Lecture No: 15

15.1. Environmental effects

Landfilling can have several negative impacts upon the surrounding environment both
during construction (e.g. waste deposition) and after the landfill has been closed. The effects
depend upon the conditions at the landfill, i.e., the waste composition and quantity, the
quality of environmental protection activities, operation strategy, geographical location,
hydrological conditions at the location and time. Figure 15.1 shows some of the most
important environmental effects on soil, water and air caused by landfilling together with the
typical distances over which the effects are significant.

Figure 15.1 Potential environmental effects on soil, water and air as a function of
distance from a landfill
15.1.1 Atmospheric environment
Global warming. Organic wastes deposited in landfills will typically decompose biologically
under anaerobic conditions producing methane gas. Part of the methane will escape to the
atmosphere and add to global warming because it is a much more powerful greenhouse gas
compared to carbon dioxide. The CO2 produced from the organic wastes will not add to
global warming, as the organic matter is in essence CO 2 neutral because it is synthesized via
photosynthesis. Methane accounts for approximately
18% of the total quantity of greenhouse gases on a global scale (Christensen, 1998). Methane
from landfills accounts for approximately 1-2% of global greenhouse gas emissions
(Thorneloe 1996). Methane produced at landfills can be collected via gas extraction systems
and used for energy production. This will reduce global warming potential, as the CO2
produced from combustion of methane is neutral with respect to global warming. Part of the
methane that is not collected will be oxidized biologically in the upper aerobic layers of the
landfill cover. Preventing organic wastes from being deposited at landfills can also reduce
methane emissions.
Ozone depletion. Chlorine and fluorine containing gases released to the atmosphere are
potentially harmful to the ozone layer. These gases are degraded photo chemically in the
upper atmosphere producing free chlorine and fluorine that reacts with ozone and thereby
deplete the ozone concentrations that protects the earths surface from the ultra violet rays of
the sun. In connection with landfills the gases are primarily released from disposed
refrigerators, freezers and other types pf cooling equipment, solvents and insulation materials.
Many of the gases can potentially be degraded under the anaerobic conditions existing in
landfills (Kromann et al. 1998) but since the gases are very volatile significant quantities
significant quantities will escape to the atmosphere. Controlled collection and combustion of
the landfill gas can reduce emissions of the ozone depleting gases.
Toxic gases. Landfill gas contains significant concentrations of compounds that are
potentially toxic to humans. These gases include mainly CO2 and H2S. Toxic gases are also
present in trace amounts in the landfill gas. Here benzene and vinyl chloride, dioxins and
furans are important due to their carcinogenic and toxic properties. Dioxins and furans are
normally produced via uncontrolled combustion of the landfill gas. Benzene normally
originates from gasoline and solvents disposed of at the landfill. Vinyl chloride is a
degradation product from trichloroethylene, a solvent that can be degraded under anaerobic
conditions. Vinyl chloride itself is not very degradable under anaerobic conditions and
therefore has the potential to reach the atmosphere. Controlled collection and combustion of
landfill gas will reduce the emissions of toxic gases to the environment.
Odor. Problems with odorous and foul smelling compounds are typically significant only
near the landfill. Important odorous compounds are H2S and organic sulfur compounds
(mercaptans etc.). Odor problems are most significant during deposition of the wastes at the
landfill. Odor can be a significant nuisance in areas near a landfill. Odor problems can be
reduced by minimizing the amount of easily degradable material in the landfill, by keeping a
small open waste front at the landfill, by operating as far away from inhabited areas during
the summer as possible and by placing landfills under consideration of prevailing wind
directions.
Noise. Noise is one of the most significant nuisances near the landfill and is created by the
traffic of waste trucks to and from the landfill. Also compactors and other large equipment in
use at the landfill add to the noise problem. In special cases can birds especially seagulls
create their own noise problem. Constructing noise barriers around the landfill area such as
earthen walls and dense plantations can reduce noise. Noise reduction can also be achieved
by using equipment that creates less noise and restricting operation hours especially during
seasons when resident uses outdoors facilities.
15.1.2.Soil environment
Vectors. Landfills that receive organic (food) wastes usually attract animals and insects that
seek food and tend to multiply in the area. It is especially flies, gulls, rats and cockroaches
that are attracted to the wastes. Most of these animals can spread diseases and is therefore a
hygienic problem. Large flocks of birds can also cause problems for air traffic. The presence
of animals can be reduced by carefully covering the wastes after each day, using a thick top
layer, using rat poison and by using bird nets over the landfill site.
Fly waste and dust. Dust and fly waste (waste transported by the wind) can often be a
nuisance near landfill sites. Dust is especially a problem at sites where ash and soil is
deposited. Dust and fly waste can be reduced by using only a small open waste front, by
watering dry wastes, by covering the wastes carefully and by regular cleaning of the landfill
area.
Fire and explosion hazard. Landfill gas can potentially cause fire and explosions, as the gas
is highly combustible. The gas is explosive if between 5 and 15% methane is mixed with
atmospheric air. This range is not very dependent upon the presence of other components in
the gas (Gendebien et al. 1992). Landfill gas is normally not a problem with respect to
explosion hazard if the gas is emitted directly to the atmosphere. It is however not uncommon
that the gas can ignite and burn steadily at the location of emission. If the gas seeps into
closed spaces such as basements in houses or sewers there is a potential explosion hazard.
A spark from electrical installations can ignite the gas. Explosions in residential areas
near landfills are not all that uncommon and people have been reported killed in such
explosions. In March 1991 an explosion occurred in an older house near an old closed landfill
at Skellingsted, Seland, Denmark killing two people. The house was constructed with
wooden floors directly over the soil surface offering no gas flow barrier and was located 20 m
away from the landfill edge. Figure 15.2 shows the weather pattern during the period. It is
seen that the explosion occurred simultaneously with the passage of a low-pressure weather
system and that significant rain fell the day before the explosion. The rain likely sealed the
upper layers of the soil, restricting gas movement whereas the low pressure increased the gas
pressure gradient across the soil formation. The gas was therefore forced to escape under the
house (the only dry spot) and increased gas movement into the house. It is believed that a
cigarette ignited the gas once concentrations became high enough. The fire and explosion
hazard can be reduced by collection of the landfill gas, by minimizing the amount of
biodegradable waste deposited and by installation of gas alarms in buildings near the landfill.

