED AS SOFTWOOD PINE Pine is a soft, white or pale yellow wood which is light weight, straight grained and lacks figure. It resists shrinking and swelling. Knotty pine is often used for decorative effect. Pickled, whitened, painted and oil finishes are often used on this wood.

ASH It has a prominent grain that resembles oak, and a white to light brown color. Ash burls have a twisted, interwoven figure. Ash is widely used for structural frames and steam bent furniture pieces. It is often less expensive than comparable hardwoods.

CEDAR Cedar is a knotty softwood which has a red-brown color with light streaks. Its aromatic and moth repellent qualities have made it a popular wood for lining drawers, chests and boxes. Simple cases and storage closets are also constructed from this light, brittle wood.

BIRCH

Birch is a hard, heavy with a light brown or reddish colored heartwood and cream or light sapwood. Birch is often rotary or flat sliced, yielding straight, curly or wavy grain patterns. It can be stained to resemble mahogany or walnut.

HEMLOCK: Light in weight, uniformly textured. It machines well and has low resistance to decay and nonresinous. Used for construction lumber, planks, doors, boards, paneling, sub flooring and crates. FIR: Works easy and finishes well. Uniform in texture and nonresinous. Has low resistance to decay. Used in furniture, doors, frames, windows, plywood, veneer, general millwork and interior trim. SPRUCE: Strong and hard. Finishes well and has low resistance to decay. Has moderate shrinkage and light in weight. Used for masts and spars for ships, aircraft, crates, boxes, general millwork and ladders. REDWOOD: The best quality redwood comes from the heartwood which is resistant to deterioration due to sunlight, moisture and insects. It is used to craft outdoor furniture and decorative carvings. Redwood burls have a "cluster of eyes" figure. They are rare and valuable. SOFTWOOD VS. HARDWOOD PROPERTY Colour Growth Weight Density Annual Rings Heart wood and sap wood Strength Conversion SOFTWOOD Lighter Faster Lighter Low Distinct Cannot be distinguished Strong along the grains Easy HARDWOOD Darker Slower Heavier High Indistinct Can be distinguished Strong along and across the grains Difficult

USES (FIELD APPLICATIONS) OF WOOD

1. Foundations Treated wood is used for basement foundation walls. Basically, such foundations consist of woodframe wall sections with studs and plywood sheathing supported on treated wood plates, all of which are preservatively treated to a specified level of protection. Because a foundation wall needs to be permanent, the preservative treatment of the plywood and framing and the type of fasteners used

for connections are very important. A special foundation treatment has been established for the plywood and framing, with strict requirements for depth of chemical penetration and amount of chemical retention. Corrosion-resistant fasteners (for example, stainless steel) are recommended for all preservatively treated wood. 2. Floors Typically consists of wood joists on 400- or 600-mm (16- or 24-in.) centers supported by the foundation walls and the center girder Joist- One of a series of parallel beams used to support floor and ceiling loads and supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or bearing walls. Joist size depends on the anticipated loading, spacing between joists, distance between supports (span), species, and grade of lumber. 3. Exterior Walls Exterior walls of light-frame structures are generally load bearing; they support upper floors and the roof.

4. Ceiling and Roof Roof systems are generally made of either the joists-and-rafter systems or with trusses. Engineered trusses reduce on-site labor and can span greater distances without intermediate support, thus eliminating the need for interior load-carrying partitions. This provides greater flexibility in the layout of interior walls. Prefabricated roof trusses are used to form the ceiling and sloped roof of more than two-thirds of current light-frame buildings. 5. Wood Deck

Decks are made of preservatively treated lumber, which is generally available from local building supply dealers. To ensure long life, acceptable appearance, and structural safety, several important guidelines should be followed. Proper material selection is the first step. Then, proper design and construction techniques are necessary. Finally, proper maintenance practices are necessary.

ADVANTAGES OF WOOD
1. Wood stores carbon Trees and wood products have a unique ability to store carbon. When trees are harvested and used to make wood products, the carbon remains stored in the wood for the life of the product. 50% of the dry weight of wood is carbon. 2. Wood produces less carbon dioxide in its production than many other major building materials The production and processing of wood uses less energy than most other building materials, giving wood products a very low carbon footprint. Wood can often be used in place of materials like steel, aluminum, concrete or plastics that require large amounts of energy to produce. This means that there are less carbon dioxide emissions associated with wood products than other major building materials.

