INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM Bitumen Safety Code

Being Part II of the Institute of Petroleum Model Code of Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry

3rd Edition July 1990 Published on behalf of THE INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM, LONDON by John Wiley & Sons Chichester . New York . Brisbane . Toronto . Singapore

Copyright @ 1991 by The Institute of Petroleum, London Reprinted March 1992 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or translated into a machine language without the written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging - in - Publication Data: Institute of Petroleum (Great Britain) Bitumen safety code / Institute of Petroleum-3rd ed. P. cm. - (The Institute of Petroleum model code of safe practice in the petroleum industry : pt. 11 ) 'Published on behalf of the Institute of Petroleum. London.' ISBN 0 471 92930 1 I. Bitumen-Safety measures. I. Title. II. Series: Institute of Petroleum (Great Britain). Model code of safe practice in the petroleum industry . pt. II. TP692AB5157 1991 665.5'388-dc20 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: Institute of Petroleum Bitumen safety code-3rd. ed. 1. Bitumen. Safety measures 1. Title 11. Series 665.5388

90-20762 CIP

ISBN 0 471 92930 1

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Galliard (Printers) Ltd. Great Yarmouth

CONTENTS
Foreword 1. General Information 1.1 Scope and Applicability of the Code 1.2 Definition of Bitumen 1.3 Bitumen Emulsions 1.4 The Hazards 2. Health Protection 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Skin Bums 2.3 Bitumen Fumes 2.4 Hydrogen Sulphide 2.5 Skin Contact with Bitumen . 2.6 Health Surveillance 2.7 Classification. Packaging and Labelling 2.8 Addendum in Respect of Coal Tar Materials 3. Fire Prevention 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Control of Flammable Atmospheres 3.3 The Control of Sources of Ignition 3.4 Fire Precautions for Ancillary Petroleum Materials, or Fuels Associated with Bitumen Installations 4. Fire Fighting 4.1 Organisation 4.2 The Principles of Fighting Bitumen Fires 4.3 Tank Fires 4.4 Maintenance of Equipment 5. Manufacture 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Distillation Plants 5.3 Oxidation Plants. 5.4 Rundown Tankage 6. Blending 6.1 introduction 6.2 Batch-Blending 6.3 In-Line Blending 7. Storage 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Location. Spacing and Area Classification of Tanks 7.3 Tank Design Features Common to All Classes of Bitumen 7.4 Operations 7.5 Inspection 7.6 Maintenance and Tank Cleaning 8. Loading, Transport and Discharge 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Bulk Transport Containers 8.3 Road and Rail Tank Access Gantries 8.4 Pneumatic Discharge Systems 8.5 Pipework 8.6 Hoses 8.7 Draining of Loading Arms. Chutes and Hoses

8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12

Road Tanker and Railcar Operations . Ship and Barge Operations for Bulk Bitumen Cargoes Packaging Clearance of Pipework Blockages Operator Protection

9. Product User Guidance 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Bulk Supplies 9.3 Packaged Supplies 9.4 Mobile Bitumen Heating Kettles for Bitumens and Mastics 9.5 Roofing 9.6 Flooring 9.7 Asphalt Manufacture and Use 9.8 Surface Dressing of Roads 9.9 Summary of Health Precautions in die Use of Petroleum Bitumens 10. Sampling 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Dip Sampling 10.3 Sample Valves Appendices A. Classification of Petroleum and its Products by the Institute of Petroleum B. Recommended Bitumen Handling Temperatures C. Glossary of Terms D. The Application of Area Classification E. Exposure to Bitumen by Skin Contact and Inhalation F. References. Figures 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2 Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 4.1 4.2 7.1 8.1 Penetration Grade Bitumens Hard Grade Bitumens Oxidised Grade Bitumens Cutback Bitumens Selection of Portable Fire Extinguishers Recommended Minimum Provision of Portable Fire Extinguishers Tank Spacing for Class 11(2) or 111(2) Cutback Bitumens Recommended Bitumen Handling and Storage Temperatures Area Classification for Cutback Bitumens Cone Roof Tank for Class 1 Diluents Typical Current Hazard Warning Panel for Bitumen Road and Rail Tankers in the UK Text of Transport Emergency (Trem) Card for Bitumen Example of a Guide for the Safe Receipt of Bulk Bitumen Suggested Text for a First Aid Poster

FOREWORD
This revision of the 1979 IP Bitumen Safety Code follows a comprehensive review of all aspects involved in the safe handling of petroleum b itumens, including reported incidents. New information and studies, forming the basis of the guidance developed in the course of this revision have shown that, when there is overheating, the margin of safety can become dangerously small with some bitumen grades. and that there is in all cases a need to ensure accurate control of the temperature in bitumen tanks.

This update to the Code gives prominent attention to the measures that should be taken to minimise the likelihood of a flammable condition in or around the vapour space of bitumen tankage and for the control over potential sources of ignition, both electrical and non-electrical. This guidance should be drawn to the attention of all with responsibility for the design, construction, maintenance and operation of bitumen handling plant-both in the manufacturing and bulk distribution, but no less in the commercial user section of the bitumen industry. where the conditions of close control may be less easily attainable than is the case within the petroleum industry generally. In addition to the particular focus on the aspects of flammability presented in Chapters 3, 5 and 7, the other chapters of the 1979 Code have also been extensively reviewed and augmented as appropriate. Attention should be drawn to the recommendations on health aspects and personal protection in Chapter 2. to the product user guidance in Chapter 9 and to the expanded guidance on maintenance and tank cleaning in Chapter 7, with its extended sections on safe entry conditions and the control of hot work. The Code gives for the most part recommendations for safe practice rather than a set of rigid rules. In determining any required safe procedures, the effect of any unusual circumstance, on which it is impossible to generalise, should receive due consideration. Although it is believed that adoption of the Code's recommendations will help to reduce the risk of accident, the Institute of Petroleum cannot accept any responsibility, of any kind, for damage or alleged damage arising or otherwise occurring in or about premises. areas or vehicles to which this Code applies. Statutory requirements exist in many countries and these should always be complied with. This Code has been prepared by a Working Group reporting to the IP Safety Sub -Committee and will be reviewed from time to time. It would be of great assistance in any future revision if users would send comments or suggestions for improvement to: The Secretary, Safety Sub-Committee Institute of Petroleum 61 New Cavendish Street London W 1 M 8AR

1 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY OF THE CODE This Code covers safety in manufacture, storage. distribution and use of bitumen. It applies generally to all grades of bitumen meeting internationally recognised specifications but where advice is grade dependent as in the case of storage temperature guidance, it refers to bitumens meeting the British Standard specifications referred to in 1.2.1 to 1.3 and Tables 1. 1 to 1.4. A similar range of gradings is found in other national specifications, but care is necessary to ensure that any other grade to which this particular advice is applied is equivalent to the British Standard reference grade in all relevant respects. This Code does not cover coal tars, coal tar derivatives, or mixtures of coal tar products with bitumens. Although coal tars and derivatives can have applications similar to some bitumens. their chemical, physical and in particular toxicological characteristics are very different. With regard to the hazards related to their use they must therefore be treated separately. Advice on safe handling of coal tar products and their mixtures with petroleum bitumens should be obtained from their suppliers. 1.2 DEFINITION OF BITUMEN Bitumen is defined by the Institute of Petroleum and in BS 3690 as 'A viscous liquid or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene, is substantially non -volatile and softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum. It is also found as a natural deposit and as a component of naturally occurring asphalt in which it is associated with mineral matter.' 'Bitumen' is defined in a similar manner in most parts of the world outside North America. So that unnecessary confusion does not arise, it should be noted that in the UK the term asphalt is used for a

mixture of bitumen and mineral matter such as stone, sand and filler. However, in the USA. the term asphalt is applied to the product defined in most parts of the world as bitumen. When natural seepages of bitumen are intruded by fine mineral matter, they are referred to as natural asphalts (asphalte). Four principal types of bitumen are recognised. These are referred to as penetration grade. hard grade. Oxidised grade and cutback bitumens. 1.2.1 Penetration Grade Bitumens These are produced as residual products from the distillation of petroleum, subjected in some cases as outlined in Chapter 5 to a partial oxidation process. British Standard grades (see Table 1.1) are designated by a number representing the mid -point of the penetration range and the suffix 'pen' and a similar range is to be found in other national specifications. These bitumens are used principally for road surfacing but also for industrial applications and roofing. 1.2.2 Hard Grade Bitumens These are produced in ways similar to those used for penetration grade bitumens but they have lower penetration values and higher softening points. British Standard grades (see Table 1.2) are designated by the prefix H followed by two numbers representing the limits of the softening point range. These bitumens are used, for example; in paints and enamels. 1.2.3 Oxidised Grade Bitumens These are produced as described in Chapter 5 by passing air under controlled temperature conditions through soft bitumens admixed with a flux . They are more rubber like than penetration and hard grade bitumens. British Standard grades (see Table 1.3) are designated by two numbers representing the mid-points of the softening point and penetration ranges in that order. These bitumens are used widely in the manufacture of roofing felts. waterproof papers and electrical goods. 1.2.4 Cutback Bitumens These are bitumens. the viscosities of which have been reduced by blending with low viscosity diluents: kerosine for example as in the British Standard grades of BS 3690 (see Table 1.4). These are designated by a number representing the mid-point of the Standard Tar Viscometer (STV) viscosity range and the suffix 'secs'. These bitumens are used largely for road surfacing applications. Their blending process is described in Chapter 6. Special cutback bitumens are used for producing mastics and aggregate mixes. Where other specifications employ diluents of different flashpoint to the above (e.g. naphtha or gas oils). this should be take consideration in their handling and hygiene precautions. 1.3 BITUMEN EMULSIONS These are dispersions of bitumen in water, achieved by the use of emulsifying agents. They are used largely for road surfacing applications. Types and grades typically in use in the UK are described by BS 434. 1.4 THE HAZARDS When handling bitumens, hazards can arise from: the high handling temperatures generally necessary, the combustible nature of the product, vapour emissions associated with the product when heated. persistent skin contact. particularly when in solution, contact in piping. tankage or other vessels by hot bitumen with water, with violent expansion to steam of more than 1600 times its volume; this can give rise to dangerous froth- over, and may cause boil-over and rupture of the tank roof. attempted use of compressed air to clear pipeline blockage or suspected blockage in hot bitumen lines, or use of air for mixing in hot bitumen tanks.

The precautions necessary to avoid the hazards associated with the handling of bitumens are described in the following chapters.

They are considered first generally under the headings of Health Protection. Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting, and then more specifically in relation to the various phases of bitumen handling. from its manufacture through to its ultimate use. Table 1.1. Penetration grade bitumens (BS 3690 Part 1) Grade Property Test Method 15 pen 25 pen 35 pen 50pen 70pen 100pen 200pen 300pen 450pen ________________________________________________________________________________ Penetration ASTM 15 5 25 5 35 7 5010 7010 10020 20030 30045 45065 At 25oC D5.86 IP 49/86 _______________________________________________________________________________ Softening Point oC(min) IP 58/86 63 57 52 47 44 41 33 30 25 (max) 76 69 64 58 54 51 42 39 34 ________________________________________________________________________________ Loss on heating IP 45/58 For 5 h at 163oC (a)Loss by mass %(max) (b)Drop in penetr.(min) 0.1 20 0.2 20 0.2 20 0.2 20 0.2 20 0.5 20 0.5 20 1.0 25 1.0 25

Table 1.2. Hard grade bitumens (BS 3690 Part 2)___________________________________________ Grade Test H 80/90 H 100/120 Properly method Softening (min) IP 58/86 80 100 Point oC (max) 90 120 Penetration(min) IP 49/86 6 2 at 25oC (max) 12 10 ________________________________________________________________________________ Loss on heating IP 45/58 for 5 h at 163 oC Loss by mass % (max) 0.5 0.05

Table 1.3. Oxidised grade bitumens (BS 3690 Part 2) Grade Property Softening (min) Point oC (max) Penetration at 25oC Loss on heating for 5 h at 163 oC Loss by mass % (max) Test method IP 58/86 IP 49/86 IP 45/58 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.2 75/30 70 80 30 5 85/25 80 90 25 5 85/40 90 90 40 5 95/25 90 100 25 5 105/35 115/15 100 110 110 120 35 5 15 5

Table 1.4. Cutback bitumens (BS 3690 Part 1) Grade Property Viscosity (STV*) at 40 oC, 10 mm cup Distillation (a)Distillate to 225oC(% by volume max) 360oC (% by volume) Test method IP 72/86 50 secs 50 10 100 secs 100 20 200 secs 200 40

IP 27/74

1 8 to 14

1 6 to 12

1 4 to 10

(b)Penetration at 25 oC IP 49/86 of residue from distillation to 360oC Standard tar viscometer.

100 to 350

100 to 350

100 to 350

2
2.1 INTRODUCTION

HEALTH PROTECTION

This chapter gives advice on the hazards associated with bitumen (defined as in Chapter 1) and the personal protection and systems of work that should be considered to protect against these. The main acute hazards to health arise out of the heating of the product for handling or use. Not bitumen can give rise to serious bums, Heated bitumen evolves fumes and particularly if subjected to a very high temperature, can evolve hydrogen sulphide, which can create a signifi cant health hazard in confined spaces such as tank ullages. At ambient temperatures bitumen is normally solid and immobile and thus gives rise to. no acute or chronic health hazards. However chronic hazards can arise when bitumen is heated and fumes evolve and when bitumen is mixed with other substances. Bitumens contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in concentrations in the low percentage range. Some of these compounds with 4 to 6 fused rings and high boiling points have been demonstrated in animal studies to have carcinogenic proprieties. These particular studies are known to be present in bitumen in very small concentrations. It must however, be emphasised that the concentrations of PAHs present in bitumen are several orders of magnitude lower than occur in coal tar products, which are known to be carcinogenic. Whilst bitumen which is solid at ambient temperatures is not believed to present any chronic hazard, however when cut back with a diluent it should be regarded as posing a carcinogenic risk to the skin if regular and repeated exposure were to take place over many years with poor personal hygiene. See 2.5. Owing to the presence of the PAHs in the fumes given off when bitumen is heated, interest in the chronic toxicity of these fumes exists and this is discussed further below. See 2.3. Modified Bitumens and Derivatives Bitumen is used in a number-of formulated products. e.g. in special bitumens for particular applications, building products, preservatives and lubricants. Such formulations require additional consideration owing to the toxicity of the components admixed and specific advice on the hazards and precautions can only be obtained from the safety data sheet of the supplier. Because of this it is recommended that correct identification of bitumen type and grade be made by reference to the suppliers' data sheets before introduction in the work place so that the appropriate precautions are established. 2.2 SKIN BURNS All bitumen is handled as a heated liquid at temperatures above 100 oC at some stage during processing and transportation and when it is being incorporated in a mix or preparation or used in its final application. In its heated form it will adhere readily to any exposed part of the body, usually causing bums before it cools or can be removed. 2J.1 Protective Clothing against Skin and Eye Burns The objective in providing protective clothing to prevent burns must be to eliminate skin or eye contact with the hot liquid. Depending upon the operation in question, the following should always be used: Overalls which are designed to shed splashes and spills away from the body by means of close-fitting cuffs and leg-ends capable of overlapping the foot wear, together with suitable face and eye shield. The legs of overalls must be worn outside the boots. Heat-resistant gloves with close-fitting cuffs.