Figure 15.2. Atmospheric pressure and precipitation variation in March 1991

when an explosion occurred in a house near an old landfill
 Vegetation damage. Another aspect of landfill gas migrating into the soil formations
surrounding the landfill is the displacement of the oxygen containing air from the soil pores.
The gas can often cause displacement of oxygen from the upper soil layers including the root
zone. These mechanisms cause damage to vegetation near the landfill because the root system
cannot develop in an oxygen free atmosphere. This causes the plants to develop roots very
near the soil surface, which results in vegetation damage and destruction during dry periods.
Plants may also develop dwarfed growth patterns in such areas.
Vegetation damage is often seen at or near landfills without gas collection as the landfill gas
can migrate through the soil up to 100 m away from the landfill. Migration is most significant
at older landfills without membrane systems. Gas migration also depends upon the
surrounding soil type; sandy soils facilitate faster gas movement. Lenses or layers of low
permeability materials in the soil can also cause farther gas movement away from the landfill
edge. Variations in precipitation and atmospheric pressure also affect gas movement. Figure
15.3 shows methane and carbon dioxide concentrations in soil near the Skellingsted landfill
as a function of time during the year 1999.

Figure 15.3 Methane and carbon dioxide concentrations in soil 10m from landfill edge
at an old landfill near the Skellingsted.
Average background soil concentrations of methane and carbon dioxide at the location were 0
and 18 g/m3, respectively. Significant gas movement as far as 30 m away from the landfill
edge as well as areas with significant vegetation damage were observed at the Skellingsted
site. Vegetation damage can be reduced by collecting the landfill gas or by reducing the
amount of organic waste deposited at the landfill.
Soil pollution. Movement and deposition of contaminated dust (for instance from
contaminated soil or ash) can pollute the soil near the landfill. Pollution can also spread by
surface water runoff from the landfill. Soil pollution is best prevented by careful
encapsulation of the waste and by irrigation of dry dusty wastes. Also surface water must be
managed in a controlled manner to prevent erosion of the landfill surface.