Substituting a cubic meter of wood for other construction materials (concrete, blocks or bricks) could save up to 1 tonne of CO2 emissions. 3. Wood is renewable Responsibly sourced wood is renewable. Responsibly, well-managed forests and plantations will regrow to provide a wide range of other benefits such as further carbon storage, oxygen generation and forest habitat. Additionally, after decades or even centuries of use, wood buildings can be easily adapted or deconstructed and reused, which means they can continue to store carbon indefinitely.

4. Wood is durable Wood is a durable material for both homes and commercial buildings. When properly looked after it can last hundreds of years. Modern wood preservatives enhance natural durability. Wood has been used for thousands of years and is resistant to heat, frost, corrosion and pollution. The only factor that needs to be controlled is exposure to weathering. 5. Wood is structurally very strong Wood is very strong structurally. A comparison with steel and concrete shows that radiata pine structural timber, for example, has a strength for weight ratio 20 percent higher than structural steel and four to five times better than non reinforced concrete in compression. 6. Wood is a natural insulator Wood itself is a natural insulator due to air pockets within its cellular structure. As an insulator wood is 15 times better than masonry, 400 times better than steel, and 1,770 times better than aluminum. In addition, lightweight wood framing methods allow easy installation of additional fiber or foil insulation. Wooden windows are more thermally efficient as they do not form 'thermal-bridges' between the cold outside air and warm air inside (and vice versa in summer). 7. Wood is fast and efficient to build with Wood construction is fast and efficient. Wooden buildings can be built year-round in most climates. 8. Wood is naturally beautiful Wood is naturally beautiful and aesthetically pleasing. It is available in a large range of colors, grains and textures making wood visually attractive. Wood is also a very tactile product, making it nice to touch, dependent on the finish.

DISADVANTAGES OF WOOD
1. Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood: Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors and loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation point. 2. Deterioration of Wood: The agents causing the deterioration and destruction of wood fall into two categories: Biotic (biological) and abiotic (non-biological). Biotic agents include decay and mold fungi, bacteria and insects. Abiotic agents include sun, wind, water, certain chemicals and fire.

A. Biotic Deterioration of Wood: Woods are organic goods. Like any organic good, wood is a nutritional product for some plants and animals. Humans cannot digest cellulose and the other fiber ingredients of wood, but some fungi and insects can digest it, and use it as a nutritional product. Insects drill holes and drive lines into wood. Even more dangerously, fungi cause the wood to decay partially and even completely. Biological deterioration of wood due to attack by decay fungi, woodboring insects and marine borers during its processing and in service has technical and economical importance. i. Fungi: It is necessary to give some short information about fungi agents to take measures against the wood deterioration. Physiological requirements of wood destroying and wood inhabiting fungi: A favorable temperature. The temperature must be 25-30C for optimum growth of most wood rotting fungi. But some of them can tolerate temperature between 0-45C. An adequate supply of oxygen Oxygen is essential for the growth of fungi. In the absence of oxygen no fungi will grow. It is well known that storage of wood under water will protect them against attacks by fungi. ii. Moisture Generally wood will not be attacked by the common fungi at moisture contents below the fiber saturation point. The fiber saturation point (FSP) for different wood lies between 20 to 35% but 30% is accepted generally. It is recommended that wood in service must have a moisture content at least 3% less than FSP to provide desirable safety against fungi. iii. Nutrients Wood is an organic compound and consists of 50% carbon. That means that wood is a very suitable nutrient for fungi because fungi derive their energy from oxidation of organic compounds. Decay fungi wood rotters can use polysaccharides while stain fungi evidently require simple forms such as soluble carbohydrates, proteins and other substances present in the parenchyma cell of sapwood. Additionally, the presence of nitrogen in wood is necessary for the growth of fungi in wood. iv. Insects: Insects are only second to decay fungi in the economic loss they cause to lumber and wood in service. Insects can be separated into four categories: Termites, powderpost beetles, carpenter ants and marine borers.