Heat-resistant heavy duty boots with close fitting at the top. Boots are preferable to shoes, and under no circumstances should light shoes, sandals etc be worn.

If there is a significant risk of splashing, the further additional items or protective clothing should also be used: Full head and face protection with neck-flap fitting over the collar. A neck cloth.

2.2.2 First Aid for Skin or Eye Burns Emergency water showers. e.g. of the step-on type, and eye bath facilities should be provided whenever bitumen is handled at an elevated temperature. All bitumen bums should receive medical attention without delay and bums to the eyes must be referred urgently for medical attention. Bums to the skin or eye should be immediately cooled by placing the bum area of the body under clean cold running water. This treatment should be continued until the bitumen has cooled and this could take up to 15 minutes. No attempt should be made to remove the bitumen from the skin or area of the eye as it forms a sterile barrier to the affected part and will protect against infection. A bitumen plaque will normally detach itself within a few days. In the case of bums to the head and neck, shoulders, chest, back or other parts of the body, cold wet towels can be applied to the bum area until pain is relieved. Lotions and ointments should not be applied, but ex posed. bums can be lightly covered by sterile bum dressings to exclude air; wrapping the casualty in blankets or any wool dressing should be avoided but, as shock will usually occur, the patient should be kept warm and provided with plentiful fresh air. Only small amounts of liquid should be given at frequent intervals and only if the patient is conscious and has no other injuries e.g. fractured limbs, which may require a general anaesthetic when hospitalised. No alcoholic beverages of any kind should be given. Where bitumen encircles a limb or finger, a tourniquet effect can occur as the bitumen cools. In such circum stances medical attention should be sought at the earliest possible moment after cooling. It may be necessary some extreme circumstances to reduce the amount of cooling in order to get the patient to a physician who can relieve this effect. The objective is to maintain the cir culation by breaking the encirclement and this may be done by weakening the ring by dissolving or if necessary cutting it. In areas or locations where professional medical assistance cannot be obtained within a reasonable time, it may be necessary for a first-aider to take action. If it becomes essential to remove a bitumen plaque from the skin, this should be done by swabbing with a medicinally-approved vegetable oil, or liberal amounts of warm medicinal paraffin. This should be followed by washing with soap and water and the application of a medically -approved refatting agent. Solvents such as gasoline, kerosine, gas oil or diesel fuel, which are skin irritants should never be used. Figure 9.1 gives the recommended text of a First Aid Poster on actions to be taken in the event of a bum. These can be posted in a prominent position at large locations, e.g. bitumen plants, or distributed in the form of a pocket card to mobile workers. At mobile sites, e.g. where hot spraying is carried out, where a supply of water is not available the provision of an emergency supply is recommended. This could take the form of a water filled stored pressure extinguisher modified by the addition of a fine spray type nozzle held in a readily accessible place. It should be clearly marked to indicate it is not to be used to combat fires and is for first aid use only. 2.3 BITUMEN FUMES When bitumen is heated. fumes comprising a mixture of particulate bitumen, hydrocarbon vapour and hydrogen sulphide gas are given off. As a rule, when working in the open air, hydrogen sulphide is unlikely to pose a risk to health. The hazard arises when hydrogen sulphide accumulates in confined head spaces of heated tanks as a result of the reactions which have been outlined in 3.2.2.3. This is dealt with in 2.4. The evolution of the lighter hydrocarbons into head spaces means that these spaces can also contain atmospheres which can be explosive. It is therefore necessary to protect individuals by the use of safe systems of work, for which detailed guidance is given in Chapters 3 and 7. As stated in 2. 1. small quantities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are present in bitumen and some of these have been shown to exhibit carcinogenic. potential in animal skin painting studies.

Whilst to date there is no conclusive evidence to suggest that bitumen fumes are carcinogenic, further work is proceeding, and advice may have to be amended in light of this and other research work. Nevertheless, bitumen fumes can cause irritation to the respiratory system and for this reason an occupational exposure limit was introduced. Bitumen fumes therefore pose hazards to the skin and respiratory system. The fumes emitted increase rapidly when bitumen is subjected to unnecessarily high tem peratures. Care should be taken to prevent overheating and to minimise skin contact by the use of appropriate personal protective equipment and attention must be paid to occupational exposure limits. In the UK there is an Occupational Exposure Standard (OES) which is directly applicable to bitumen which has not been admixed with any other material. This is the OES for 'Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes' which is published in the Health and Safety Executive's current annual Guidance Note EH40 1990 'Occupational Exposure Limits', which quotes the following figures: OES - 5 Mg/M3 8-hour time-weighted average Short Term* - 10 Mg/M3 10-minute time-weighted average * Maximum Exposure Limit A similar standard is in use in a number of other countries. A reference method by which such levels can be assessed has been published as Part III of the CONCAWE Report 6/84 'Review of Bitumen Fume Exposure and Guidance on Measurement'. The procedure, which is complex. first uses the ultra fine composite biter incorporated in a personal sampler to determine total particulate matter (TPM). which will include aerial dust and other mineral material. This is then solvent extracted to determine the benzene soluble material (BSM), which gives the Asphalt Petroleum Fume equivalent. It has been noted in EH40, paragraph 20 that for a single substance. control to the OES, or below it. can be regarded as adequate control of exposure to inhalation. However due to fluctuations in the work place it is considered it will be prudent to attempt to reduce exposure below that figure. Such a reduction is a function of the ventilation and the avoidance at all times of excessive temperature levels, and the practical guidance given in 2.3.1 and in the sections on user application considerations in Chapter 9 should be carefully evaluated. See Note to 9. 1. Where it is necessary to derive user working limits for mixtures containing other components it should be remembered that the occupational exposure standard for Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes can only be applied to the bitumen particulate matter of the mixture in the air. Other limits may be applicable to other components. For example, if bitumens which have been cut back with kerosine are to be sprayed, it would be necessary to consider the exposure to bitumen particulate matter in the aerosol and to apply the OES for Asphalt, Petroleum Fumes to this. Similarly, it would be appropriate to consider a limit for hydrocarbons, e.g. White Spirit for the kerosine vapour phase. Where other solvents are employed a similar procedure should be followed. It should be borne in mind that current and future work on bitumen fumes may result in a change in the quoted occupational exposure limits. 2.3.1 Respiratory Protection against Bitumen Fumes Because the evolution of fumes increases with increase in temperature. it is essential that the guidance given in Chapter 9. and in Appendix B 'Recommended Bitumen Handling Temperatures' for users should be followed, and that every operation should be carried out at as low a temperature as possible compatible with efficient working but always below the maxima recommended. Where hot bitumen is to be handled by persons working in confined spaces, e.g. indoors, effective local artificial ventilation of a suitable performance should be used in order to reduce exposure as far as possible. Half face orinasal cartridge respirators of an approved type should be used if the OES is likely to be exceeded after such precautions have been considered. The same general rules may be applied to cut back bitumens. However, when handling formulated bituminous products or products containing bitumen, for example admixed with other components of a special nature such as coal tar products. advice must be sought from the suppliers' safety data sheets. It may be necessary to enter into discussions with them if it is felt that the information is not adequate. 2.4 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE As noted in 2.3, hydrogen sulphide can concentrate in the confined vapour spaces of bitumen storage tanks and lethal concentrations can occur.

The odour threshold of hydrogen sulphide is well below 1 ppm. However. the familiar *bad eggs* odour cannot be relied upon to warn of the presence of dangerous concentrations because the gas rapidly deadens the sense of smell even concentrations of 20 ppm, well below hazardous level. Prolonged exposure to concentrations above 50 ppm produces irritation of the eyes and mucous membranes of the nose, throat and lungs. Exposure for 30 minutes or so up to a concentration of 200 ppm can be tolerated without serious con sequences but should be avoided. See below. Any exposure to concentrations above 500 ppm can result in death and at levels above 700 ppm unconsciousness and collapse can occur in seconds. In the UK the Occupational Exposure Standard quoted in the Health and Safety Executive*s Guidance Note EH40 for hydrogen sulphide is as follows: - 10 ppm (14 mg/m3) 8 hour time-weighted average (OES) - 15 ppm (21 mg/m3) 10 minute time-weighted average (MLL) 2.4.1 Respiratory Precautions Despite possible dangerous concentrations within tanks, experience has shown that the risk is low when pumping, gauging or sampling tanks since measurements taken a foot or more from hatch openings have shown dilution to below hazardous levels. Nevertheless, tank tops and particularly the region around dip holes and tank vents should be regarded as hazardous areas and personnel should be informed of the potential hazard. Systems of work should be instituted that require personnel to stand upwind and with their faces at least two feet away from such sources of exposure during operational activities. They should also be advised to avoid breathing vapours, particularly when opening dip holes or hatch covers. Persons in the vicinities of tanks or tank cars being loaded or filled with bitumen should stand upwind of vents and other openings so as to minimise their exposure to the vapours discharged. Manual gauging or sampling from the tank top should be discouraged, and for general safety reasons preference given to automatic level-indicators. See 7.3.4 and 7.3.11. As noted in 7.4.6, access by personnel to the roofs of hot bitumen tanks should be forbidden during product movement into or out of the tanks concerned. There is not normally sufficient hydrogen sulphide to cause harm in the vicinity of open air work with bitumen but, where there is any doubt. tests for hydrogen sulphide concentration should be carried out and appropriate pre cautions taken. Entry into Tanks Entry of personnel without approved breathing apparatus into a tank which contains or has contained bitumen should be forbidden until the tank has been fully tested and certified to be free from hydrogen sulphide, to contain a respirable atmosphere and to be otherwise safe for such entry. The person entering the tank should be equipped with a belt and lifeline. A second person equipped with breathing apparatus should stand by the entrance (Factories Act Section 301. See 7.6. 1.) 2.4.2 Emergency First Aid for Persons Affected by Hydrogen Sulphide Rescuers likewise should not enter suspect atmospheres without appropriate breathing apparatus and without a second person similarly equipped standing by the tank entry. See 7.6. 1. Persons affected by inhalation of hydrogen sulphide should be removed as soon as possible to an uncontaminated area in the fresh air. Medical attention should be called without delay and immediate resuscitation procedures commenced as follows: Consciousness should be ascertained by shouting a number of times and by gentle shaking, taking care of possible injury. If conscious the casualty should be placed in the recovery position, i.e. on the side and with head downwards to prevent choking if vomiting occurs. If not conscious, place on the back and look, listen and feel for signs of breathing. If the heart has stopped, external cardiac massage should be employed, using external chest compression (ECC). If the patient is not breathing, an immediate check should be made by first opening the mouth to ensure that the airway is clear (if necessary removing vomit, blood, loose teeth or broken dentures from the mouth or throat) and artificial respiration applied by expired air resuscitation (EAR) using the mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose method. If or when the heart and lung operation is normal, the casualty should be placed in the recovery position. i.e. on the side, and with the head downwards in case of vomiting. If breathing, he should be given oxygen, which should be available on a standby basis.

All persons who may be required to administer such treatment should receive adequate training in its procedure. A suitable guidance leaflet written by the Resuscitation Council (UK) is available from the British Heart Foundation, 102 Gloucester Place, London W1H 4DH. Apparent death from hydrogen sulphide is not irreversible since prompt and efficient artificial respiration may restore life. 2.5 SKIN CONTACT WITH BITUMEN The function of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a part of the World Health Organisation is to review, summarise and evaluate the strength of evidence for the carcinogenicity in experimental animals and humans for a wide range of agents, and conditions of exposure. The use of animal studies allows a much wider range of exposure conditions and concentrations to be explored outside the range of human exposure. The results of such studies in which solutions of bitumens in organic solvents (such as benzene, toluene and acetone), when painted on to the skin of animals have given rise to skin tumours have led IARC in its Monograph 35 to conclude that: 'There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of extracts of steam -refined bitumens, air-refined bitumens, and pooled mixtures of steam-and-air refined bitumens in experimental animals. There is inadequate evidence that bitumens alone are carcinogenic to humans. There is no inconsistency between the above state ments for the reasons outlined in the paragraph above and this is made clear by IARC in the preamble that precedes their monographs, which states: ..'The Monographs represent the first step in carcinogenic risk assessment, which involves examination of all relevant evidence that. under certain conditions of exposure, an agent could alter the incidence of cancer in humans. The second step is quantitative risk estimation, which is not usually attempted in the Monographs. Detailed, quantitative evaluations of epidemiological data may be made in the Monographs, but without extrapolation beyond the range of the data available. Quantitative extrapolation from experimental data to the human situation is not undertaken. These Monographs may assist national and international authorities in making risk assessments and in formulating decisions concerning any necessary preventative measures' These qualifications by IARC on the use of their evaluations clearly indicate than an agent. which is, is probably, or is possibly carcinogenic to humans, does not necessarily present an actual risk to humans. Further assessment, including consideration of possible exposure, is needed in order to reach a conclusion on actual risk. However IARC also take the view that 'in the absence of adequate data on humans, it is reasonable, for practical purposes. to regard chemicals for which there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals as if they present a carcinogenic risk to humans'. On this premise it may be taken as prudent in the handling and use of bitumen to avoid intimate and prolonged skin and body contact with the material where this could occur. In the case where bkumens are handled hot, the possibility of heat bums and the consequent measures that are taken to protect against this act as a very effective deterrent to repeated skin contact though good personal hygiene in respect of hands and inner clothing should always be maintained in the course of work. In situations in which bitumens are made less viscous by the addition of a diluent e.g. kerosine or another solvent, the possibility for biological accessibility is enhanced. when such diluted bitumens, or bitumens in emulsified form, are sprayed or encountered in the form of a mist or aerosol, there is, in addition to the risk of inhalation. a high probability of skin, contact directly or via contaminated clothing. Appropriate systems of work and personal protective equipment should therefore be provided to protect persons where intimate contact with bitumen might arise from its use with diluents or in spraying operations where the temperatures do not preclude the possibility of skin contact. See 2.5. 1. Modified Bitumens and Derivatives Yet further hazards may be associated with bituminous preparations containing additives and it is not possible to provide advice for these products, which can contain materials such as aromatic extracts of petroleum distillates, coal tar products and emulsifying chemicals. In all circumstances the suppliers' data sheets should be consulted and. where some doubt still exists, further advice sought from the supplier. 2.5.1 Protective Clothing against Skin Contamination In circumstances when bitumen is being handled under conditions in which protection against heat bum is not necessary, overalls, gloves and protective footwear should still be used. The use of overalls without pockets is preferable in order to avoid the possibility of contaminated equipment and cloths/rags contaminating undergarments.