15.1.3. Water environment

Surface water. If the drainage system for percolate and surface water collection at the
landfill site is overloaded for instance in connection with heavy rain or snow melting there is
a chance that the contaminated water can reach nearby streams and lakes and cause severe
damage to their ecosystems. Acute effects are oxygen depletion and ammonia toxicity. Effects
of long-term contamination are changes in the flora and fauna of the water body and
development of permanently oxygen free zones. Contamination of surface waters can be
reduced by locating landfills away from lakes and rivers, by construction of trench systems
for collection of runoff and by proper design and operation of percolate collection systems.
Ground water. The ground water contamination potential is perhaps the most significant
environmental hazard in connection with landfills. This has prompted the use of membrane
systems and percolate collection at modern landfills. The contamination plumes observed at
landfill are normally relatively short, less than 1 km (Christensen 1998) and they have a
significant self-cleaning capacity due to high microbial activity. Because the use of
membranes and percolate collection systems has been introduced some 20-30 years ago,
percolate plumes in the groundwater has generally only been observed at older unprotected
landfills. The knowledge about ground water pollution potential at modern landfills is
therefore limited. Ground water contamination can be minimized by the use of membranes,
percolate collection, limitation in the types of waste that are deposited and by minimizing the
infiltration to the waste via the top layer.
15.2. Temporal duration of environmental effects
The environmental effects caused by deposition of wastes at landfills have very different
temporal duration. The temporal duration can best be discussed based on the state of the
landfill. The lifecycle of a landfill can be divided into three major phases. 1) The deposition
phase, 2) The active phase, and 3) the passive phase. These three phases will be discussed in
more detail in the following. It is noted that the division of the landfill life into these three
phases is not a universal way of characterizing landfills but it is convenient as it is related to
the emissions from the landfill as well as the conditions of the wastes.
15.2.1 Deposition phase
The deposition phase is the period when the landfill is receiving waste. During this phase the
wastes are built into the landfill and the different sections of the landfill are completed.
During this phase also percolate and gas collection systems are being constructed and
operation will start up as landfill sections are completed. The landscape is restored and
vegetation is planted on the landfill cover. The duration of the phase depends on the capacity
of the landfill and can typically vary between 5 and 50 years. For economic reasons it is
desirable to have at least 15-25 years of capacity. Landfill sites for facilities this large,
however are difficult to locate in many regions, the problems with locating suitable landfill
sites also prompts a long life and efficient use of existing sites. The deposition phase is often
divided into a sub-set of construction phases such that the construction of the entire landfill is
not completed at once but is spread out over the deposition phase.

15.2.2 Active phase

The active phase is the period after deposition has been completed but when the emissions
are still significant enough to require active efforts for environmental protection. This is
percolate and landfill gas collection, percolate treatment and energy production from landfill
gas. It is difficult to assess the length of this phase as it depends upon the types of waste
deposited at the landfill as well as the construction and condition of the landfill itself. The
length of the phase may be determined based on the actual emissions from the landfill and the
capacity of the surroundings to absorb the effects of the emissions. The emissions will depend
upon the characteristics of the landfill, the waste, the size of the landfill, deposition
technology and the time. The capacity of the surroundings depends upon where the landfill is
located, the distance to and the type of environments near the landfills as well as the political
regulations for land use and environmental protection in the area.
15.2.3 Passive phase
When the activities for environmental protection are no longer operated actively, the landfill
enters the passive phase. During this phase a proper choice of landfill site, past restrictions
placed on the types of wastes deposited at the landfill, deposition technology and passive
environmental protection will ensure that the emissions to the environment are kept at an
acceptable level. The passive environmental protection can for instance consist of sloping
surfaces with good vegetation that will reduce the infiltration to the waste and oxidation
zones in the top layer where landfill gas can be oxidized biologically. This phase will
continue for as long as the emissions from the landfill are larger than from the surroundings.
Because the emissions from the landfill are larger than the surroundings during the passive
phase and the acceptance of these emissions is based on assumptions and past knowledge and
that the passive phase covers many years into the future it is very likely that the passive phase
will include monitoring of the landfill emissions.
15.2.4 Environmental effects
The emissions and the environmental effects caused by them have very different temporal
duration. Effects such as noise, dust and animals are linked to the presence of exposed waste
materials and these effects are therefore only present during the deposition phase. Effects
such as global warming and fire hazard on the other hand can be present during all three
phases. Figure 15.4 gives an overview of the likely temporal duration of the most significant
environmental effects of land filling.
Figure 15.4. Potential temporal duration of environmental effects caused by land filling
of solid wastes
 Lecture No: 16
16.1. Landfill construction
The most important elements of a modern landfill facility are bottom membrane,
percolate collection system, gas collection system, percolate irrigation system and top cover
(Fig 16.1). These are all integrated parts of the landfill. In addition monitoring of incoming
waste quality as well as air and groundwater quality in the area can be part of the facility. The
following sections briefly describe the design of the different elements of the landfill.