a. Termites There are two types of termites: Subterranean termites damage wood that is untreated, moist, in direct contact with standing water, soil, other sources of moisture. Dry wood termites attack and inhabit wood that has been dried to moisture contents as low as 5 to 10%. The damage by dry wood termites is less than subterranean termites. b. Powderpost beetles Powderpost beetles attack hardwood and softwood. At risk is well seasoned wood as well as freshly harvested and undried wood. c. Carpenter ants Carpenter ants do not feed on wood. They tunnel through the wood and create shelter. They attact most often wood in ground contact or wood that is intermittently wetted. d. Carpenter bees They cause damage primarly to unpainted wood by creating large tunnel in order to lay eggs. e. Marine borers They attack and can rapidly destroy wood in salt water and brackish water. B. Abiotic Deterioration of wood: i. Fire: Another disadvantage of wood is that it easily catches fire. Wood consists of organic compounds which are composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen. They can combine with oxygen and burns. Because of these properties, wood is classified as a combustible material. If the temperature of a inflammable gas is between 225-260C, it burns with a touch of flame. After the withdrawal of flame it will stop burning. If the temperature increases to 250-270C, it burns with a touch of flame and goes on to burn without a flame. If the temperature increases to 330-520C, wood begins to burn spontaneously. Chemical materials, especially extractives in woods structure cause the burning point to change. For example, a resinous piece of pinewood can catch fire in lower temperatures. In addition to this, specific gravity and surface mass (m2/kg) affect the duration of flame. Wood burns harder when the specific gravity and surface mass and moisture content increase, and vice versa. Using thick wood as a structure element is another way of extension of burning point. Outer surface burns and turns into charcoal. Charcoal, which forms on the surface of wood as it burns is a very effective heat insulator. Therefore large timbers burn very slowly. In addition to this, wood is very good heat insulator too. The outer surface of the wood is 1000C and the interior part is still 40C when a piece of thick wood is burning. For this reason, buildings with thick structure elements such as beams and columns do not collapse easily on fire. On the other hand, in steel constructions, as heat increases,

steel faces deformation, and their resistance decreases and collapses, where wood is used preventive measures must be taken for safety against fire. In this case wood is not a dangerous material.

WOOD PRESERVATION
Two general Classes: (1) Oilborne preservatives such as creosote and petroleum solutions of pentachlorophenol (2) Waterborne preservatives that are applied as water solutions Oilborne Preservatives Wood does not swell from treatment with preservative oils, but it may shrink if it loses moisture during the treating process. Creosote and solutions with heavy, less volatile petroleum oils often help protect wood from weathering, but may adversely influence its cleanliness, odor, color, paintability, and fire performance. Wood treated with some preservative oils can be glued satisfactorily, although special processing or cleaning may be required to remove surplus oils from surfaces before spreading the adhesive. Coal-Tar Creosote Coal-tar creosote (creosote) is a black or brownish oil made by distilling coal tar that is obtained after high temperature carbonization of coal. Advantages of creosote are (a) high toxicity to wooddestroying organisms; (b) relative insolubility in water and low volatility, which impart to it a great degree of permanence under the most varied use conditions; (c) ease of application; (d) ease with which its depth of penetration can be determined; (e) relative low cost (when purchased in wholesale quantities); and (f) lengthy record of satisfactory use. Coal-Tar Creosotes for Nonpressure Treatments Special coal-tar creosotes are available for nonpressure treatments, although these creosotes can only be purchased bylicensed pesticide applicators. Special coal-tar creosotes differ somewhat from regular commercial coal-tar creosote in (a) being crystal-free to flow freely at ordinary temperatures and (b) having low-boiling distillation fractions removed to reduce evaporation in thermal (hot and cold) treatments in open tanks. Consensus standards do not exist for coal-tar creosote applied by brush, spray, or open-tank treatments. Creosote Solution For many years, either coal tar or petroleum oil has been mixed with coal-tar creosote, in various proportions, to lower preservative costs. These creosote solutions have a satisfactory record of performance, particularly for railroad ties and posts where surface appearance of the treated wood is of minor importance. The ASTM D391 CreosoteCoal-Tar Solution standard covers creosotecoal-tar solution for use in the preservative treatment of wood. This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.