When the bitumen is handled in a form in which splashing is possible, personal protective clothing should be of an impervious type and suitable eye and face protection should be used. When bituminous products are being sprayed or encountered in the form of an aerosol, the advice given in 2.3 above should be followed. Overalls should be dry cleaned as necessary to avoid permeation of the product to underclothing. Under clothing contaminated with the product should be dry cleaned or discarded. 2.5.2 First Aid and Personal Hygiene In the event of non-heated bituminous products entering the eye, the eye should be flushed with copious quantities of clean water. If irritation persists, the patient should be referred for medical attention. Persons engaged in the manufacture. blending or use of bitumen at work should be provided with appropriate barrier creams for the hands and washing facilities including hot water, soap and clean towels, preferably disposable. Low temperature skin contact normally does not require first aid but the product should be washed off the skin immediately after any contamination and at the end of each work period, with a proprietary, skin cleanser, soap and water. Refatting skin preparations should be used after washing to assist in replacing natural oils. Under no circumstances should a person who has been handling bituminous products eat, drink, smoke or go to the toilet without first washing the hands. The application of barrier creams to the skin. prior to work with bitumen, assists in subsequent cleansing should contact occur. It must be stressed, however, that barrier creams are not adequate substitutes for gloves or other impermeable clothing and should therefore not be used as the sole form of protection. Solvents such as gasoline (petrol), kerosine (paraffin), gas oil or diesel fuel should not be used for skin cleansing purposes because they damage the skin. Gasoline in particular also poses a serious fire hazard. 2.5.3 Bitumen Emulsions Bitumen emulsions may tend to be irritating to the skin and eyes and could also produce allergic responses in some individuals. Such irritation effects arise mainly from the emulsifying agents and acids and bases used. 2.6 HEALTH SURVEILLANCE In the UK the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations only require health surveillance when an identifiable disease is known and some method of predicting the cause of symptoms can be detected. In the case of mineral oil products identified as having carcinogenic potential, self-examination on a regular basis is appropriate and any skin abnormalities such as irritation, redness, discoloration, cracking, swelling or warty growths should be immediately reported to a physician. Individuals who have come into contact with bituminous products regularly and who have changed jobs or have retired should be advised to continue this self examination as a matter of prudence. 2.7 CLASSIFICATION, PACKAGING AND LABELLING Bitumen at ambient temperature is not classed as dangerous for supply under the Classification, Packaging and Labelling legislation. However, when bitumen is ad-mixed with diluents to such an extent that the bitumen may be regarded as bioavailable, consideration must be given to its classification under the current regulatory regime. 2.8 ADDENDUM IN RESPECT OF COAL TAR MATERIALS This Code limits its guidance to the handling of penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens, and cutbacks made up with a petroleum diluent such as kerosine. However, as stated in 2. 1, coal tar materials and other non -petroleum compounds can be added to some bitu mens. Although often grouped with bitumen because of their use in similar applications such as road dressing, roofing, etc, coal tars and pitches are very different in their chemical and toxicological characteristics, and are not to be confused with bitumen either when used alone or if blended with bitumen. This difference is due to their mode of origin, in respect of which the BS 3690 'Bitumens for Building and

Civil Engineering: Part 3' gives the following definitions: Pitch. The black or dark brown solid or semi-solid residue remaining after the partial evaporation or fractional distillation of crude tars produced wholly or substantially as a by-product in the carbonisation of coal at temperatures in excess of 600 oC. Refined tar. Tar prepared from the pitch and oil fractions resulting from the distillation of crude tars produced wholly or substantially as a by-product in the carbonisation of coal at temperatures exceeding 600 oC. BS 3690 Part 3 then gives standards in respect of a series of pitch- bitumen and tar-bitumen mixes for use in road surface dressing, in which these contain 20 to 25% by mass of pitch. and 30 to 55% of refined tar, with the remainder being made up of penetration grade bitumen complying with BS3690 Part 1. See Table 1.1. Like bitumens, these mixtures are designated by the grade suffixes 'pen' and 'secs', and to avoid confusion the following fuller review is offered:

Coal tar and pitch have been listed by the Health and Safety Executive as carcinogenic in their cautionary guidance MS(B)4 'Skin Cancer caused by Pitch and Tar', which users are required to follow. In this respect, the presence of small quantities of 4-6 ring polycyclic aromatic compounds in bitumen was mentioned in 2.3. Analytical data for this were provided to IARC for their review of bitumen (Wallcave et al 1971). This showed, in a comparison of these data for a number of petroleum bitumens with comparable analyses for coal tar and pitch, that the content of 4-6 ring polycyclic aromatics of these latter was some three orders (1000s) higher than for the bitumens. It is for this reason that when coal tar or pitch, or mixtures of these with bitumens, as in BS 3690 Part 3, are used, the safety data sheets of the suppliers should be followed. In the case where bituminous type materials of unknown or uncertain origin are to be used, and confirmation that they are not wholly of petroleum bitumen origin cannot be obtained, through loss of labelling etc., it would be prudent to follow the health guidance of the previous IP Bitumen Safety Code (1979), and handle them in the same way as coal tar products. It has also been noted in 2.1 that toxic hazards can arise when bitumens contain diluent fluxes such as coal tar naphtha, tar flux oil or creosote. Creosote normally contains toxic phenolic compounds, which are readily absorbed through the skin, and these fluxes also contain polycylic aromatic compounds. It is therefore necessary for suppliers of products containing such materials to distribute appropriate safety data sheets, and for users of cutback which may contain components of unknown origin to exercise due caution in respect of their handling and contact with the body.

3 FIRE PREVENTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION When handling petroleum products the risks of fire should be minimised by limiting, as far as is reasonably practicable. the extent of production of flammable atmospheres and by avoiding sources of ignition in areas where flammable atmospheres might be present. 3.2 CONTROL OF FLAMMABLE ATMOSPHERES Small quantities of the vapours of hydrocarbons in air can form a flammable mixture which can be ignited by a flame, hot surface or heating element, spark or other source of ignition. This is true of the vapours that can collect in the confined ullage space of a storage tank, or other enclosed container containing heated bitumen. Hydrocarbon vapour becomes flammable when its percentage in air reaches as low a figure as about 1% by volume; below this the mixture is said to be 'too lean to burn', or 'below the lower flammable limit'; and this flammability continues-often with explosive potential in the confined space of a

tank-until the percentage of vapour reaches a higher level in air of about 8% volume. When it is said to be 'above the upper flammable limit ', or 'too rich to burn'. The normal procedure for the control of flammable atmospheres is based on the classification of the product being handled, using the Institute of Petroleum sys tem of classification (see Appendix A) or equivalent and then to apply layout, construction, and operational codes as appropriate to the product class. In the use of this classification a most important factor in determining the design and layout as well as operational precautions is the subdivision of the Classes II and III according to whether they are to be stored or handled at temperatures below (subdivision (1)). or above die flashpoint (subdivision (2)). In the case of bitumen, this procedure is directly applicable only to cutback grades. See 3.2. 1. Alternative approaches are necessary for bitumens other than cutback grades. See 3.2.2. 3.2.1 Cutback Bitumens Bitumens cut back with kerosine normally have flash points in the Class 111 range (see Appendix A). They are regularly handled at temperatures above their flash points and should therefore normally be stored and handled as Class III(2) products. See 7.2.2. Cutback grades made with solvents more volatile than kerosine can have flash points in the Class II range, and when stored, or handled at temperatures above their flash point they should be classified as Class 11(2) products for which 7.2.2 again will apply. To summarise, flammable atmospheres in cutback operations can occur: - in cutback tank vapour spaces at normal working temperatures, - in the vicinities of vents from tanks, particularly during heating and filling, - in the vicinities of mixing and spraying operations. Sources of ignition should be controlled in these areas. See 7.2.2 and 9.8.1. The fact that cutback bitumens at normal working temperatures often produce atmospheres too rich in flammable vapour to be flammable without addition of air, must not be relied upon as a safeguard against the presence of a flammable atmosphere wherever they are handled in contact with air with consequent dilution down to within the flammable range, e.g. at vents and other tank openings. For the handling of the cutback diluents see 7.2.3. 3.2.2 Bitumens other than Cutback Grades This category includes penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens which require different handling in accordance with the following. Bitumens other than cutback grades normally have flash points when determined by conventional test methods well in excess of 100 oC. They therefore fall in the 'Unclassified range' in Appendix A. In this Appendix, attention has been drawn to the fact that the flash point test of a bitumen or other residual product held under heated tankage conditions is not a reliable indicator of the presence or absence of a flammable atmosphere of highly volatile hydrocarbon vapours that may have evolved and built up in the confined tank ullage space above the bulk heated product and which cannot be detected by flash point test. Thus the following distinction has to be made in regard to the handling of these classes of bitumen: 3.2.2.1 Non-cutback Bitumens Handled in the Open Air. Because of good natural dispersion by wind displacement in open air, the flammable atmospheres that may accumulate over a period of time in the confined head space of an enclosed heated tank do not normally persist when these heated products are handled in well ventilated open air locations. 3.2.2.2 Non-cutback Grades in Confined Storage in Heated Tankage. Under such confined conditions flammable atmospheres can occur: (i) in tanks when storage temperatures exceed the maxima recommended in Appendix B. (ii) in some oxidised grade production plant rundown tank vapour spaces at temperatures below the maxima recommended in Appendix B, (iii) in tanks where misting has occurred due to splash filling, (iv) in tanks where contamination with lower flash point materials has occurred. (v) in the vicinities of vents from any such tanks. In an attempt to better understand and control these occurrences. it is important to be aware of which are grade related. so that the objective stated in 3.1 of limit ing the development of a flammable atmosphere and, if this is not practicable. other measures such as the control of ignition sources can be effective. 3.2.2.3

The factors underlying the evolution of such flammable vapours have been increasingly researched with the following broad behavioural patterns becoming noted: (i) Bitumens under the influence of heat can be prone to the gradual evolution into the confined space of a tank of vapour consisting, in variable proportions according to type of methane, 'other hydrocarbon' (typically in the C2 but extending in some cases to the C5 range), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and in some cases hydrogen sulphide (the reason for safeguarding against the presence of this toxic material in some tank spaces-see Chapter 2). The degree of the thermal activity that produces these combustible vapours is grade relevant. Under heat there is less activity with the 'straight' penetration and hard grade residue bitumens, compared to a significantly greater finding in respect of the oxidised grades, coupled with the higher temperatures at which they are stored. The reactions occurring in the air oxidation process result in newly blown material being more reactive and susceptible to thermal after-cracking. This potential for thermal cracking of freshly air blown bitumen is observed also in the monitoring of tank vapour spaces and has been found to decrease with time. as when the product is transferred from the initial tank to a second tank even when both are held at the same temperature.

(ii)

These differences have been taken account of in Chapter 5 Manufacture, in distinguishing between the precautions that should be taken in respect of rundown tanks that receive product direct from the manufacturing step and in particular for the oxidised grades, compared to downstream oxidised grade tanks and all categories of tankage for the non- oxidised grades. 3.2.2.4 It should, however. be recognised that for all grades of bitumen, flammable atmospheres can also develop in poorly ventilated spaces by overheating the product locally by a hot fire tube heating unit operating in an un-agitated tank or on which a heavy coke build up has been allowed to occur. For this reason the necessity of accurate control of temperature in the heating of bitumen tanks has been stressed in Chapters 7 and 9. Because of these factors, it is necessary to consider carefully the second principle expressed in 3.1 and control all possible sources of ignition, both electrical and non-electrical. and avoid their presence in the vicinity of heated bitumen tanks and their vents and other openings. These sources of ignition are outlined in 3.3. and include the case where pyrophoric carbonaceous deposits form on wall and roof areas of a tank. Where there is a possibility of the presence of a flammable atmosphere also occurring with such grades. special arrangements may have to be made to avoid such a condition. See 3.3.5, 5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.4.4 and 7.3.8. 3.3 THE CONTROL OF SOURCES OF IGNITION 3.3.1 Electrical Equipment Electrical equipment used in areas in which a flammable atmosphere could develop must be designed and constructed to standards appropriate to the risks. To facilitate this the areas in or around plant and equipment where flammable atmospheres might occur should be subject to area classification which grades the facility into non hazardous and hazard zones in accordance with the probability of a flammable release. Recommendations for classification of areas in and around bitumen storage facilities are given in Chapter 7 (see 7.2.1 and 7.2.2). in accordance with the IP Area Classification Code 1990, the principles of which are outlined in Appendix D. 3.3.2 Hot Work Ignition source control areas should be designated in and around all plants handling bitumen or associated petroleum products. Within these areas any work using naked lights, tools, welding and cutting equipment or machines which might be sources of ignition for flammable vapours, should be covered by an appropriate permit to work. This should specify all the precautions to be taken throughout the work, including: the the the the extent of the area within which the work is permitted, period of time over which the permit is valid, means by which the area is to be kept free from flammable gases and vapours throughout period of the work,

the precautions to be taken to avoid the spread of any fire, including the provision of standby fire extinguishing equipment, the procedure to be followed in any emergency.

The ignition source control area to be designated in the work permit should include: as a minimum, all areas classified as hazardous, in accordance with 3.3.1 above, all other areas in which flammable atmospheres might be present or be produced by the hot work, all areas from which any spark, flame or high temperature might be transmitted from the hot work to an area which might contain a flammable atmosphere. the necessary preliminary emptying and cleaning of vessels, tanks and pipe-work, the spading or blanking off of all connections to provide positive isolation, disconnection of electrical equipment and other services, and gas free testing before commencement of the hot work, and a continuous check that heat generated by the work itself does not produce localised vaporisation of heavy product material remaining on walls, roof and bottom and a risk of explosion. See 7.6.3 and 7.6.4. For safe conditions for entry into tanks and vessels, see 7.6. 1.

Note: The fact that hot work is to be carried out in or on a part of the facility that is deemed a non-hazardous zone by the area classification procedure does not make it less necessary to carry out gas test checks before the work is commenced. For detailed examples of a work permit, see the IP Refining or Marketing Safety Codes. These also provide guidance for the correct use of portable gas detection equipment. 3-3.3 Auto-ignition of Bitumen When heated in the presence of air to a temperature known as the ignition temperature or auto-ignition or spontaneous ignition temperature. a flammable substance will ignite spontaneously even in the absence of a source of ignition. The auto-ignition temperature is an entirely different property to the flash point of a substance, and will depend upon a number of factors, which include: the temperature of surfaces in contact with the substance, the contact time between the substance and the hot surface, the air flow and cooling rate, whether the surface is 'active' as in 3.3.4 or inert.