Fig 16.1. Structural elements of a modern land filling facility

16.1.1. Bottom membrane
The purpose of the bottom membrane is to reduce the leaching of contaminants out of
the landfill. It is not practically and economically possible to ensure that the membrane is
100% effective. An acceptable emission is determined based on a weighting of the costs of
constructing the membrane to a certain safety level against the costs of remediation of an
accidental loss of percolate to the soil below the landfill. The membrane should fulfill the
following demands:

• The membrane should function according to its purpose during the entire duration of
landfill operation as long as the percolate contains contaminants in unacceptable
levels for the surroundings. This means that the membrane should be functional
during both the deposition and the active phases.

• The membrane should be constructed such that the function can be changed when the
percolate concentrations of contaminants have decreased to acceptable levels.

• The membrane should be constructed as simple and robust as possible to reduce the
occurrence of constructed and operation errors.
 • The membrane should be constructed such that accidental losses of percolate can be
mapped and possibly controlled.
Membrane types and materials: The bottom membrane is composed of different elements
each with its own function. These elements are:

• Watertight layer (the membrane)

• Protecting layer

• Supporting layer

The watertight layer is normally either an in-situ clay layer or constructed layers of clay
and/or plastic. Constructed clay membranes are often made of bentonite (montmorillonite).
Bentonite is also used to improve the water retaining capability of in-situ clay layers. The
water retaining capability of clay membranes is based on their low water permeability. If the
membrane is very thin or there is a large pressure gradient across the membrane, significant
quantities of percolate may seep through. In Denmark law requires that clay membranes are
at least 0.5 m thick and has a hydraulic conductivity that is less than 10-10 m/s.
Plastic membranes are often made of polyethylene but there are also membranes made
from other materials such as rubber or PVC on the market. Plastic membranes are usually 1-
2.5 mm thick. The advantage of using plastic (or similar material) is that the material
consumption is small and that the membrane is (at least in theory) completely watertight. The
elasticity of most plastic membranes also means that they can withstand deformations without
breaking. The disadvantage is the small thickness and thus, the high possibility for puncture
plus the fact that construction of the membrane involves welding sections of membrane in the
field under current weather conditions with the possibility for errors.
Composite membranes of both plastic and clay combine the robustness but limited
water retaining capability of the clay with the complete water tightness but limited strength of
the plastic yielding a membrane with greater margin of safety against leaching of percolate.
The composition of a composite membrane is illustrated in Fig.16.2.
Fig 16.2. Schematic of a composite membrane consisting of a plastic and clay membrane
sandwich combination
The membrane system is in some cases fitted with a protective layer for protecting the
plastic membrane against sharp objects. Also a supporting layer may be established under the
membrane if the existing soil is insufficient. Supporting and protective layers can be made
from sand or from geo textile. There should be no water conducting layer between the plastic
and the clay membranes in a composite membrane system. In case of a hole in the plastic
membrane a water-conducting layer will allow the percolate to spread quickly over a large
area resulting in increased emission to the soil below. The first layer of waste that is deposited
over the membrane should also be regarded as a protective layer and visual inspection of this
waste with respect to sharp objects should be conducted.
Construction of the membrane. Land filling facilities should be constructed by companies
who have the required knowledge and expertise. The weather conditions under which
construction will take place should also be considered. It is of outmost importance that the
quality of the construction is inspected as it will be difficult or impossible to locate an error
when construction is completed. An approved quality assurance program including inspection
and control of materials and of the actual construction work should be available when the
contract is signed with the construction company.
Clay membranes, that be either in-situ membranes or manufactured membranes
