THE ACADEMIC PERSPECTIVE

Research Update: The Volunteer Coaching Game Plan

^actors sucn as success and "^elf-efficacy drive volunteer coaches.
By Chris Kowalslii ith 40 percent to 50 percent of young people's time categorized as free and unobligated, they have plenty of time for numerous leisure and recreation activities (Caldwell & Baldwin, 2003). Youth sports have hecome a staple for young people during their leisure time. While engaging in sports, youth are able to experience a new activity, refine their skills or techniques, interact with their teammates, engage in competition, and have fun. Youth coaches serve not only as team leaders, but also as role models and mentors. The coach's leadership style and decision-making in the youth sports setting may have a lasting impact on a young person's decision to continue participating in a sport. Coaches are responsible for teaching and guiding their athletes. Volunteering to be a youth sports coach can be daunting if an individual has limited playing or coaching experience in that particular sport. Coaches with limited experience about motivation or technical skills may not believe in their ability to guide young athletes. Focusing on coaching efficacy allows individuals to understand what can impact their own coaching abilities and provides organizations with opportunities to mold and guide volunteer coaches involved in their programs. Coaching efficacy is the belief coaches have in their ability to carry out a certain course of action. Specifically, coaching efficacy comprises four dimensions: character-building, motivaJ A N U A R Y 2 0 0 8

tion, technique, and game strategy {Feltz, Chase, Moritz & Sullivan, 1999). Character-building addresses a coach's belief in influencing an athlete's personal development and attitude. Motivation examines a coach's belief in influencing the psychological state of an athlete. Technique looks at a coach's belief in his or her own instructional skills. And game strategy explores the belief a coach has in his or her ability to lead during a game performance. These four dimensions have been determined through research to be the "building blocks" on which coaching efficacy is gauged (Feltz et al., 1999; Marback, Short, Short & Sullivan, 2005; VargasTonsing, Warners & Feltz, 2003). Coaches with high levels of efficacy remain in coaching longer than coaches with lower levels of efficacy (Everhart & Chelladurai, 1998). Understanding these dimensions and a coach's overall level of efficacy may help youth sports organization administrators retain the volunteer coaches who in some cases are the backbone of programs. Research and Critique A coach's level of efficacy plays a major role in an individual's commitment to coaching. Factors that may play a role in determining a coach's level of efficacy are 1) organizationai and community support, 2) coaching education/ licensing/certification programs or clinics, 3) previous coaching experience, and 4) win-loss record. Administrators of youth sports organizations willing to invest the time addressing each of these factors increase

Research Update
the chances of their retaining coaches. Although all of the factors are discussed in terms of current research, organizations can have the greatest influence by providing support and education. Research has shown that a coach will remain committed to coaching when the organization or community he or she coaches for is committed to him or her as a coach (Kent & Sullivan, 2003). Social support is a key component; a coach needs to feel appreciated and welcome by the organization and the community for the job he or she does. These feelings in turn will positively influence coaching efficacy levels (Feltz etal., 1999). Coaching education classes and licensing or certification clinics have been attributed to an increase in a coach's level of efficacy. Lee, Malete and Feltz (2002) found that coaching education provides valuable information on technical skills and game strategy, which positively affect the coach's efficacy. Tbe researchers emphasize the importance of focusing on all four

Youth coaches serve not only as team leaders, but also as role models and mentors. The coach's leadership style and decision-making in the youth sports setting may have a lasting impact on a young person's decision to continue participating in a sport.

such as simulated or mock practices and games, may increase a coach's level of efficacy (Malete & Feltz, 2000). Previous coaching experience can provide a wealth of knowledge and the opportunity to use new coaching techniques. These experiences are significant sources of information in predicting coaching efficacy. Marback, Short, Short & Sullivan (2005) have shown that previous experiences have a powerful effect on coaching efficacy, both positively and negatively. Sullivan and Kent (2003) found that previous coaching experience, coupled with the other variables mentioned, positively influenced a coach's level of efficacy. The win-loss record of a coach's team may have ramifications on whether a coach continues in his or her role. As far back as the late 1970s, research has shown that success can be one of the strongest sources of information for understanding a coach's level of efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Research studies more recently found that the win-loss record of a coach positively affected his or her level of efficacy

dimensions of efficacy when conducting a coaching education program or clinic. Fung's (2002) research indicated that having a coaching education program, which provides a mentor for less experienced coaches, will aid in their commitment to coaching. Certain exercises in a coaching education program.