Heavy, higher boiling petroleum materials such as residual fuel oils and bitumens tend to have auto ignition temperatures considerably lower than those of lower flash point such as kerosine or gasoline. Thus for the former there is a convergence between flash point and ignition temperature such that heated local surface temperatures can result in ignition taking place without a source of ignition being present. Auto-ignition of bitumen can thus occur when it is exposed to the air at temperatures which, depending upon grade, can be as low as 250 oC. Leaks and other exposures of bitumen to air at such temperatures should therefore be avoided, particularly where other flammable materials are present. 3.3.4 Auto-ignition of Oil Impregnated Materials Self- heating leading to auto-ignition at the surfaces of porous or fibrous materials impregnated with oils or bitumens, can occur at temperatures as low as 100 oC. Oil and bitumen contamination of thermal insulation materials and the accumulation of oily rags or similar material near hot surfaces, should therefore be avoided,and lagging should be replaced where necessary by a non-absorbent type of insulation. 13-5 Pyrophoric Deposits A pyrophoric deposit is a solid deposit, normally formed in an oxygen depleted environment, which can produce self- heating when its temperature or the surrounding oxygen concentration is increased. As such it is a special case of auto-ignition. Carbonaceous deposits, which can be pyrophoric, occur on the roofs and walls of heated bitumen tanks due to wetting by liquids or condensation of vapours, followed by thermal degradation. In the vapour spaces of hot tanks the surface layers of these deposits go through a continuous oxidation process which is accelerated by any increase of temperature. This consumes oxygen and generates oxides of carbon, water vapour and small quantities of various hydrocarbon gases. It is a cause of the

oxygen depletion which has been observed in many bitumen storage tanks not expressly blanketed with inert gas. The oxidation process normally produces no significant local temperature rise. Self-heating of deposits leading to auto- ignition can occur however, particularly where there is either a sudden increase of the oxygen concentration at the active surface of the deposit or a change of operating conditions which increases the temperature of the deposit. See 7.4.7. iron sulphide deposits which can be pyrophoric occur inside mild steel equipment wherever the atmosphere in contact with the metal contains hydrogen sulphide and water vapour and is largely depleted of oxygen. See 7.3.8. If these deposits subsequently come into contact with air, in the dry state, they can self- heat from cold sufficiently to ignite any flammable atmosphere present. 3.3.6 In process plant and tank vapour spaces likely to contain pyrophoric deposits special care is necessary to avoid the simultaneous occurrence of flammable atmospheres and the conditions necessary for self-heating of the deposits and to determine with which grades of bitumen there is a probability of these two circumstances becoming coincident, with the consequence of fire or explosion. It has already been indicated in 3.2.2.3 that the probability of the development of an atmosphere in the flammable range in a heated bitumen tank is likely to be associated with the receipt of freshly blown oxidised grades into rundown tanks. Recent research into the behaviour of the deposits laid down in tanks of different bitumen grades gives evidence pointing to the likelihood of the deposits that occur in this class of tankage becoming susceptible to over heating in the presence of air at temperatures below those at which deposits from other grades of bitumen have been found to become active. This research is further reported on under Chapter 5 Manufacturing (see 5.4 Rundown tankage), together with the recommended precautions that should be taken. 3.3.7 Static Electricity The electrical conductivity of liquid bitumen is such that it does not accumulate electrostatic charge when flowing through piping or loading systems into tanks or trucks. It is therefore not necessary for this reason alone to ensure electrical continuity by bonding the pipe work of systems handling liquid bitumen or its cutbacks, but see below in respect of misting. Earthing and bonding of tanks however are always necessary because of the risks from lightning. The first paragraph above relates only to bitumens in the liquid condition. Appendix A notes that, irrespective of the flash point, a flammable liquid when finely dispersed as mist, foam or fine spray can be ignited and burn. Although the liquid bitumen itself is not a static accumulator, a charged mist could be generated by splash filling, since a conductive path will not exist. If a large volume such as a storage tank were to be filled with charged mist this could lead to the possibility of a spark discharge of incendive magnitude being generated. Splash filling of bitumen or cutback tanks therefore should not be undertaken (See 7.3.3). Because of the smaller volume, the above charge effect does not become significant in the filling of a bitumen road tanker or rail car, although splash filling that could cause misting should be avoided on general safety grounds. 3.4 FIRE PRECAUTIONS FOR ANCILLARY PETROLEUM MATERIALS, OR FUELS ASSOCIATED WITH BITUMEN INSTALLATIONS 3.4.1 Diluents such as kerosine used in the blending of cutback bitumens produced to BS 3690 specifications normally have a flash point which, since they will be stored at temperatures well below this, will place them in the Class II(1) range. For their handling see 7.2.3. If other diluents are used, their flash points also should be taken into consideration in accordance with Appendix A, since. if this places them into the Class I category, more stringent precautions will be necessary. 3.4.2 A variety of liquid fuels are used for heating purposes in bitumen facilities handling bulk bitumen. Fuels such as industrial distillate grades are stored and handled in the Class II(1) or III(1) condition, i.e. at temperatures below their flash points. The same comments as for 7.2.3 will apply. In larger installations residual (black oil) fuel oils may be used, which fall into the Unclassified category of Appendix A. and should be stored and handled at temperatures below their flash points. However, attention has been drawn in Appendix A to the fact that such residual fuels in the confined circumstances of a heated storage tank can (as in the case of bitumens as noted in 3.2.2) give rise to

the slow evolution of flammable vapour, accumulation of which in the vapour space cannot be detected or predicted by flash point test. The head space of such heated fuel tankage should for prudence and in accordance with 7.2.1 for bitumens in the Unclassified Class be given an area classification of Zone 0, with a Zone 1 radius of 1.5 m surrounding all vents and other tank openings. This zoning will apply to all electrical equipment in accordance with Appendix D. and non-electrical sources of ignition should be excluded. For other general guidance on the design, location etc of fuel oil tanks. the IP Marketing Safety Code may be consulted. 3.4.3 LPG Fuel LPG fuel will be in use on user sites, including mobile facilities, and appropriate safe handling should be given due emphasis. See 9.4 and 9.8.1. For the general safe handling of LPG bottled or supplied in bulk, the guidance provided by the following sources should be followed: (i) The UK Liquefied Petroleum Gas Industry Technical Association (LPGITA) Codes of Practice: LPGITA COP 1: 'Installation and maintenance of bulk LPG storage at consumer 'premises' Parts I, II, and III LPG1TA COP 7: 'Storage of full and empty LPG cylinders and cartridges'. LPG1TA COP 22: 'LPG piping system design and installation'.

(ii) The following UK Health and Safety Executive publications may also be consulted: HSE Guidance Note CS4 (June 1986): 'The keeping of LPG in cylinders and similar containers' (HMSO). HS(G)34: 'The storage of LPG at fixed installations' 1987. (Replaces earlier publication CS5 and HS(G)15, and covers fixed storage vessels larger than 150 litres (50 kg) capacity'.

4 FIRE FIGHTING
4.1 ORGANISATION Site Managers should seek the cooperation of local fire brigades when planning their fire fighting procedures. The extent of provision of designated fire fighters and of fire fighting facilities at the site should take into account the call-out response to be expected from the local fire brigade. This planning should be carried out in conjunction with the initial planning of the site layout, as adequate access will be needed such that mobile appliances can be deployed or concentrated at the location of the fire and in the best position for the attack to be mounted bearing in mind variations in wind direction. This access will also serve as means of escape in the event of fire out break. 4.1.1 Emergency Plans Emergency plans should be formulated, including procedures for: raising the alarm in case of fire, calling the fire brigade, police, ambulance and medical services when required, first attack on any fire, fire fighting command and the transfer of command as services arrive, signalling the end of the emergency, incident investigation and reporting.

Based upon these plans, a concisely expressed set of emergency procedures should be available and familiar to all personnel employed at the site. Simple notices should be posted at main access points within and around the site, indicating the actions to be taken both on discovering a fire and on hearing the fire alarm.

Emergency telephone numbers should be posted prominently at communication centres within the site. These should be updated when necessary and checked frequently for accuracy. 4.1.2 Training All personnel employed at the site, including drivers, should have instruction and regular drills both in emergency procedures and in first attack fire fighting. They should be familiar with all the types of fire extinguisher provided. Any designated fire fighters at the site should have frequent training and practice in main attack fire fighting. The local fire brigade should be asked to cooperate in this. There should be participation in joint exercises with the local fire brigade. 4.2 THE PRINCIPLES OF FIGHTING BITUMEN FIRES The characteristics of bitumen which are most significant in determining the approaches to be taken when fighting bitumen fires are that: when on fire bitumen becomes a mobile liquid which can readily flow, spreading the fire. large bitumen fires can be difficult to extinguish because of the high heat content of the liquid. direct application of water to the surface of a bitumen pool under fire conditions produces a froth of bitumen due to expansion of the water to steam which is likely to boil-over, spreading the fire and endangering personnel. Straight water jets should never be used, and application of water should only be by fog or spray nozzle. the un-burnt bitumen liquid can be heated by the fire to a temperature well above its auto- ignition temperature, making it necessary not only to extinguish the flames and cool the surroundings but also, in order to avoid re-ignition, to cool the product bulk before leaving it in contact with air. bitumen bums with a dense brown or black smoke, severely reducing visibility downwind of the fire.

The strategy to be applied when fighting a bitumen fire depends very much upon the quantity of bitumen involved in the fire. 4.2.1 Small Fires Small bitumen fires from leaks or spills can be extinguished using dry powder, foam, water spray, steam lances, vaporising liquid or carbon dioxide. The use of steam, foam and water spray is to be avoided, however, where it is not practicable to isolate the electricity supply from equipment in the vicinity of the fire. Vaporising liquid and inert gas extinguishers when used in the open air are effective only on very small bitumen fires . Where the bitumen remains in contact with a high temperature surface, as it might do in the case of a leak from a hot process flange, the application of the extinguishing medium should be continued until the surface has been sufficiently cooled to avoid re-ignition. Steam lances are particularly useful in these circumstances. The use of water jets directly on to bitumen pool fires should be avoided because of their tendency to spread the product by producing froth. 4.2.2 Provision of First Attack Equipment Table 4.1 gives general guidance on the types of extinguisher to be used against the various small fires which can occur in bitumen handling areas, dependent upon the other fire risks present. As a general rule, portable (typically 10 kg) dry powder extinguishers are preferred for first attack on small bitumen fires. Alternatively portable fluoroprotein based foam extinguishers may be provided but these should not be used around electrical equipment unless the power supply is first cut off. Table 4.2 gives guidance on the minimum numbers of portable fire extinguishers which should normally be provided in bitumen handling and associated areas. Additional portable extinguishers should be provided in these areas, whenever hot work is in progress or open fires are in use. The minimum scale in Table 4.2 is as follows: - Warehouses, package filling sheds and open storage spaces for packages-two foam or two dry powder extinguishers per 230 M2 of floor area. - Offices and stores for dry goods-one water extinguisher, per 90 M2 of floor area.

- Pump-houses - two foam, two dry powder, two vaporising liquid, or two C02 extinguishers per 45 M 2 of floor area. One extinguisher to be located at each end of the pump-house. Where a low pressure steam main is available the provision of steam lances is recommended. - Rail and road vehicle loading/un loading racks one foam or one dry powder extinguisher per group of up to two loading/ unloading points. - Electrical switch houses-one vaporising liquid or one carbon dioxide extinguisher per 45 M 2 of floor area. - Ship discharge and small craft loading/discharging berths - two foam or one dry powder extinguisher per group of loading or discharge points. All portable extinguishers should he located conveniently for access and all permanently located extinguishers should be made conspicuous by coloured background panels, both to assist in visual identification and to aid checking against loss. The above scale is subject to there being a minimum of two extinguishers at any single location irrespective of its size, in case the first fails to operate. Where low pressure steam is available, steam lances may be provided to extinguish small fires and avoid ignition at persistent leaks in hot process areas. In the case of a fire in the vicinity of live electrical equipment, water, aqueous foam or steam should not be used until such time as the power supply can be cut off. The normal procedure should be to cut off the power supply and then to use the extinguishing agent most appropriate to what is burning. Dry powder may be used on electrical fires, but can cause damage to the equipment.

Table 4.1. Selection of portable fire extinguishers for different types of fire Portable Fire Extinguisher Type Vaporising Liquid or Gas (BCF, Steam Dry Foam BTNI,C02) Lance Powder No No No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Fire Class A Type Materials (wood, paper, fabric etc) B Flammable liquids (including bitumens) C Flammable gases (liquefied petroleum gas, town gas) Fires around live electrical equipment Water Yes No Yes No

In the larger plant areas and on jetties, the portable extinguishers should be backed up by wheeled extinguishers (typically 50 kg) in numbers appropriate to the size of the operation. Access routes for these must be kept clear. Immediate application of the above equipment by plant personnel well trained in its use can often prevent the escalation and spread of a small fire. 4.3 TANK FIRES A fire in a tank usually starts as an internal explosion and, if the roof remains largely intact and the appropriate service facilities exist, can often be extinguished by injection of steam or inert gas into the vapour space. Extinguishing a major fire in bulk bitumen tankage can be extremely hazardous to fire fighters, unless they are fully aware of the principles entailed in 4.2, and the fire attack should only commence when all concerned are aware of the hazards involved. Water spray, when used properly, is the best medium for fighting large, open, bitumen pool fires, as for example a fire in a tank where the roof has largely blown away, and straight water jets should not be employed. Fog or diffuser nozzles should be used where their 'throw' will be sufficient. These should be directed so as to allow the water droplets to land gently on to the bitumen surface. If it is not practicable to reach the fire using fog or diffuser nozzles, high pressure water jets should be directed into the air upwind of the fire so that the water falls as droplets through the flames on to the bitumen surface. Foam may also be used, again subject to attainable reach, as an alternative to spray or fog as a means of gently applying water cooling to the fire.

Fire fighting foams break down rapidly when applied to hot bitumen surfaces and it is necessary to make a correct choice of foam type, namely fluoroprotein or FFFP foam, because of their better resistance to burn back. Nevertheless the use of foam can help to ensure that the water used is well dispersed, thereby reducing the risk of froth-over, particularly where access for water spray to the burning surface is hindered, as in the case where part of the tank roof is remaining in place, or buckling of the shell has occurred. Because of possible froth formation, the foam application should be at lower than normal rates and it is recommended that it be introduced at a low rate of about 1 to 2 litres/min water per M2 of surface area. This is about 20 to 50% of the rates as shown in Appendix 8 of the IP Refining Safety Code for general petroleum fires. Whichever means is used, the water as foam or spray should he applied only intermittently to the burning bitumen pool surface and application should be temporarily and immediately discontinued at the first sign of froth-over. An indication of this can be the appearance of white smoke, and personnel should be always alert and prepared to shut off the application and move quickly back from the area. When frothing subsides, the foam or spray application may be, resumed and continued carefully, re peating this process until extinction has been reached. Throughout such operations it is important to permit only the minimum number of persons required to man the appliances to be in the fire area. Where, in addition to the above main operations there is additional water capacity available. this can be used as cooling water from straight hose streams played on to the shell to cool down the hot surface, provided such streams can be controlled so as not to enter the tank. Cooling water can also be employed to protect adjacent tanks or other property. In order to protect an adjacent tank against heat radiation from a burning tank, Appendix 9 of the IP Refining Safety Code recommends the wetting of the shell surface facing the fire (i.e. half of the total circumference) in accordance with the formula water quantity = 0.5x3.14D M 3/h i.e. 1.6 D M3/h where D is the diameter in metres. Thus a 40 m diameter tank would require 63 M 3/h of water. This recommendation is valid for bitumen tankage. Table 4.2. Recommended minimum. provision of portable fire extinguishers in between handling and associated locations Extinguishers Unit of Number per Function Area Unit Area** Product warehouse, package filling shed 230 M2 or open package -storage area floor area 2 Offices and stores for dry goods 90 M2 floor area 1* 2 Pump-house (pumps mainly electr. driven) 45 m floor area 2 Electrical switch house 45 m2 floor area 1* Road or rail loading gantry group of up to 2 loading points 1* Ship or small craft berth product transfer connection station 2 Road vehicles transporting bitumen per vehicle 1* Mobile cutback spray-vehicles per vehicle 2 (one on each side) Location

Type Foam or dry powder Water Dry powder, BCF, BTM or CO2 BCF, BTM or CO2 Foam or dry powder Foam or dry powder Foam or dry powder Foam or dry powder

*There should be a minimum of two extinguishers provided, however small the area. ** The number refers to circa 10 kg portable units.