should be constructed such that drying of the clay and the risk of crack formation is avoided.
Also the risk of softening of the clay due to rain must be avoided. This means that weather
conditions under which construction takes place must be carefully considered. It is not
possible to work in rainy weather and sections of the membrane that are finished must be
covered during sunny periods. Clay membranes should not be allowed to freeze, as this will
also cause crack formation. In-situ clay membranes must have a certain homogeneity and
quality. Parts that are of inferior quality for instance as determined by measurements of
hydraulic conductivity must be replaced. Recommended maximum hydraulic conductivity for
clay membranes is 10-10 m/s. The surface must be smooth and sloping consistently to facilitate
construction of the drainage system. If a composite membrane is desired the surface of the in-
situ clay membrane must be free of sharp rocks that can perforate the plastic membrane. The
permeability of the clay is of outmost importance for the membrane function and core
samples of the membrane materials should be taken for laboratory measurement of the
permeability. If the permeability of the clay material is too high bentonite can be mixed into
the in-situ clay formation.
Plastic membranes are normally constructed as welded sections of 5 – 10 m width. If
the plastic membrane is part of a composite construction it is important to ensure close
contact between the plastic membrane and the clay membrane below. It is therefore important
to avoid wrinkles in the plastic. Also changes in material length due to temperature changes
during the construction period must be considered. The weather should not be cold, wet or
windy, as this will cause difficulties in handling and welding of the membrane sections. It is
very important that the welding seams are completely watertight. This can be ensured by
using double seems and pressure test the space between seems as illustrated in Fig.16.3.
A protective layer is constructed on top of the membrane system. This layer often has
also the function of a drainage layer. When constructing the protective and drainage layer it is
important not to drive in the same tracks over the membrane as this can cause damage to the
membrane.

Fig 16.3. Schematic of welding technique and testing of plastic membranes

Transport through membranes. Transport of contaminants and other compounds through
clay membranes is controlled by advection and diffusion. The advective transport is
facilitated by water movement through the membrane and is governed by Darcy’s law.
Diffusive transport is governed by Fick’s 2nd law. For plastic membranes the advective
transport is unimportant (if the membrane is tight that is), as water cannot penetrate the
membrane. Certain molecules, however, are able to cross the membrane by diffusion even if
water molecules do not cross. Clay membranes retain pollutants by adsorption and ion
exchange processes. This means that these compounds move through the membrane slower
than water. The transport velocity for a given compound compared to that of water is
characterized by the retardation factor R. For instance if the transport of heavy metals is 100
times slower than that of water (a typical value) R equals 100. For clay membranes that are
free of structural errors, the diffusive flux JD (g/m2) of a compound with diffusion coefficient
in free water, Dw (m2/d), retardation factor, R and percolate concentration C (g/m3) through a
membrane with porosity φ (m3/m3) and thickness L (m) can be estimated as follows (Olesen
et al. 1996).
Dw C

JD= 0.45φ ---- ---- ---------(16.1)

R L

If the drop in hydraulic head across the clay membrane is ∆h (m) and the hydraulic
conductivity of the clay material is K (m/d), the advective flux JA (g/m2) is found as follows.

C K ∆h

JD= ------ ---- ---------(16.2)

R L

Equations (16.1) and (16.2) assume that the transport is at steady state, that the
concentration is zero below the membrane and that the percolate concentration and hydraulic
head are constant in time. In reality it may take considerable time before steady state is
reached and concentrations below the membrane can usually not be expected to be zero. The
above equations therefore represent a worst-case estimate of the transport through the
membrane. If cracks or holes are present in the membrane emissions can be orders of
magnitude higher than for intact membranes.
16.1.2. Drainage system
The purpose of the drainage system is to ensure an effective collection of percolate
during the deposition and the active phases and minimize the risk of uncontrolled leaching
from the landfill. The demands to the drainage system can be formulated as follows.