Waterborne Preservatives Waterborne preservatives are often used when cleanliness and paintability of the treated wood are required. Several formulations involving combinations of copper, chromium, and arsenic have shown high resistance to leaching and very good performance in service. Waterborne preservatives are included 14 10 in specifications for items such as lumber, timber, posts, building foundations, poles, and piling. Acid Copper Chromate Tests on stakes and posts exposed to decay and termite attack indicate that wood well-impregnated with ACC gives acceptable service, but it is more prone to leaching than are most other waterborne preservatives. Use of ACC is generally limited to cooling towers that cannot allow arsenic leachate in cooling water. Ammoniacal Copper Zinc Arsenate This preservative is used most commonly to treat refractory species, such as Douglas-fir. Service records on structures treated with ACA show that this preservative provides protection against decay and termites. High retention levels of preservative will provide extended service life to wood exposed to the marine environment, provided pholad-type borers are not present. Preservative Effectiveness Preservative effectiveness is influenced not only by the protective value of the preservative chemical, but also by the method of application and extent of penetration and retention of the preservative in the treated wood. Even with an effective preservative, good protection cannot be expected with poor penetration or substandard retention levels. The species of wood, proportion of heartwood and sapwood, heartwood penetrability, and moisture content are among the important variables that influence the results of treatment. Preparation of Timber for Treatment Peeling Peeling round or slabbed products is necessary to enable the wood to dry quickly enough to avoid decay and insect damage and to permit the preservative to penetrate satisfactorily. Even strips of the thin inner bark may prevent penetration. Patches of bark left on during treatment usually fall off in time and expose untreated wood, thus permitting decay to reach the interior of the member. Drying Drying of wood before treatment is necessary to prevent decay and stain and to obtain preservative penetration. However, for treatment with waterborne preservatives by certain diffusion methods, high moisture content levels may be permitted. For treatment by other methods, however, drying before treatment is essential. Drying before treatment opens up the checks before the preservative is applied, thus increasing penetration, and reduces the risk of checks opening after treatment and exposing unpenetrated wood. Good penetration of heated organic-based preservatives may be possible in wood

with a moisture content as high as 40% to 60%, but severe checking while drying after treatment can expose untreated wood. Conditioning of Green Products Plants that treat wood by pressure processes can condition green material by means other than air and kiln drying. Thus, they avoid a long delay and possible deterioration of the timber before treatment. Incising Wood that is resistant to penetration by preservatives may be incised before treatment to permit deeper and more uniform penetration. To incise, lumber and timbers are passed through rollers equipped with teeth that sink into the wood to a predetermined depth, usually 13 to 19 mm (1/2 to 3/4 in.). The teeth are spaced to give the desired distribution of preservative with the minimum number of incisions. A machine of different design is required for deeply incising the butts of poles, usually to a depth of 64 mm (2.5 in.) Cutting and Framing All cutting and boring of holes should be done prior to preservative treatment. Cutting into the wood in any way after treatment will frequently expose the untreated interior of the timber and permit ready access to decay fungi or insects.

APPLICATION OF PRESERVATIVES
Two general types: (a) pressure processes, in which the wood is impregnated in closed vessels under pressures considerably above atmospheric, and (b) nonpressure processes, which vary widely in the procedures and equipment used. Pressure Processes In commercial practice, wood is most often treated by immersing it in a preservative in a high pressure apparatus and applying pressure to drive the preservative into the wood. Pressure processes differ in details, but the general principle is the same. The wood, on cars or trams, is run into a long steel cylinder (Fig. 14 3), which is then closed and filled with preservative. Pressure forces the preservative into the wood until the desired amount has been absorbed. Considerable preservative is absorbed, with relatively deep penetration. Three pressure processes are commonly used: full-cell, modified full-cell, and empty-cell. Full-Cell The full-cell (Bethel) process is used when the retention of a maximum quantity of preservative is desired. It is a standard procedure for timbers to be treated full-cell with creosote when protection against marine borers is required. Modified Full-Cell The modified full-cell process is basically the same as the full-cell process except for the amount of initial vacuum and the occasional use of an extended final vacuum. The modified full-cell process uses