4-3.1 Avoidance of Re-ignition After fire extinction any remaining bitumen pool must be protected against re -ignition until the bulk has cooled to the normal storage temperature at which auto-ignition will be unlikely. This can usually be done by maintaining a gentle water spray over the surface so as to blanket the surface with a steam layer. Cooling, of the bulk of the product remaining in a tank after a fire is best achieved by playing water on to the outside of the tank, taking particular care not to allow the water to enter the tank. Where the thermal insulation on the tank remains intact this can be a prolonged process. 4.3.2 The Provision of Main Attack Equipment

The equipment necessary to support the main attack on an established fire in a bitumen plant depends upon the size and complexity of the plant. Of prime importance are: an adequate supply of water at a sufficient pressure to provide for the extinction of the largest tank surface fire likely to occur and for the simultaneous protection of adjacent property. See recommended application rates in 4.3 above. an adequate supply of hoses, branches, fog nozzles and foam makers. adequate stocks of foam. The strong recommendation for fluoroprotein or FFFP foam in 4.3 should be noted.

These provisions may be made by the local fire brigade. The extent to which they are made by the site management will depend upon the availability of local fire brigades or mutual assistance fire fighting schemes. As a general rule, site managers should discuss their main attack fire fighting needs with local fire brigades before finalising their own provisions. It is particularly important to ensure that: fire hose and fire hydrant couplings conform to local fire brigade standards. foam supplies and foam making equipment are compatible between the plant and the local fire brigade. See above for foam type. Checks should be made to ensure that the site drain age facilities are adequate to avoid flooding by fire fighting water. 4.4 MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT All fire fighting equipment should be available for immediate use in the event of an outbreak of fire. It should be maintained in first class working order and restored to this condition immediately after use. Fixed fire fighting equipment should be examined and tested by competent inspectors at regular intervals (not exceeding six months). The results of such examinations and tests should be entered in a register kept for the purpose. All fire extinguishers should be subject to scheduled examination, testing and maintenance procedures. This should include routine discharge and refill of the extin guishing media. Records of testing, examination and maintenance should be kept and the date of last examination marked on the extinguisher. It is recommended that some form of seal, which has to be broken on discharge, be fitted to each fire extinguisher when it is reconditioned and that any extin guisher found with its seal broken should be reconditioned without delay.

5 MANUFACTURE
5.1 INTRODUCTION General recommendations for safety in design, layout, operation and maintenance of oil processing units are given in the IP Refining Safety Code. The present chapter deals only with the special features recommended to safeguard against the hazards of bitumen during its manufacture by distillation or oxidation, including its receipt into rundown tankage. Operators of manufacturing plants should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4, 7 and 10. 5.2 DISTILLATION PLANTS 5.2.1 Process Summary Bitumen to meet the specifications for the penetration and hard grade classes is produced as a residue by distillation of the more volatile components from crude oils and crude oil residua. The distillation can be carried out at atmospheric pressure or in most cases under vacuum, normally using stripping steam to the column base to promote the removal of the volatile components. The process is controlled primarily to meet product specifications for penetration value and loss of weight on heating. Dependent upon crude characteristics it may be necessary to apply a mild air rectification step in blowing plant to adjust the penetration/softening point relationship to the desired final specification values. The temperature of the bitumen leaving the base of the distillation column, depending upon the feedstock type and the product penetration value required, is usually in the region of 350'C/400'C.

5.2.2 Rundown Temperature Control Before rundown to storage, the product should be cooled to a safe storage temperature (see 5.4 and Appendix B). Cooling is normally achieved by heat exchange against the incoming plant feedstock. 5.3 OXIDATION PLANTS 5.3.1 Process Summary Oxidised bitumens are produced by controlled reaction of residual bitumens and other heavy oil fractions (blowing fluxes) with air, at temperatures which can be in excess of 280oC. The reaction is achieved by blowing the air through the bitumen or bitumen l flux mixture in a cylindrical column at atmospheric pressure. This may be carried out as a batch or as a continuous process. The blowing flux is selected and the process conditions are controlled within safety constraints to meet product specifications regarding penetration value, Softening point and loss on heating. These safety aspects are dealt with in the sections following. 5.3.2 The Main Hazards Associated with the Blowing Process These are: a runaway oxidising temperature due to the highly exothermic nature of the process, explosion in the upper vapour section of the oxidiser vessel, froth-over due to introduction of water, either in the feedstock or in the air supply, overfilling of the oxidiser vessel with inadequate settling volume, explosion in the compressed air supply system due to lubricating oil carryover and auto- ignition at the temperature of the air inlet system. These hazards can arise with both batch and continuous oxidation processes. However, the necessary precautions for the purpose of this chapter will be outlined in terms of a continuous plant. 5.3.3 The Typical Layout of a Continuous Oxidation System The oxidiser vessel is a vertical vessel with feed entry near the mid-point, an air injection distribution system near the base, quench water nozzles and steam injection point at the top and an overhead vapour disposal line leading to an incinerator (typically in the pre-heater). The air supply comes from either a separate compressor unit or the refinery air supply; in either case an efficient knock-out system is necessary close to the air entry point, such that both lubricating oil carryover and water are removed, and there should be no dead legs or low points. The main reactions in this exothermic process are de hydrogenation, with the formation of water vapour, carbon dioxide and some light hydrocarbons. Thus the top quench water sprays are used, together with internal cooling coils in the vessel, to control the temperature rise, while the purpose of the steam quench line is to ensure that the oxygen content in the oxidiser vapour space and overhead disposal line does not exceed 15% by volume based on inlet air assuming no oxygen con sumption. In addition an effective explosion relief system has to be provided. 5.3.4 Process Temperature Control The oxidation process is highly exothermic. The temperature in the blowing column is normally controlled both by internal cooling coils in the liquid and by the injection of water or steam into the vapour space. Thermocouples for temperature indicators and/or recorders should be located at five or six points at different heights in the vessel. In order to limit the risk of frothing within the blowing column, any injection of water should be as fine spray and steam supply lines should have efficient trapping facilities for the removal of any condensate which might be present. Two completely independent temperature monitoring systems are provided, one for control of the blowing process and the other to initiate emergency action in the event of high temperature or a rapid rise of temperature. Where intermittent condensate water spray is used, it will be necessary to ensure a continuous steam purge of the spray header to prevent the spray nozzles becoming blocked with bitumen; this can be incorporated with the top steam supply. 7he design of the sprays should be such that large slugs of water cannot be introduced into the oxidiser, and a restriction orifice or similar limitation should be incorporated. In addition to the above there should be a high discharge temperature setting on the compressed air

supply of 180oC maximum. 5.3.5 Level Control To allow for the turbulent aeration of the bitumen which occurs in the blowing column and the risk of frothing which can arise from the accidental admission of water, a large ullage space has to be maintained. Two completely independent level monitoring systems should be provided, one for direct control of the operating level and the other at a point above the normal high liquid level to initiate emergency action in the event of a high liquid level. A radioactive source/receiver of the gamma switch type is recommended for this service. 5.3.6 Offgas Composition Control In order to minimise risks of explosion in the vapour space of the blowing column and in the offgas disposal system, provisions should be made to keep the composition of the offgas outside the flammable range, through the top steam injection point sized to dilute the oxygen in the vapour space to a maximum of 15% by volume (see above). No special distribution arrangement is needed for this, other than an effective drain system to ensure that the steam line is completely free of water. Fixed oxygen meters should be provided to facilitate control of this system. 5.3.7 Offgas Disposal Arrangements should be made for the safe and environmentally acceptable disposal of the exhaust blowing air which carries malodorous products from the oxidation process. The offgas handling system should incorporate liquid knock-out, flame arrest to prevent flashback to the oxidiser, which should be as close to the vessel as possible, and incineration facilities. The incinerator could be the unit's pre-heater itself or an adjacent heater and should have protective devices including flame failure detectors and a low firebox temperature alarm to ensure that the offgases are properly burnt. A steam snuffing injection point into the vapour line may be provided. Oily carryover may not always be completely removed in the offgas disposal knock-out drum and provision should be made for cleaning of the flame arrestors in the offgas line as often as necessary. 5.3.8 Pressure/Explosion Relief The blowing vessel should be provided with a bursting disc or pressure relief door in the upper part, sufficient to release the contents in the event of a froth- over due to water, ingress or a runaway oxidation reaction or explosion. Since the oxidation process operates at low pressure this pressure/explosion relief device must likewise be designed to be effective at low pressure, must be vapour tight during normal operation, and should preferably be self-closing after explosion relief. Explosion hatches can be designed to meet these criteria, with close attention paid to the adequacy of the cross-sectional area, which will be dependent upon the height/diameter relationship of the oxidiser vessel. Designers should be aware that operation of the relieving system can project out hot bitumen in the event of water entering the vessel or of explosion, and ensure that no essential manually operated equipment is located in the vicinity of the oxidiser. 5.3.9 Operation The most critical period will be during start-up, and a thorough check on the absence of water in the various sections of the plant, including the air supply system, is essential. Personnel should not be permitted on the oxidising column or beneath it during start -up or during a process upset, and steady state conditions should be awaited. As noted in 5.3.8, critical valves on air, top steam and water spray injection should be operated remotely during the start-up or in emergency. The check for water should include checking that water and steam jackets on compressors and pumps are not leaking into the process system, and that the absence of water from a drain valve is not a result of that point having become blocked. 5.3.10 Introduction of Bitumen Feed Introduction of the feed should be carried out with caution (particularly if the flux component has been stored at a temperature below the boiling point of water), so that if hot bitumen encounters water anywhere in the system it will be boiled off while the level is still low and there is more vapour space to allow the bitumen/steam to disengage without serious froth-over blowing the pressure/explosion relief. Once this has been carried out, filling can proceed to the normal operating level, using either measurement by displacement meter, or the level control system (5.3.5) to ensure that overfilling

has not occurred, which could cause carryover through the pressure/explosion relief on introduction of the oxidising air. Similar precautions will apply in the filling of a batch blowing vessel. 5.3.11 Introduction of Top Steam and Oxidising Air Before air blowing is commenced, the bitumen in the oxidiser vessel should be at a minimum temperature of about 200 oC (since below that temperature, the oxidation reaction will be too slow). In some cases feed will already be at such a temperature; in other cases it will be brought to that temperature by the pre-heater, or by circulation through heat exchange. Before air is introduced, it is necessary to inert the vapour space by injection of top steam, as otherwise the presence of air and possible flammables near auto-ignition temperature may result in an explosion. This steam rate should be continued during the start-up period, controlling the dilution of oxygen to 15% by volume, and is applicable to both vertical batch and continuous units. This dilu tion narrows the flammability limits of any oxygen-flammable mixture that forms, and also compensates for the lower consumption of oxygen when air is first injected and until normal operating temperatures are reached. Air should not be introduced until the bitumen is at least 5m above the air injection point and, after the temperature has reached 220 oC or higher and oxidation is under way, top steam may be reduced. However, during upsets or loss of temperature, steam should be increased to bring the oxygen level back down to 15% by volume or less. When air is cut off at the end of the run, top steam should be applied sufficient to again ensure that the vapour space is purged and its content displaced as the unit is pumped out. 5.3.12 The required blowing time in the continuous oxidation process will be a function of oxidation vessel size, feed rate and composition, and blowing temperature. A maxi mum operating temperature is generally regarded as being 26WC, and cooling systems are generally brought into operation at about 250oC. Cooling can be by reducing feed inlet temperature, by internal cooling coils within the oxidiser vessel, or by circulation through an external cooling system. Should it not be possible to control temperature by these means, the spray water system may be applied to the surface of the bitumen, so that the vaporisation of the droplets cools the contents of the oxidiser; as an alternative recourse may be had to a reduction or shutoff of the oxidising air while maintaining the other means of cooling. If the oxidising air is shut off, cooling with water spray cannot be safely used, since the loss of the air bitumen turbulence may result in localised surface bitumen solidification and the accumulation of water, which could be dangerous. In such a situation, the water spray and oxidising air should both be shut off, with top steam on until the vessel content cools to a safe temperature by normal heat loss. 5.3.13 Reduced Throughput If reduced capacity is required, this should not be effected by reducing oxidation vessel liquid level, as this will adversely reduce the required contact time for oxidation, and result in an increased oxygen content in the vapour section of the vessel, which may not be adequately purged by the top steam. If reduced capacity is necessary, this should be achieved by maintaining the full normal liquid level, but using a reduced air blowing rate. This will only be successful if the air distribution can be maintained effectively at the lower rate, as poor air distribution can result in the air partially bypassing the bitumen by channelling to the vapour space-resulting not only in incomplete blowing of the product but also in a high oxygen content in the vapour space and its attendant hazard. Some air distribution designs, e.g. of the internal ,spider' type, afford little or no flexibility in this respect. However, if external injectors are used, it may be possible to proportionately shut down a number of these to match the desired air flow rate reduction. In such a case it must be ensured that a maldistribution of air does not result and that at least 50% of the external injectors are used, and that no two adjacent nozzles are shut off. 5.3.14 Rundown Temperature Control Before rundown to storage, the product should be cooled to a safe storage temperature. For oxidised bitumen, depending upon the product grade, the temperature chosen will depend upon-whether or not the rundown tank is to be inert gas blanketed. See 5.4.3.2 and 5.4.4 below. 5.4 RUNDOWN TANKAGE

The term 'rundown tank' is used to distinguish between tanks connected directly to receive newly produced product from the manufacturing plant, and other tanks with no such connection which are involved in the subsequent transfer through the distribution chain to the eventual storage of the bulk user. Rundown tankage has many requirements in design and operation etc in common with other bitumen tankage, and these are covered in Chapter 7. This section, in accordance with the scope defined in 5.1 will consider the additional requirements that may be required either for all rundown tankage operations or for those of a particular class such as the oxidised grades. Those factors that are common to all rundown situations will be considered first, taking into account the significance of the background provided in Chapter 3. 5.4.1 Avoidance of Ignition Sources - General It is not possible to avoid completely the formation of pyrophoric deposits in manufacturing plant rundown tanks. In order to minimise their rate of formation, product temperatures should be kept as low as practicable, all other factors being considered. Process rundown pipes therefore should not pass through rundown tank vapour spaces unless specially insulated, both because such pipes can promote the accumulation of carbonaceous deposits and because they might occasionally become excessively hot, causing auto- ignition. 5.4.2 Avoidance of Flammable Atmospheres General Flammable atmospheres should be avoided in the vapour spaces of bitumen rundown tanks at all stages of operation because pyrophoric deposits can be present and the conditions can occur under which self- heating might take place. Whilst the storage temperature maxima recommended in Appendix B normally provide a reasonable margin of safety against the production of flammable atmospheres in finished product distribution and user storage tanks, there are factors at work in manufacturing which make it difficult always to avoid the temperatures and product compositions which might produce flammable conditions in rundown tanks. Common to all grades there are the risks that in manufacturing: the bitumen is produced with more volatile components in it than it should have, e.g. due to in sufficient stripping steam. the bitumen is contaminated with volatile materials due to a fault with a heat exchanger. the bitumen runs down for a time at an excessive temperature.