• The drainage system must function properly without blockages during its period of
active operation.
 • The drainage system shall ensure that the hydraulic head over the membrane is as low
as possible during the operational period.

• The drainage system must be constructed such that it is possible to monitor its
function and collection of percolate samples should be possible.

The drainage system is comprised of different components as illustrated in Fig.16.4. In

addition to ensure percolate collection the drainage system also functions as a protective layer
for the membrane system below. The system consists of the drainage layer, drainage pipes,
inspection and collection wells and pumping stations. The materials for the system are chosen
based on the operation conditions at the actual landfill and on the fact that it can be very
expensive to excavate and repair a faulty drainage system after waste has been deposited. The
hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer should be at least 10 -3 m/s (Christensen 1998). In
Denmark the thickness of the layer is typically 30 cm. The drainage layer can be constructed
of two separate layers, a bottom layer of coarse gravel (20 cm) and a top layer of sand (10
cm). The drainage pipes are normally placed within a section of stabilizing gravel directly on
top of the membrane. The capacity and strength of the drainage pipes is determined by the
infiltration rate and the geo-technical pressure on the pipes. The pipes should have no abrupt
changes in direction and the inside diameter should be at least 100 mm to allow for TV
inspection. Also the pipes should have relative large perforations (minimum 2.5 mm wide) to
minimize the possibility for clogging due to chemical precipitation. The thickness of the
drainage layer is determined by its hydraulic conductivity, the infiltration rate, the distance
between the drainage pipes and the maximum desirable percolate head over the membrane.

Fig 16.4. Schematic of the drainage system at a landfill

Design of drainage systems. The monthly precipitation that is exceeded once a year is taken
as basis for design of drainage system (Christensen 1998). This means that the system may be
overloaded 1/12 of the time. If re-circulation of percolate is done this must be included when
determining the design infiltration rate. Also the hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer
may decrease due to clogging and chemical precipitation. This must also be included in the
design procedure.
A simplified procedure for calculating the capacity of the drainage system can be laid
out as follows (Fig.16.5). The drainage pipes are located with distance I (m) from each other,
the slope of the membrane is a (m/m), the constant design infiltration rate is q (m/d),
hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer is K (m/d) and the maximum percolate depth is
Ya (m). The percolate depth should under normal conditions not be larger than the thickness
of the drainage layer. The Darcy flux of percolate in the drainage layer v (m 3/(m2 d)) is found
as
dy
V (x) = K ---- ---------(16.3)
Dx

The percolate depth y on a horizontal membrane is given as

q I

y(x) = x √-- (--- -1 ) ---------(16.4)

K x

Where I is the maximum theoretical distance between drainage pipes. The percolate
flow in the drainage layer per m of drainage pipe Q(x) (m3/(m d)) is found as
dy I
Q (x) = y (x) v(x) = K y(x) --- = ( --- - x) q ---------(16.5)
dx 2

The total amount of percolate that enters the drainage pipe per m is, thus 2Q(0) (or –
2Q(I)). Therefore each drainage pipe should be able to handle a flow of IqL where L is the
length of the drainage pipe assuming that I is constant. The maximum percolate depth f (m) at
the mid-point between two drainage pipes assuming horizontal membrane is
I q

f = --- √ --- ---------(16.6)

 2 K

On a sloping membrane the maximum percolate depth, ya (m) is

f
Ya = ------------------------- ---------(16.7)