lower levels of initial vacuum; the actual amount is determined by the wood species, material size, and final retention desired. Empty-Cell The objective of the empty-cell process is to obtain deep penetration with a relatively low net retention of preservative. For treatment with oil preservatives, the empty-cell process should always be used if it will provide the desired retention. Two empty-cell processes, the Rueping and the Lowry, are commonly employed; both use the expansive force of compressed air to drive out part of the preservative absorbed during the pressure period. Nonpressure Processes The numerous nonpressure processes differ widely in the penetration and retention levels of preservative attained, and consequently in the degree of protection they provide to the treated wood. When similar retention and penetration levels are achieved, wood treated by a nonpressure method should have a service life comparable to that of wood treated by pressure. Surface Applications The simplest treatment is to apply the preservative to the wood with a brush or by dipping. Preservatives that are thoroughly liquid when cold should be selected, unless it is possible to heat the preservative. The preservative should be flooded over the wood rather than merely painted. Every check and depression in the wood should be thoroughly filled with the preservative, because any untreated wood left exposed provides ready access for fungi. Cold Soaking and Steeping Cold soaking well-seasoned wood for several hours or days in low viscosity preservative oils or steeping green or seasoned wood for several days in waterborne preservatives has provided varying success on fence posts, lumber, and timbers. Diffusion Processes In addition to the steeping process, diffusion processes are used with green or wet wood. These processes employ waterborne preservatives that will diffuse out of the water of the treating solution or paste into the water of the wood. Vacuum Process The vacuum process, or VACVAC as referred to in Europe, has been used to treat millwork with water-repellent preservatives and construction lumber with waterborne and water-repellent preservatives. In treating millwork, the objective is to use a limited quantity of water-repellent preservative and obtain retention and penetration levels similar to those obtained by dipping for 3 min.

Effect on Mechanical Properties Coal-tar creosote, creosote solutions, and pentachlorophenol dissolved in petroleum oils are practically inert to wood and have no chemical influence that would affect its strength. Chemicals commonly used in waterborne salt preservatives, including chromium, copper, arsenic, and ammonia, are reactive with wood. Thus, these chemicals are potentially damaging to mechanical properties and may also promote corrosion of mechanical fasteners. Significant reductions in mechanical properties may be observed if the treating and subsequent drying processes are not controlled within acceptable limits. Factors that influence the effect of the treating process on strength include (a) species of wood, (b) size and moisture content of the timbers treated, (c) type and temperature of heating medium, (d) length of the heating period in conditioning the wood for treatment and time the wood is in the hot preservative, (e) post-treatment drying temperatures, and (f) amount of pressure used. Most important of those factors are the severity and duration of the in-retort heating or post-treatment redrying conditions used.

Factors Affecting Finish Performance Satisfactory performance of wood finishes is achieved when the many factors that affect these finishes are given full consideration. These factors include the effect of the wood substrate, properties of the finishing material, details of application, and severity of exposure. Wood Properties Wood surfaces that have the least tendency to shrink and swell are best for painting. For this reason, verticalor edge-grain surfaces are far better than flat-grain surfaces especially when the wood is used outside where wide ranges of relative humidity and periodic wetting can produce wide ranges of swelling and shrinking. Wood Extractives Water-soluble colored extractives occur naturally in the heartwood of such species as western redcedar, cypress, and redwood. These substances give the heartwood of some species their attractive color, water repellency, and natural decay resistance. However, discoloration of paint may occur when the extractives are dissolved and leached from the wood by water. Wood Product Characteristics Five general categories of wood products are commonly used in exterior construction: (a) lumber, (b) plywood, (c) fingerjointed wood, (d) reconstituted wood products (such as hardboard, oriented strandboard (OSB), and particleboard), and (e) preservativefire-retardant-treated wood. Each product has unique characteristics that affect the application and performance of finishes. Lumber Although several alternative materials are being used for siding (such as vinyl, aluminum, OSB, and hardboard), lumber is still the preferred choice for siding in many areas of the country and for a variety of architectural designs. Many older homes have wood siding. The ability of lumber to retain and hold a finish is affected by species, grain orientation, and surface texture.