Protective measures should therefore be incorporated into design and operating procedures to minimise these risks. These should include wherever possible a positive pressure differential between the two sides of heat exchange facilities such that if a leak occurs it will be from the bitumen side to the volatile side rather than the converse. 5.4.3 The following further provisions will depend upon whether the bitumen concerned is residual or oxidised. 5.4.3.1 In Distillation Plant Bitumen Rundown Tanks Regular checks should be made for leakage on the run down heat exchange equipment (see above). Whilst small amounts of volatile hydrocarbons, probably arising as described in 3.2.2.3 from thermal decomposition downstream of the distillation plant, are often detectable in the vapour spaces of distillation plant bitumen rundown tanks, these are not normally sufficient to produce flammable atmospheres in the tank vapour space provided that the rundown temperatures do not exceed the maxima recommended in Appendix B. It is not normally necessary therefore, in the case of distillation plant rundown tanks, to provide for continuous displacement of flammable atmospheres. As a safeguard however, against product contamination by volatile materials or excessive rundown temperatures, provisions should be made for occasional purging with steam or inert gas. Continuous purging of vapour spaces with steam or inert gas is undesirable because it can promote the development of pyrophoric deposits and, unless special provisions are made to dispose of the continuously vented vapours, these can lead to environmental nuisance.

5.4.3.2 In Oxidation Plant Bitumen Rundown Tanks Flammable atmospheres can be detected in some oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks at temperatures below the maxima recommended in Appendix B. These could be due to the greater potential of freshly blown bitumens, compared to other grades, to evolve flammable vapours that has been described in 3.3.2.3 (a reactivity that declines with time, as after transfer to subsequent tankage) rather than to the carryover of unstripped light material from the blowing process, or from heat exchanger leakage (5.4.2), though neither can be discounted. Recent research in the laboratory has also shown that some deposits taken from the vapour space of oxidised grade rundown tanks can become incandescent when heated in air at temperatures below 230oC, which is the recommended limit for storage of these grades. A temperature of 225 oC was observed in this experiment, whereas deposits from tankage on other grades and on downstream oxidised grade tanks have shown no such activity at temperatures below 250 oC. 5.4.4 For this reason, and to provide an appropriate factor of safety, it is recommended that controlled oxygen depletion be applied to the vapour spaces of any oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks likely to be operated at temperatures in excess of 200 oC. For oxidation plant bitumen rundown tanks not likely to be operated at temperatures above 200 oC provision should be made for occasional purging with steam or inert gas. For the details of how oxygen depletion control should be applied, reference should be made to 7.3.8. 5.5 Where water cooling is applied to a rundown stream, the pressure on the bitumen side should be greater than on the water side to avoid water ingress and possible seri ous froth-over in the rundown tank. See 7.3.9. The use of air-fin coolers can avoid this water contamination potential, but there is a risk of plugging at low through put. 5.6 The unplugging of heat exchanger or cooler tubes or piping should be treated with great care. See 8.11.

6 BLENDING
6.1 INTRODUCTION Most grades of bitumen are for convenience produced by the blending of two or more 'base grade' components to achieve the required product specification. Cutback bitumens are produced as described in 1.2.4 by blending penetration grades with lower viscosity, volatile diluents such as kerosine. The various blending methods used can be categorised either as batch blending or as in-line blending. Blending entails the bringing together of streams with different temperatures and different physical properties. It is therefore essential that the systems, including pipelines, manifolds and valves, be designed so that as far as practicable streams cannot be accidentally mixed or routed to wrong destinations and water cannot be introduced. Where misrouting is possible, unused connections should be blanked off and the line-up should be carefully checked before any blending operation. During the blending operation, strict control should be exercised. This applies particularly in cutback blending where volatile diluents are involved. 6.2 BATCH BLENDING 6.2.1 General In this method predetermined batches of the blending components are transferred either separately or simultaneously into the blending/storage tank, where they are mixed until a homogeneous composition has been achieved.

Blending in the tank should be by pumped circulation through a submerged jet nozzle or by using mechanical mixers inside the tank. Air injection should not be used for mixing bitumens. If jet nozzles are applied inside the tank they should only be operated when sufficiently submerged to avoid a jet of liquid splashing upwards from the surface. Propeller type mixers in the tank should only be operated when the blades are covered by at least 500mm of liquid. During mixing/circulation of a blending tank no personnel should go on to the tank roof. If access is essential for obtaining samples or for manual gauging, the mixing/circulation should be temporarily stopped. 6.2.2 Cutback Bitumens During batch blending to produce cutback bitumen, the volatile nature of the diluent often causes the vapour space of the blending tank to pass through the flammable range during the blending process. Consequently, flammable vapour is often discharged from vents to the atmosphere around the tank. It is not normally recommended to employ pressure/vacuum relief valves or flame arrestors in such tank vents because of the problems of fouling. It is therefore particularly important to avoid all sources of ignition in the vicinities of cutback tank vents because any ignition might be transmitted to the tank vapour space. See area classification in 7.2.2 and Appendix D. Cutback bitumen blending should generally be carried out only in tanks designated for that operation and safeguarded in accordance with the recommendations of Chapter 7. Care must be taken to ensure that no water that may have accumulated in the diluent handling system can pass through to the blending operation. See 7.3.9 and 7.4.5. Batch blending of cutback bitumen should be discontinued during periods of electric storm. Cutback bitumen blending requires close control of the temperature of the bitumen component. This should be as low as practicable to minimise the loss of vapour and the risk of fire or explosion. During blending, the diluent should be added to the bitumen, preferably by injection into a circulation stream entering the tank below the liquid surface. If the diluent is to be added directly to the blending tank, it should be injected well below the liquid surface in the tank and arrangements should be made to provide adequate initial mixing at the point of entry in order to avoid undue vapour generation which could overwhelm the venting capacity. 6.3 IN-LINE BLENDING With this method two or more components are simultaneously pumped into a single pipeline under ratio control such that the mixed product meets the required specification. In-line blended bitumens and cutbacks can be discharged either to site tankage or direct to a ship or road tanker or rail tank car. In-line blending entails no particular hazards other than those related to the handling and storage of bitumen in general, provided that reliable controls of the component temperatures, proper-ties, blend ratios and the subsequent mixing within the pipeline are ensured. In the case of blending of cutbacks, particular care is required to ensure that volatile diluent cannot pass, either unmixed or in the wrong proportions, through the system. It is recommended that the instrumentation includes a cut -off of the diluent flow in the event that the flow of the bitumen component stops for some reason, as, if not stopped, it could result in a large release of flammable vapour from the receiving tank.

7 STORAGE
7.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter gives recommendations for safety in the construction, operation and maintenance of fixed installations for the storage of bitumens, cutback bitumens and cutback diluents. Typically such storage tanks will comprise a vertical cylindrical shell with a conical roof that is self draining. At stationary bitumen user plants, hot bitumens are usually stored in insulated horizontal cylindrical or rectangular tanks. This guidance is grouped as follows: 7.2 Factors taking into account the class of bitumen in order to determine the location, spacing, bunding and area classification of tankage in accordance with 3.2 and Appendices A and D.

Design features common to all bitumen tanks and their piping (but also including 7.3.8 detailing the recommendations for installation of oxygen depletion facilities in oxidised grade rundown tanks). 7.4 Operation. 7.5 Inspection of tanks. 7.6 Entry and cleaning precautions, and hot work in storage areas. Operators of storage facilities should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4, 8, 10 and, for cutback blending, 6. 7.2 LOCATION, SPACING AND AREA CLASSIFICATION OF TANKS The distinction made in Chapter 3 between penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens to be handled as Unclassified products and those (i.e. cutback grades) to be handled in the Class II(2) or III(2) category, affects the grouping, spacing and bunding of tanks and the area classification of tankage areas. Where there is any doubt over the product class of the bitumen to be handled, facilities should be located and arranged as for Class II(2) products. 7.2.1 Bitumens other than Cutback Grades (Unclassified Products) Tanks for penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens, recognised as Unclassified products under the classification in Appendices A and D should be treated as follows: Grouping and Spacing No particular minimum distances are recommended for the spacing of tanks containing these products. Tanks should be arranged and spaced to suit constructional and operational needs and to provide adequate access for mobile fire fighting equipment. See Chapter 4. They should normally be located at least 6m from any public boundary or occupied work place but at a greater distance if necessary to avoid any risk of tank spills or froth- over reaching the boundary or occupied work places such as offices. (See 7.2.4 for advice where Class 0 or Class 1 products are also present in adjacent facilities.) Bunding Bunding is not mandatory for these Unclassified products but low diversion walls or ditches should normally be provided to stop spillages from reaching operating areas, public boundaries and areas required for fire fighting access. Area Classification Area classification is the grading of areas of a plant into non -hazardous and hazardous zones in accordance with the likelihood and frequency of occurrence of a flam mable atmosphere. It is a guide to the selection of appropriate protection for electrical equipment and to the control over the location of and avoidance of non-electrical sources o ignition in such areas. See Appendix D. Because of the possibility indicated in 3.2.2.2, that in the confined space of tanks holding heated Unclassified bitumens there could be flammable vapours being evolved as a result of localised overheating, it is recommended that all tanks for penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens, in the process rundown, bulk distribution and user sectors, should be classified Zone 0 within their ullage space, with a Zone 1 area 1.5 m in diameter surrounding all vents and other tank openings. See foot note to Figure 7.1. Only electrical equipment with a type of protection meeting these zoned requirements should be used within these areas, and all non-electrical sources of ignition should be avoided. See 3.2.2.1 for Unclassified bitumens in well ventilated unconfined conditions in the open air. 7.2.2 Cutback Grades (Class II(2) and Class III(2) Products) Tanks for these grades, identified as Class II(2) or Class III(2) products (see 3.2.1), should be treated as follows since the vapours that they vent will be flammable: Grouping and Spacing Tanks smaller than 10 m in diameter containing these products may be sited together in groups of combined capacity not exceeding 8000 M3. Within such groups, no particular minimum distances are recommended for the spacing of tanks. The tanks should be arranged and spaced to suit constructional, operational and fire fighting needs. Minimum distances between such groups and tanks greater than 10 m in diameter are recommended in Table 7.1. See 7.2.4 for advice where Class 0 or Class I products are also present. Bunding

7.3

Tanks containing these Class II(2) or III(2) cutback products should be surrounded by bund walls capable of retaining the product should a major tank spill occur, unless spillages or leaks from any tank would flow quickly and safely via diversionary walls to a dispersion or impounding basin. Separate walls around each tank are not necessary but the total capacity of the tanks in any one bunded area should not exceed 60,000 M3. Bund walls should be of a height sufficient to afford protection to personnel engaged in fire fighting and should be located so that a reasonably close approach for mobile fire fighting equipment can be made to any tank fire. The net retention capacity of the tank compound created by each bund wall should normally be at least equivalent to the capacity of the largest tank within the bund but may be as little as 75% of this capacity where conditions are such that there is no risk to the public or the environment. Effects on Area Classification Tanks containing Class II(2) or III(2) cutback grades should be considered as sources of flammable vapour for the purposes of area classification. Areas around such tanks should be classified as indicated in Figure 7. 1. Because of the rapid cooling of the vapours beyond the area shown around the vents it is not usual to classify the area within the bund walls as a hazard zone. Nevertheless, sources of ignition within the bund should be avoided during operations. Where diluents more volatile than kerosine, such as naphtha, are employed it should be checked whether under the range of storage temperature the blended cut back will still be Class II(2), or would fall into Class I. In the latter case, the area classification should be as in Figure 7.2. 7.2.3 Cutback Diluents Kerosine diluents stored prior to blending at temperatures below the flash point will be classified Class II(l), and area classification will not be required except for Zone 0 for their ullage space and a lm diameter Zone 1 area surrounding their vents and other roof openings. Spacing and bunding requirements follow those indicated in 7.2. 1. The flash point classification of other diluents should be established, and if they fall into Class 1 their area classification should be as in Figure 7.2, with their spacing from other facilities in accordance with Table 7.1. Bunding of such Class I tankage will be required. Table 7.1. Tank spacing for Class II(2) or III(2) cutback bitumens Description 1. Between groups of small tanks* 2. Between a group of small tanks* and any tank outside the group 3. Between tanks not being part of a group of small tanks Recommended Distances 8m 8m Half the diameter of the larger tank;the diameter of the smaller tank; or 15 in, whichever is least, but in no case less than 10 m 15 m 15 m 15 m

4. Between a tank and any filling point, filling shed or building 5. Between a tank and the outer boundary of the installation, any designated non-hazardous area, or any fixed source of ignition 6. Between a tank and any facility handling a Class I product
*A small tank is any tank smaller than 10 m in diameter.

Figure 7.1. Area Classification for Class II(2) or Class III(2) Cutback Bitumens Stored at Temperatures above their Flashpoints Notes
1. Reference Chapter 7, 7.2.2 2. The area inside the bund is not a classified area for these cutbacks 3. For bitumens other than cutback grades, i.e. penetration, hard and oxidised grades, only the Zone 0 inside the head space, and the Zone 1 radius surrounding top or ground level vents will apply with a 1.5 m radius. See 7.2.1

Figure 7.2. Cone Roof Tank for Class I Diluents (taken from Figure 3.1 of the IP Area Classification Code 1990)
Notes 1. Reference Chapter 7, 7.2.3 2. The above area classification applies to all Class 1 petroleum products in ambient storage

Further advice on the treatment of tanks containing these diluents is given in the IP Marketing and Refining Safety Codes. 7.2.4 Proximity of Bitumen Tankage to Class 0 and Class I Product Facilities Because of their potential for auto-ignition around lagging, tanks containing bitumens of all classes should not be located in areas classified as hazardous arising from Class 0 or Class I product handling facilities. For example, such a tank should normally be located at least 15 m from any tank containing a Class I product and not be placed in the same bunded compound as a Class I or Class 0 product tank. 7.3 TANK DESIGN FEATURES COMMON TO ALL CLASSES OF BITUMEN

Tanks must be designed and constructed to conform to the relevant statutory requirements of the country in which they are installed. In the United Kingdom, mild steel cylindrical tanks should conform to BS 2654:'Specification for the manufacture of vertical steel welded storage tanks with butt welded shells for the petroleum industry', or BS 2594: 'Specification for carbon steel welded horizontal cylindrical storage tanks'. Account must be taken of the maximum operating temperature and pressure likely in service. The exterior of the tank may be covered with insulation to minimise heat losses. See 7.3. 10. 7.3.1 Access Tanks should be provided with roof guard rails and toe-plates. Walkways should be provided to give access for any necessary operations or maintenance on the roof. They should be so arranged as to avoid the need for operators to walk across tank roofs. Tank top walkways should have two access routes from the ground arranged as necessary to avoid any part of the walkway becoming isolated by a tank fire. 7.3.2 Heating Facilities Hot oil, steam or electrical heating elements may be provided in the bottom of a bitumen tank so as to improve heating and agitation of the bottom layers or as outflow heaters mounted at the tank outflow nozzle. Steam or hot oil coils in tanks should be of the all -welded type, to minimise the possibility of leakage, and pressure tests should be carried out at regular intervals. See 7.5.4. Bulk Temperature Control Accurate tank temperature control is essential for safe operations and the tank should be provided with reliable means of temperature measurement (see 7.4.3), preferably incorporating more than one detection point located at sufficient positions to facilitate checks when internal circulation is Poor. It is usually necessary to provide for occasional pumped circulation or mechanical stirring of the product, in order to reduce temperature layering within large tanks. (Under poor mixing conditions, tests have shown lower temperatures at the bottom/side areas below the heating element.) Heating Element Temperature Control Heating element temperature controls are necessary to prevent local overheating, because heat transfer can be severely restricted by the high viscosity of the product, with the development of solid decomposition products around the elements and an ensuing rise of local temperatures to the cracking range. Such controls are particularly important for electrical heating elements. Heating Element Liquid Cover These provisions also should include automatic level shut off switches and alarms controlled from bitumen liquid level sensors to shut off the heating elements when there is less than 150mm of liquid cover. Alternatively, the normal offtake level nozzle should be arranged to be a corresponding height above the top of the heating elements. Uninsulated feeder pipes to hot oil or steam heating elements should not pass through tank vapour spaces. Reheating Bitumen from Solid A single vertical hairpin heating element may be provided in a bitumen tank above the bottom heating elements to provide a pressure relief channel up through the stock of bitumen if it becomes necessary to safely re-melt the stock from solid. This will avoid the over stressing and possible failure of the bottom shell courses as re-melting causes expansion. Where this is done, the vertical element should be independent of the bottom elements and to avoid overheating in the vapour space care should be taken that it is shut off before the bulk of the stock becomes hot. 7.3.3 Product Pipes in Tank Vapour Spaces For the reasons stated in 5.4.1, manufacturing plant run down pipes should not pass through tank vapour spaces unless specially insulated. Filling arrangements should be designed to minimise splashing and to provide free entry at any level when the tank contents are cold. For product transfers, other than rundown streams from manufacturing plants, and where top entry into a tank is necessary to keep the delivery pipe clear in all circumstances, a slotted downpipe to minimise splashing should be provided extending throughout the tank vapour space. 7.3.4 Level Control Facilities