√ 1 + K a2

Where a is the slope m/m. Given the values of ya, K, q and a, the design distance, I,
between the drainage pipes can be calculated using Eq.(16.7). If the membrane is constructed
with slopes towards the drainage pipes (Fig. 16.6) a distance between drainage pipes of I/2,
i.e., a safety factor of 2 is used i.e. I is chosen equal to 0.5 times the maximum value. If the
system is constructed with uniform slope (Fig. 16.6) a safety factor of 4 is used. Typical
distances between drainage pipes are 10 – 20 m depending on the design infiltration rate
(Christensen 1998).
Field investigations (Brune et al. 1991) indicate that one of the major problems with
drainage systems is clogging due to chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate and iron
sulfide in the drainage layer. This can not be entirely avoided but the problem can be reduced
by using coarse materials for drainage layer construction and by operating the landfill such
that percolate with a high content of degradable organic matter is prevented from reaching the
drainage layer (the organic matter is degraded before reaching the drainage system or the
percolate is collected above the drainage layer).
 Fig 16.5. Infiltration, percolate flow and percolate depth in drainage layer on a
horizontal membrane

Fig 16.6. Percolate depth as a function of distance between drainage pipes on horizontal,
double sloping and uniformly sloping membrane
16.1.3. Gas venting
Biodegradable wastes deposited at landfills will cause anaerobic conditions to develop
in the wastes resulting in formation of biogas. The gas will spread to the surroundings
including the atmosphere and surrounding soil formations if it is not collected. Landfill gas is
transported by both diffusion and advection but advection is normally the primary transport
mechanism (Poulsen et al. 2001). The advective flux of gas is driven by pressure differences
between the landfill and the atmosphere (or surrounding soil formations). This means that
variations in atmospheric pressure and fluctuations in wind speed and direction at the
landfill/soil surface play major roles in landfill gas migration. As mentioned earlier also the
gas permeability of the landfill material is very important. Figure 16.7 shows emissions of
CO2 and CH2 during the passage of a low-pressure weather system.

Fig 16.7. Landfill gas flux to atmosphere during passage of a low-pressure weather
system at Skellingsted lanfill
Management of the landfill gas can be done by collection and combustion of the gas
possibly with utilization of the energy to produce heat and electricity. This is done at many
landfills throughout the world. In cases where combustion of the gas is not possible for
instance due to low gas production rates a passive gas venting system can be used. Passive
venting is driven by the gas pressure difference between the interior of the landfill and the
atmosphere. Venting of the gas is done using perforated gas collection pipes (made of PVC or
PEH) installed in the waste. The pipes may be installed either vertical or horizontally as
illustrated in Fig.16.8. The perforated sections of the pipes are installed with a layer of gravel
between the pipe and the waste to facilitate gas movement into the pipe and prevent clogging
of the perforation.
Fig 16.8. Design of horizontal and vertical landfill gas collection systems Recently
alternative passive solutions to gas collection and combustion have been proposed. These
methods are based on improving the methane degradation capability of the soil cover. By
ensuring a homogeneous soil cover without cracks the landfill gas can be biologically
oxidized to CO2 in the soil layer before escaping to the atmosphere. Adding organic matter
such as compost to the soil can accelerate the degradation process. The organic matter also is
able to adsorb organic compounds found in the landfill gas thereby reducing odor emissions.
The technology is still under development and more research and experimenting is required
before it can be considered an alternative to gas combustion.
16.1.4. Percolate management
The percolate collected at the bottom of the landfill can be either directly sent to a
wastewater treatment plant or it can be recycled to the top of the landfill. Recycling has
several benefits, it provides an initial cleaning of the percolate before it is sent to the
wastewater treatment plant and if the percolate is applied on the surface of the landfill cover
for instance by a sprinkler system the percolate production can be reduced by evaporation. If
the percolate is applied below the landfill surface via a piping system reduction of percolate
quantity will be minimal. Application below ground has the advantage of minimizing odor
emissions and it can be used even during periods with frost. A disadvantage is that it is
difficult to repair the system. Newer sections of the landfill typically have lower degradation
capacity, the percolate from these sections can be lead to older sections where anaerobic
conditions have developed and the degradation potential is high, this will improve percolate
cleaning.
16.1.5. Top cover
The construction and design of the top cover is done based on the availability of
construction materials in the surrounding area as well as on the function demands to the
cover. Important demands to top covers are (Christensen 1998).