Research Into Action: Recruit ami Retain

Organizations and coaches can work together toward increasing a coach's level of efficacy to keep volunteer coaches staffed. Organizations can offer support and education through the creation of coaching clinics, or can outsource these clinics to other agencies that have designed clinics or education programs. For example, the Cedar Valley Youth Soccer Association in Cedar Falls, Iowa, provides coaching education sessions before the beginning of the season that involve league administrators leading coaches through a series of demonstrations, simulating a practice session. The South Texas Youth Soccer Association, in Manor, Texas, requires all coaches go through a basic coaching course. These courses are taught by STYSA staff coaches who hold national licenses or certifications. Participation in a coaching course includes organizing and implementing a practice with fellow coaches as "players," critiquing a game video and taking a written exam. Both associations cover topics in their coaching courses related to the four dimensions of coaching efficacy. Outlining the expectations of coaches before a season's start and following up with coaches once a season is over are good ways to develop and retain coaches. Coaches who volunteer for organizations that periodically meet to review and discuss adjustments to the programs may feel more appreciated and enjoy Increased self-worth. Asking for feedback from coaches throughout the playing season is another way to understand how coaches feel about their abilities related to coaching. As indicated from past research, there are several variables, if addressed in a positive manner, which can positively influence a coach's level of efficacy. If an organization can proactively manage the aforementioned factors, it will enjoy good retention rates for coaches in the youth sports programs.

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regiirding game strategy and motivation (Sullivan & Kent, 2003). Marback, Short, Short & Sullivan (2005) found that coaches are aware of their own win-loss record (specifically their most recent season) and that information can affect their level of coaching efficacy.
Chris Kowiitski Is an assistant professor in the Leisure, Youth and Human Services Division at the University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa. He is currently a coach with FC Midwest Soccer Academy in Cedar Falls.

References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioralchange, Psychoiogical Review, 84,191-215. CaldwelL, L L. & Baldwin, C. K. (2003). A serious lookat leisure. In F.A. Villarruel, D.F.Perkins, L.M. Borden,SJ.G. Keith {Ms.), Community youth development: Programs, policies, and practices (pp. 181200). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Everhart, C. B., & Chelladurai, P. (1998). Gender differences in preferences for coaching as an occupation: The role of self-efficacy, valence, and perceived barriers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69(2), 188-200. FelU, D. L., Chase, M. A., Moritz, S. E., & Sullivan, P. J. (1999). A conceptual model of coaching efficacy: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. jDumfl/o/fducahbno/Psyc/jo/ogy, 91,4, 765776. Fung. L. (2002). Task familiarity and task efficacy: A study of sports coaches. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 96, 367-372. Kent. A. & Sullivan, P. J. (2003). Coaching efficacy as a predictor of university coaches' commitment. International Sports Journal, 7. 78-88. Lee, K. S.. Malete. L., & Feltz, D. L. (2002). The strength of coaching efficacy between certified and noncertified Singapore coaches, InternationalJournal of Applied Sports Sciences, 14,1, 55-67. Marback. T. L. Short, S. E., Short. M. W., & Sullivan, P. J. (2005). Coaching confidence: An exploratory investigation of sources and gender differences. Journal of Sport Behavior, 28. 1, 18-35. Malete, L.,&FelU. D. L. (2000). The effect of a coaching education program on coaching efficacy. The Sport Psychologist 14,410-417. Sullivan, P. 3. & Kent, A. (2003). Coaching efficacy as a predictor of leadership style in intercotlegiate athieUcs. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1 5 . 1 11. Vargas-Tonsing.T. M.. Warners. A. L.. 8. Feltz, D. L. (2003). The predictability of coaching efficacy on team efficacy and player efficacy in volleyball. Journal of Sport Behavior, 26(4), 396-408.

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