Automatic level indicators and alarms are to be preferred to manual dipping for routine level control. See7.4.4. Top mounted, non-intrusive remote sensing instruments using radar or ultrasonic devices may be considered for continuous level measurement where fouling of level floats is a problem. High level alarms should be independent of other level sensors. Inert gas bubblers have been used for this duty. Manual dipping from the tank top should be minimised but a dip hatch will normally be required for checking automatic facilities. This should be combined with the sampling hatch (7.3.11) and designed to minimise the inflow of air and the outflow of vapour when it is used. A walkway should be provided to give access to the dip hatch to avoid damage to the tank roof insu lation. A drip tray should be provided to avoid contamination of roof insulation in the vicinity of the hatch. With tanks such as oxidised grade rundown tanks that in accordance with the recommendation in 5.4.4 and 7.3.8 are operated under oxygen depleted vapour spaces e.g. by inert gas or steam, the avoidance of manual dipping from the tank top is particularly important for reasons of both safety and operational convenience. In such cases the provision of remote reading gauges is strongly recommended. 7.3.5 Breather Vents Pressure/vacuum breather valves are not recommended for use in bitumen storage tank service because of the risk of sticking in the closed position. For a bitumen tank which is to be vented to the air, a single, permanently open breather vent should be provided. Multiple vents should be avoided because they allow cross flow of air in the tank roof space and this can promote self- heating of any pyrophoric deposits present. The vent should be designed to keep the tank pressure within the allowable range under all possible product inflow and outflow conditions using API Std 2000: 'Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks' or equivalent. It should also be designed to: discharge well away from any point where personnel might be harmed by discharge of hot material from overflow or froth- over*. prevent ingress of rain water. See 7.3.9. avoid contamination of tank insulation by any oily condensate discharged from the mouth of the vent, in order to reduce the risks from auto-ignition near the vent. See 3.3.4 and 7.3. 10. minimise the risk of blockage by fouling. For this reason, it is recommended not to provide vents with mesh covers or flame arrestors. facilitate access for regular inspection and vent cleaning. See 7.4.9.

A 50% overdesign on vent area is recommended for bitumen tank vents because some fouling is inevitable. It is essential that vent calculations should be checked and reviewed when tanks are allocated to duties for which they were not designed e.g. change of pumping rates into or out of the tank, or of pipe inlet size, or where it is proposed (in consequence of the above recommendation that cross flow should be avoided) that a reduction in the number of the vents is to be made. Failure to do this can result in serious damage to the tank roof, e.g. where overfilling forces bitumen to be expelled through the breather vent line, with consequent partial blockage from congealed material.
*A vent brought down to discharge close to ground level is preferable.

7.3.6 Pressure Relief Panels It is normally impracticable to design breather vents with sufficient capacity to relieve the pressures which can be created by froth-over situations . Hinged and weighted relief panels or specifically designed manhole covers are sometimes provided to protect the tank in the event of froth- over or minor explosion. Where these are provided, any access ways below should be protected from the bitumen which might be discharged. Alternatively, the conical roofs of vertical cylindrical tanks can be designed with 'weak' frangible shell-to-roof seams. Such designs can be disproportionately expensive for small tanks (e.g. less than about 15 m diameter). 7.3.7 Vapour Collection Systems At manufacturing sites, vapour extraction systems may be installed for the collection of vapours from bitumen tank vents. The vapours collected are either incinerated, partially condensed into knock-out vessels, or scrubbed with a suitable washing medium, before discharge to the atmosphere. Where vapours are collected from tank vents, a care fully designed, pressure balanced system is necessary to ensure that tanks are not subject to overpressure or vacuum conditions beyond their design range. The system should avoid producing cross draughts in bitumen tank vapour spaces. See 7.3.5, second paragraph.

7.3.8 Controlled Oxygen Depletion Facilities Where, as in the recommendation in 5.4.4 in respect of oxidised grade bitumen rundown tanks, oxygen depletion is considered necessary to avoid flammable atmospheres in tank vapour spaces, the facilities should be designed to ensure that there remains sufficient oxygen in the vapour space to avoid build up of pyrophoric deposits. There is evidence that a minimum of 4% by volume of oxygen is sufficient to prevent the deposits from becoming potentially hazardous. Depending on the type and source of the inert gas it may already contain such a level of oxygen; otherwise air may have to be added under ratio control to the inerting gas flow. Monitoring the oxygen concentration, preferably by using continuous oxygen measurement instruments, is strongly recommended in order to maintain the composition of the vapour space normally at between 4% and 6% oxygen by volume. There must be provisions to ensure that, in the event of any failure which might cause the oxygen concentration in the tank vapour space to exceed 8% by volume, any withdrawal of bitumen from the tank should be discontinued to prevent further air from being drawn in. Oxygen measuring instruments, when installed directly within the vapour space of the bitumen tank, are liable to fouling. Therefore such instruments may be positioned in the inert gas/steam supply line as close as possible to the tank(s). It should be understood that, due to the ongoing slow oxidation process that can occur in the tank, the oxygen content in the tank will not always be the same as measured in the inert gas supply line. Therefore the inert gas supply should maintain a minimum flow to the tank even when the tank level is static. This will also help avoid any fouling of the instruments that might otherwise still occur. Apart from reliable oxygen monitoring, the use of inert gas blanketing of tanks requires a carefully de signed and operated system, e.g. on the point of pressure control of the tank(s) concerned. It is therefore strongly recommended that specialist advice is obtained wherever such expertise is not available at site. Because the standard design pressure/vacuum safety valves are not recommended for use in bitumen storage tank service, because of the risk of sticking in the closed position (see 7.5.3) a specially designed overpressure and vacuum protection system should be installed, whenever inert gas blanketing is applied. During operation of the system it should be regularly inspected and maintained, especially the instrumentation. Note: The measures in 7.3.8 are not normally required in tankage other than oxidised grade rundown tanks. For rundown tanks for distillation plant bitumens see 5.4.3. 1. For measures to minimise deposits that may become pyrophoric in bulk distribution and user tankage see 7.4.7. 7.3.9 Provisions Against Water Ingress All facilities connected to bitumen tanks should be de signed to minimise the risk of water ingress to the tanks. See also 7.4.5. Closures to tank roof openings should be weather tight and the roofs should be free draining. Where steam heating of pipelines is necessary, external steam tracing of lines is preferred to jacketing and to internal steam tracing. Facilities for supplying cutback diluents for blending with bitumen (see Chapter 6) should incorporate effective water separation arrangements. 7.3.10 Thermal Insulation All thermal insulation on hot tanks and pipes should be scaled against ingress of water and oily products, including bitumen spills, bitumen tank vent condensate drips and leakage from flanges or side entry mixer glands. Damage to insulation covers should be avoided by provision of platforming wherever access over insulation is necessary. 7.3.11 Sampling Arrangements Sampling preferably should be carried out from a pipeline used in association with the tank or, when good mixing has been assured, from a connection on the tank shell. Sample valves for these purposes should be specially designed (see Chapter 10). Manual sampling from the tank top should be discouraged but, where it is necessary, a sample hatch should be provided. This should be combined with the dip hatch. When sampling is required from oxygen depleted tankage, fixed sampling points should be used in place of dipping. See 7.3.4, final paragraph. 7.3.12 Tank Lighting Tank lighting should be adequate for all access requirements after dark.

7.3.13 Pipework Systems Pipework systems which might be left full of bitumen between operations should have adequate thermal insulation and trace heating facilities to prevent blockage due to solidification of the product. Where trace heating is provided, however, special care is necessary to avoid beating liquid -full sections trapped between closed block valves or plugs of solid product. Pressure relief valves cannot normally be relied upon to protect sections of heated liquid-full bitumen pipework against the hydraulic pressures which can be produced by thermal expansion. See also 7.4.8. Pipework systems for occasional use should be designed for ease of draining to low points from which the product can conveniently be removed between operations. An incline of not less than 8% is recommended for any bitumen pipeline to be self-draining. Pipework systems, whether for occasional or continuous use, should be thermally insulated as necessary to protect persons from contact bums. Flanged pipe connections are preferred to screwed connections in bitumen service, to facilitate dismantling when necessary for the clearance of blockages. Electrical heating elements for pipework should incorporate automatic temperature limitation controls. When steam tracing is used see 7.3.9. 7.4 OPERATIONS 7.4.1 Labelling of Equipment Tanks and their appropriate fill valves should be marked for identification with a number and, if practicable, the product grade in accordance with the IP Product Identi fication System for Marketing Operations and Distributions, obtainable with its accompanying Code of Practice direct from the Institute of Petroleum. Additionally, cutback tanks should be marked 'DANGER FLAMMABLE' . Tanks which can be operated under any form of oxygen depletion system should have warnings displayed at dip hatches and similar roof apertures to avoid inadvertent opening. Product and service hose connection points and valves should be labelled to indicate their duties and grades. 7.4.2 Safeguards against Hydrogen Sulphide Lethal concentrations of hydrogen sulphide can accumulate in the vapour spaces of bitumen tanks as a result of thermal reactivity. For this reason operators must avoid breathing vapours from these tanks and follow the recommendations in 2.4 and 2.4. 1. 7.4.3 Tank Temperature Control A maximum working temperature should be specified for each tank taking account of the recommendations in Appendix B and, in the case of bitumens other than cutback grades, the need to avoid the occurrence of flammable atmospheres in the tank vapour spaces. Accurate temperature control is particularly necessary where material is to be stored close to the maximum recommended in Appendix B. Regular checks are necessary to ensure that automatic instruments are working correctly. See 7.3.2. Where automatic control instruments are not provided, strict procedures are necessary to ensure that bulk temperature limits are not exceeded in any part of the tank and that active heating elements are not uncovered. Readings can be unreliable if taken only near the heating elements, shell or tank bottom. 7.4.4 Tank Level Control Whether or not a high level alarm is fitted, a maximum safe working level for the tank should be predetermined. See 7.3.4. This should allow a margin for thermal expansion of the product in the tank and for the eruption and foaming which might result from a small accidental ingress of water. Before the start of any transfer into the tank, checks should be made to confirm that there is sufficient ullage for the proposed transfer without exceeding the maximum safe working level. Manual dipping of tanks, other than those with oxygen depletion, will be necessary for occasional checking of automatic facilities and for control of transfers where there are no automatic level measuring instruments. Access to bitumen tank roofs for this or any other purpose should be regulated as indicated in 7.4.6. 7.4.5 Avoidance of Froth-over In order to avoid the risks of froth-over in bitumen tanks, particular care is necessary to: - remove water from pipework and other facilities before passing product through them to a tank already containing bitumen,

- avoid ingress of water through open hatches and manholes on the roof of a tank, particularly when fire fighting or emergency tank cooling, - ensure that all water has been effectively removed from any cutback diluent system before the diluent is passed to a bitumen tank, - avoid and make regular checks for leaks in steam coils. See 7.5.4. When a coil is shut down an atmospheric bleed should be opened on the coil near the tank and checked for condensate or signs of product leakage. Tanks should not be operated in a range of temperature which fluctuates above and below the boiling point of water, as these fluctuations are conducive to the accumulation and then rapid vaporisation of water, which often results in froth-over. A tank operated continuously above 100'C has less opportunity for water accumulation by condensation. If, despite draining, the presence of water is suspected in a tank containing bitumen at a temperature below 100 oC and it is necessary to heat the product, great care should be taken to raise the temperature slowly through the range 95 to 120 oC, in order to avoid froth-over. In these circumstances the use of anti-foaming agents can be beneficial, but access near to or on the tank should be prohibited during this period. 7.4.6 Access to Bitumen Tank Roofs Access by personnel to hot bitumen tank roofs should be strictly regulated at all times. It should be avoided as far as is reasonably practicable, during product movements into or out of the tank concerned, or when mixing or circulating is in process. It should be prohibited: during the blending of cutback (see Chapter 6), during raising of the tank temperature, if the tank might contain a flammable atmosphere, during any outbreak of fire in the vicinity, during periods of high wind, during electric storms.

7.4.7 Control of Pyrophoric Deposits in Bitumen Tankage (other than Manufacturing Rundown Tanks) for Oxidised Grades 7.4.7.1 The circumstances under which solid carbonaceous deposits on the walls or the roof areas of bitumen tanks can become self-heating are still not always fully understood. As indicated in 3.3.5 the oxidation process that occurs with such deposits can be a slow reaction that normally produces no significant local temperature rise. This is the normal experience with oxidised grade non rundown tanks, and with rundown and non-rundown tanks for the other bitumen grades. However, where deposits are present there is always some risk that self-heating might occur. This might or might not be important in any particular case, since this is dependent upon the likelihood of the presence of a flammable level in the vapour space. These factors have been reviewed in 3.2.2.2, 3.3.6, 5.4.2, 5.4.3 and 5.4.4 with the resultant division of tankage categories as follows: (i) manufacturing rundown tanks from oxidation plants, which should be equipped with controlled oxygen depletion facilities in accordance with 7.3.8. (ii) other rundown tanks from distillation plant, which will not require oxygen depletion, but should be given periodic ventilation in accordance with 5.4.3. other tankage in the bulk distribution and user sectors. 7.4.7.2 For tankage in category (iii) above it is prudent still to be aware that the formation of deposits can occur and should be minimised. The use of the lowest practicable bitumen storage temperatures at all times will help, and should ensure that the probability of generating a flammable condition in the tank space is minimal. The guidance given in 7.4.3 and Appendix B should therefore be followed. 7.4.7.3

The steady state slow oxidation process that occurs with typical deposits in the above category (iii) tankage has been mentioned in 3.3.5 and 7.4.7.1 as normally occur ring. This steady state situation is of obvious importance and carbonaceous deposits, once formed, should be kept in a steady state with their surroundings until such time as they can be removed by thorough tank cleaning. This steady state is promoted by: avoiding through -draughts of fresh air in tank vapour spaces (7.3.5). These can suddenly in crease the rates of the oxidation processes which are normally continuously occurring at the surfaces of deposits. avoiding significant step changes in the temperature regime surrounding the tank. The addition of new heat insulation across the roof, for example, could result in existing roof deposits overheating.