• Control infiltration to the waste and the production of percolate

• Enhance and control surface runoff and evaporation

• Control gas emissions

• Provide a physical barrier between the waste and the surroundings.

• Prepare the landfill area for its future use

Top covers can be constructed as permeable or non-permeable as illustrated in Fig.

16.9. The advantage of using a non-permeable cover is that the amount of percolate will be
very limited and limited percolate management is therefore necessary. Non-permeable covers
should not be used at landfills where the wastes are not degraded to a level where the
environmental emissions are insignificant. This is because most of the processes degrading
the wastes require water and therefore is dependent upon precipitation and infiltration. Also
many landfill sites will likely be used for recreational purposes after closure and the top cover
should therefore be constructed such that different plant species can be planted after
completion of the landfill. Also there should be as few as possible installations (gas pipes
etc.) above the soil surface after closure of the landfill to facilitate future use of the site for
other purposes.
 Fig 16.9. Elements of top covers at landfills in case of permeable and non-
permeable covers
The top cover consists of the following elements.

• Plant cover

• Growth layer

• Root barrier

• Membrane (for non-permeable covers)

• Regulation layer

The purpose of the plant cover is protection against erosion and dust emissions and it
enhances evapotranspiration from the growth layer, reducing percolate formation. Suitable
plants should be selected based on landscape conditions, climate and the future use of the
area. If the landfill is placed in areas where strong winds occur sufficient thickness of the
growth layer must be ensured for proper root development. It is generally advisable to use
plants that are robust and able to grow in extreme soils. Care should also be taken with
respect to landfill gas emissions that can cause oxygen deficiency and lead to insufficient root
development for the plant cover making it more vulnerable to drought and strong winds.
The growth layer can be constructed as two separate layers, an upper layer of organic
rich soil and a lower layer of sand and silt containing soil. The upper layer can be 20 cm thick
and the lower layer is normally 80 cm thick if a root barrier is present. If a root barrier is nto
present the lower growth layer should be 1.7 m thick (Christensen et al. 1998). The root
barrier is a 15 – 20 cm thick layer of coarse well draining gravel. In case of a non-permeable
top cover a membrane (possibly a composite membrane) is constructed under the root barrier
(Fig. 16.10), which then also functions as a drainage layer for the infiltrating precipitation. If
a membrane is used a gas drainage layer (gravel or sand) may be constructed under the
membrane to facilitate gas transport and collection. If the surface of the wastes is uneven a
regulation layer with a smooth surface can be constructed directly on top of the wastes.
16.2. Landfill hydrology
The hydrology of a landfill is of the outmost importance for management of the
landfill. The quantities of percolate that is produced at the landfill are controlled by the
hydrologic cycle at the landfill site. Knowing the flows of water in the different parts of the
cycle allows for the estimation of percolate production. The following sections present the
water balance for a landfill and a simple model for estimation of percolate production based
on climatic data.
16.2.1. Water balance

The following considerations with respect to landfill water balance are applicable to a
closed section of a landfill or an entire landfill where a top cover has been constructed. The
water balance is illustrated in Fig.16.10.

Fig 16.10. Components of the water balance for a closed landfill where top cover
has been constructed
The precipitation (N) is perhaps the most important factor for percolate production at
least at modern landfill facilities with membrane systems. When precipitation falls on the
surface of the landfill some of the water will evaporate from the surface before it can
infiltrate into the soil. Some of the water will also run off the surface to the surroundings (R)
in cases of high levels of precipitation or in connection with snow melting. Surface runoff can
also cause water from the surroundings to flow toward the landfill increasing the infiltration
to the top cover (R is a negative value). The remaining water will infiltrate into the top cover.
Part of this water will be taken up by plants and be transported to the atmosphere via
evaporation and by transpiration is termed evapotranspiration (E). The water that has not
evaporated or run off will infiltrate to the waste (I) where part of it may be consumed by the
chemical and biological processes occurring in the landfill. Some of the water may also get
hung up in the pores of the waste and increase the water content of the waste. The water that
has not been removed by all of the above processes will then infiltrate to the bottom of the
landfill as percolate (P). The water balance for the landfill can then be written as
P = N - R - E - C - W - G