Plywood Plywood for exterior use nearly always has a flat-grain surface, and if it is used for exterior wood siding, the surface is rough sawn. Smooth-sanded plywood is not recommended for siding, although it is often used for soffits. The flat-grain pattern in nearly all plywood can contribute to early paint failure. Therefore, if plywood is to be painted, take special care to prepare the surface and use high quality latex paint. Rough-sawn plywood holds paint much better than does smooth plywood. Fingerjointed Lumber In recent years, many mills have been producing lumber that consists of many small pieces of wood that are glued together and have fingerjoints to improve strength. This process is done to eliminate knots and other defects from the lumber. The lumber is commonly used for fascia boards, interior and exterior trim, windows and doors, and siding. Particleboard and Similar Reconstituted Wood Products Reconstituted wood products are those made by forming small pieces of wood into large sheets, usually 1.2 by 2.4 m (4 by 8 ft) or as required for a specialized use such as clapboard siding. These products may be classified as fiberboard or particleboard, depending upon the nature of the basic wood component Particleboard is manufactured from whole wood in the formof splinters, chips, flakes, strands, or shavings. Flakeboard is a type of particleboard made from relatively large flakes or shavings. Treated Wood Wood used in severe outdoor exposures requires special treatment for proper protection and best service. The most common hazard in such exposures is decay (rot) and insect attack, particularly by termites. Marine exposure also requires wood to be protected with special treatment. Many building codes require fireretardant treatment of wood for some uses. Types of Exterior Wood Finishes Weathered Wood as Natural Finish The simplest finish for wood is that created by the weathering process. Without paint or treatment of any kind, wood surfaces gradually change in color and texture, and they may stay almost unaltered for a long time if the wood does not decay. Generally, dark-colored woods become lighter and lightcolored woods become darker. As weathering continues, all woods become gray because of the loss of colored components from the wood surface and the growth of mildew. As the surface erodes, it becomes uneven because of the different erosion rates of earlywood and latewood. Penetrating Wood Finishes Penetrating finishes constitute a broad classification of natural wood finishes that do not form a film on the wood surface. Penetrating finishes are classified as (a) transparent or clear systems, (b) lightly colored systems, (c) pigmented or semitransparent systems, and (d) oils.

Film-Forming Finishes o Clear Varnish o Pigmented Varnish o Solid-Color Stains o Paint o Fire-Retardant Coatings

APPLICATION OF WOOD FINISHES

Types of Finish Water-Repellent Preservatives The most effective method of applying a water repellent or water-repellent preservative is to dip the entire board into the solution. Semitransparent Penetrating Stains Semitransparent penetrating stains may be brushed, sprayed, or rolled on, but they must be backbrushed. Brushing works the finish into the wood and evens out the application so that there is less chance for lap marks. Semitransparent penetrating stains are generally thin and runny, so application can be messy Waterborne Semitransparent Stains Waterborne semitransparent stains do not penetrate the wood surface as well as oilborne semitransparent stains, but they are easy to apply and less likely to form lap marks. These stains form a thin film, and a second coat will improve their durability. Apply the second coat any time after the first has dried. Solid-Color Stains Paint Solid-color stains may be applied to a smooth wood surface by brush, spray, or roller; if the finish is applied by spray or roller, it is necessary to back-brush immediately after application. Paint Wood and wood-based products should be protected from sunlight and water while stored prior to delivery to a construction site and while stored on the construction site. The finish should be applied as soon as possible after the wood is installed. Refinishing Exterior wood surfaces need to be refinished only when the old finish has worn thin and no longer protects the wood. In repainting, one coat may be adequate if the old paint surface is in good condition. Dirty paint can often be renewed and cleaned by washing with detergent. Too-frequent repainting with an oil-based system produces an excessively thick film that is likely to crack abnormally

across the grain of the wood. Complete removal of the paint and repainting are the only cure for crossgrain cracking (see subsection on crossgrain cracking under Finish Failure or Discoloration). Back-Priming Back-priming simply means the application of a primer or water-repellent preservative to the back side of wood (usually wood siding) before the wood is installed. Back-priming retards absorption of water, thus improving dimensional stability and extending the service life of the paint. It improves the appearance of the wood by decreasing extractives staining, particularly run-down extractives bleed. Types of Finish Sealers and Drying Oils Sealers and drying oils penetrate the wood surface, then solidify to form a barrier to liquid water. Many commercial sealers are similar to thinned varnish. These finishes can include a wide range of formulations including polyurethane, alkyds, and modified oils. Unmodified oils such as tung, linseed, and walnut oil can also be used as sealers if they are thinned to penetrate the wood. Nondrying Oils Nondrying oils simply penetrate the wood. They include both vegetable and mineral oils. Vegetable oils (such as olive, corn, peanut, and safflower) are edible and are sometimes used to finish wood utensils. Mineral (or paraffin) oil is a nondrying oil from petroleum. Since it is not a natural product, it is not prone to mildew or to harbor bacteria. Paraffin Wax Paraffin wax is similar to paraffin oil but is solid at room temperature. Paraffin wax is one of the simplest ways to finish wood utensils, especially countertops, butcher blocks, and cutting board