If tankage operating conditions cannot be selected to prevent the build up of deposits, consideration may be given to removal of the deposits by cleaning before they begin to break away, exposing new surfaces at which self- heating might start. Note: In the event that specific user requirements require a higher temperature than is provided for in Appendix B, this should be achieved not by increasing the bulk tank temperature of the bitumen but by reheating the product separately from the tank, e.g. by suction or line heaters. (A maximum temperature of 230 oC should still apply for loading into tank vehicles.) 7.4.8 Safe Clearance of Pipeline Blockage The design guidance given in 7.3.9 and 7.3.13 should be noted. Unsafe methods of attempting to clear pipeline blockages can give rise to serious accidents due to the heated nature of the product and should not be permitted. The guidance given in 8.11 should be observed. 7.4.9 Clearance of Breather Vents A regular routine of checking that breather vents are un obstructed is essential. See 7.5.2. 7.5 INSPECTION 7.5.1 Overall External inspection of the exposed parts of tank walls and fittings to detect leaks and other possible defects should be carried out on a routine basis by operators. The intervals between full internal inspections of tank walls, floors, roofs and internal fittings, entailing total emptying and cleaning, should be specified in company procedures. 7.5.2 Breather Vents and Pressure Relief Panels Bitumen tank vents and pressure relief panels (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) are particularly susceptible to fouling. A regular schedule for inspection of each vent and pressure relief panel should be established in the light of local experience. Inspection and cleaning of vents should normally be possible without emptying the product from the tank but a carefully defined permit to work procedure is necessary in each case to avoid risks of ignition at the vent and to minimise exposure of personnel to fumes, particularly when hydrogen sulphide is present. 7.5.3 Thermal Insulation Areas of thermal insulation, likely to be contaminated by oil or bitumen spills, should be of a non-absorbent type, sealed, inspected frequently and, to avoid spontaneous ignition (3.3.4), replaced whenever there are signs of impregnation or damage to the cladding. 7.5.4 Heating Coils A regular schedule for integrity cheeks on steam and hot oil heating coils, should be established in the light of local experience. This should include coil draining checks with the tank in service and pressure testing of the coil when the tank is out of service. 7.5.5 Records of Inspections Record should be kept of all inspections. 7.6 MAINTENANCE AND TANK CLEANING 7.6.1 Preparations for Entry

From time to time bitumen tanks have to be taken out of service for purposes such as product change, inspection and maintenance. Decommissioning procedures and their precautions will differ accordingly. In all cases where personnel will have to enter the tank for inspection and/or cleaning purposes extensive precautions for decommissioning and gas-freeing apply before anyone may enter. This subject is comprehensively dealt with in the IP Tank Cleaning Safety Code to which reference should be made. In the case of bitumen tanks which have been operated under oxygen depleted atmospheres such as inert gas or steam (see 7.3.8), there may be an increased risk of the presence of pyrophoric carbonaceous and/or iron sulphide deposits. These might become reactive and a potential source of ignition for any flammable vapours in the tank, as well as for the deposits themselves, when the inert gas/air atmosphere is being replaced by fresh air with normal ambient oxygen content. It is therefore recommended where such risk exists that, after emptying out and cool down of the tank, the inerted tank atmosphere is not directly displaced by air. Methods to displace hydrocarbon vapours can include continued purging by inert gas or steam, or water displacement. In the latter case, care is required to ensure that the tank is not filled to above the maximum level allowed for by the tank and foundation design. Only after this displacement process has been completed should the tank be isolated from the inert gas supply and opened to the atmosphere to allow air to enter when the water is subsequently slowly drained from the tank. Whenever water is introduced into tanks extreme care is required to ensure that no water is remaining in the tank or associated pipework prior to refilling with hot bitumen. (See 7.6.6) 7.6.2 Entry into Bitumen Tanks Tanks which have contained bitumen may, even when cold, contain petroleum vapours and/or hydrogen sulphide and may also be deficient in oxygen. There should therefore be no entry of personnel either full body or simply head and shoulders, without a permit to work procedure to ensure that all the necessary precautions are taken. These precautions should include provision to ensure that the tank is: - drained clear of bitumen as far as practicable, - isolated from all sources of fluid other than fresh air, by spading or blanking of all pipes and ducts and by avoiding all discharges of flammable and toxic vapours in the vicinities of tank openings; closed valves, even when locked off and made inoperable, are not acceptable as a safe means of isolation. - isolated from all sources of heat and power. - cooled throughout as nearly as reasonably practicable to ambient temperature. - ventilated thoroughly with fresh air, by opening upper and lower manholes. - tested throughout by a competent person, wearing appropriate protective equipment, for the presence of flammable vapours and hydrogen sulphide and for the adequacy of the oxygen concentration for breathing. If there are any signs of smouldering within the tank, possibly due to pyrophoric deposits, the area concerned should be damped down with water and kept damp until the deposits can be removed. Particular care is necessary, when entering un-cleaned bitumen tanks, to avoid the risks to personnel from failing lumps of bitumen or carbonaceous deposit which may have become detached from the wall or roof during cooling. The permit to work should specify any constraints on the types of tools and lighting which may be used inside the tank. 7.6.2.1 Entry Without Breathing Apparatus For entry without breathing apparatus it should be ensured that: - flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 4% of the lower flammable limit. - hydrogen sulphide is nowhere in the tank present at concentrations exceeding 10- ppm. - the concentration of oxygen in the air within the tank is nowhere less than 20% by volume, and that adequate fresh air ventilation is maintained. - there are safeguards by frequent monitoring as appropriate against the risks of flammable or toxic vapours being produced as tank deposits are disturbed. A tank cannot be regarded as gas-free and safe for hot work in the presence of such deposits. See 7.6.5. - an attendant is posted at an entry manway whenever personnel are inside the tank, and is equipped with the means to raise an alarm. 7.6.2.2 Entry With Breathing Apparatus

When entry into a tank requires the use of breathing apparatus for reasons of toxicity or oxygen deficiency of the atmosphere it should be ensured that: - flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 25% of the lower flammable limit, - an attendant is posted at the tank entry manway tokeep observation on the people within the tank. He should be equipped with self contained breathing apparatus and the means to raise an alarm. Use of a life line should be considered. - a second person is responsible for ensuring a satisfactory air supply from the compressor unit to the personnel in the tank, - any air compressor supplying air to personnel in the tank, is located so that its air intake is in a safe position and remote from engine exhaust or other contamination, - no work other than inspection is undertaken in the tank. 7.6.2.3 The Monitoring of the Atmosphere Within the Tank Throughout any period of entry, with or without breathing apparatus, the atmosphere within the tank should be monitored by gas tests, as necessary, to ensure that it does not deteriorate beyond the limits indicated. Rechecks are necessary after every period when the tank has been left unattended. 7.6.3 Tank Cleaning The build up of carbonaceous deposits around heating coils and in certain wall and roof areas occurs with most grades of bitumen. It usually becomes apparent from changes in the lank working capacity, from difficulties in maintaining tank temperatures, or from difficulties in achieving the required flow of product from the tank. It can be confirmed by visual inspection but this usually necessitates emptying and cooling the tank. As a general rule carbonaceous deposits are most easily removed by draining the tank as far as possible, cooling the remaining contents to ambient temperature and then chipping out, using either mechanical cutting tools or high pressure water jets. It can help to switch the tank to a high softening point grade immediately before emptying so as to maximise the brittleness of the material to be removed mechanically. If personnel entry is required, the tank should be prepared as indicated in 7.6.2 above. Protective clothing including dust masks and eye protectors should always be worn when chipping bitumen. When using mechanical tools for chipping out there is inevitably some risk of damage to tank coils and fittings. Careful inspection is therefore necessary after cleaning and before further use. The use of high pressure water jets is a specialised operation which should only be carried out by personnel experienced in the technique and applying all the special ised safeguards necessary. Carbonaceous and other deposits removed from bitumen tanks, particularly those which have contained hydrogen sulphide, should be kept wet until they can be disposed of to an area where they can be allowed to oxidise freely without risks from any local self- heating which might occur. They can usually be disposed of ultimately to licensed landfill sites. For general information on tank cleaning refer to the IP Tank Cleaning Safety Code. 7.6.4 Hot Work in Tankage Areas Bitumen tankage areas should be designated as ignition source control areas and any use of open flames or spark producing equipment should be governed by a permit to work. Before any such work is allowed, which should be carried out only by trained and competent persons, the following precautions should be taken: - to ensure that the area of work remains free from any flammable vapours such as might be discharged from tank vents or spills in the vicinity, - to avoid any chance that flames or sparks may be transmitted from the area of the work into an area not safeguarded against the ingress of flammable vapours, - to avoid the creation of flammable atmospheres in confined spaces resulting from the overheating of carbonaceous materials, - to monitor the atmosphere in the area against the presence of flammable gases and vapours through out the period of the work. Additional fire fighting equipment, appropriate to the risks, should always be provided in the vicinity of the work while it is in progress. 7.6.5 Hot Work on Bitumen Tanks

Before any hot work is started inside a bitumen tank, the tank must be prepared as for entry without breathing apparatus (see 7.6.2). Additionally in this case it should be ensured that: flammable vapours are nowhere in the tank at concentrations in excess of 1% of the lower flammable limit, bitumen and carbonaceous deposits are cleaned away as far as practicable from the vicinity of the hot work so as to minimise the risks of vapour production and bitumen ignition, ventilation with fresh air is good enough to clear rapidly any vapours produced, provisions are made to protect against the ignition of any remaining bitumen or carbonaceous deposits not cleaned away.

Similar precautions are necessary before any hot work is started on the outside of a bitumen tank or near any vapour vent from the tank, unless alternative arrangements are made to avoid flammable atmospheres in the tank vapour space for the duration of the work. (Note that in the United Kingdom, under Section 31 of the 1961 Factories Act, special dispensation is required from the Health and Safety Executive for hot work on the outside of a tank containing bitumen.) 7.6.6 Return of Tanks to Service Before return of a tank to hot bitumen service particular care is necessary to ensure that all free water has been removed from the tank bottom and connecting pipe work. After drying out as far as practicable, by draining and mopping up, and before returning the tank to full service, a dryness trial is recommended. This should be done by putting enough bitumen at a temperature not greater than 90 oC into the tank to cover the coils to a depth of 1 m maximum and then heating to about 120 oC under temperature control for about 24 hours.

8 LOADING, TRANSPORT AND DISCHARGE

8.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals mainly with the bulk transfer of bitumen by road, rail and ship. Consideration is also given to the handling of packaged bitumen. Operators of bitumen transport facilities should refer also to Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 10. 8.2 BULK TRANSPORT CONTAINERS 8.2.1 Road Vehicle Tanks A road vehicle tank intended for discharge by air or inert gas at pressures in excess of 500 millibar gauge, should be designed, constructed and tested to BS 5500: 'Specification for unfired, fusion welded pressure vessels' or equivalent. It should be clearly marked with the maximum working pressure and fitted with relief valves adequate for relief of any possible pneumatic or hy draulic over-pressure. It should also be ensured that any requirements under the recent UK Statutory Instrument No. 2169 'The Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989' are observed. A road vehicle tank intended for discharge only by pump and not required to operate at pressures in excess of 500 millibar gauge, should be designed to good industry standards. It should be fitted with a relief valve to protect against any possible hydraulic over-pressure. Statutory regulations 'The Dangerous Substances (Conveyance by Road in Road Tankers and Tank Containers) Regulations 1981' apply within the United Kingdom concerning the examination, testing and certification of tanks and fittings for the transport of bitumen by road at temperatures in excess of 100oC. An example of the current Hazard Warning Panel which, under these Regulations, must be displayed in the UK on any vehicle carrying bitumen at a temperature above 100 oC to warn that it is carrying a hot liquid, is given in Figure 8.1. An example of the Transport Emergency Card which additionally the driver must carry in the cab of the vehicle is given in Figure 8.2. Equivalent national or ADR requirements should be followed in other countries.

Notes; 1 The Code figures and symbol in the boxes and the dimensions of the panel are as specified by the present UK Dangerous Substances (Conveyance by Road in Road Tankers and Tank Containers) Regulations 1981. The Code 2W and the symbol in the diamond panel indicate that the load carried is a hot liquid, with the number 7033 being allocated in the UK for bitumen. 2 Under a forthcoming revision of the 1981 Regulations, expected to come out in late 1990/early 1991, a new diamond symbol will be introduced. Although most bitumens now come under the UK identification number 7033, if a bitumen has a flash point below 55'C (i.e. cutbacks), it will be covered by the identification number 1999 and the hazard warning symbol will be the one appropriate to flammable liquids. 3 There is no equivalent to 7033 in ADR, and the number shown in countries using this system is 1999, with the appropriate hazard warning number 30, and the ADR diamond hazard warning sign. Figure 8.1 Typical Current Hazard Warning Panel for Bitumen Road and Rail Tankers in the UK

8.2.2 Railcar Tanks The design, construction, maintenance, testing and examination of railcar tanks for use within the UK are governed by British Rail regulations. For bitumen transported at temperatures in excess of 100 oC, the British Rail regulations require that railcars display Hazard Warning Panels, and that the train driver carries a Transport Emergency Card, similar to the panel and card (Figures 8. 1 and 8.2) used for road vehicles.

Transport Emergency Card (Road)

Substance Identification No 7033 Emergency Action Code 2 W

Cargo

BITUMEN (HOT) Hot black liquid with perceptible odour. Does not mix with water.

Nature of Hazard

High temperatures of product will cause severe burns if in contact with the skin. Any introduction of water, because of the high product temperature, can cause the tank to boil over and the hot liquid to be expelled violently. All grades will ignite at high temperatures. Protective Devices Heavy duty gloves. Safety helmet with full face visor. Neck protection. Emergency Action NOTIFY EMERGENCY SERVICES IMMEDIATELY Road Accident or * Stop vehicle engine. Spillage * No naked lights. No smoking. * Shut off leaks if this can be done without risk. * Keep public away from possible danger area. * Contain leaking liquid with sand or earth. * Prevent liquid entering drains, basements, etc. * If substance has entered a water course or drain or has contaminated soil or vegetation. inform the police. Fire * If exposed to fire keep vehicle tank cool using a fine water spray (fog). * Extinguish fire by dry chemical, foam or fine water spray (fog). * Do not use water jet.

First Aid

* If the substance has splashed into the eyes, cool immediately with cold running water for at least 5 minutes. * Skin burns should immediately be plunged under cold running water and held there for at least 10 minutes or until thoroughly cold. * No attempt should be made to remove cold bitumen which has adhered to the skin. * Send casualty to hospital. Additional information will he provided by the manufacturer. Telephone ..

This card has been prepared by the Institute of Petroleum from the best information available to meet the requirements of Regulation 10 of S.I. 1981 No. 1059 but no responsibility is accepted of whatsoever kind, for damage or alleged damage arising or otherwise occurring in or about premises, areas or vehicles to which this card has been applied.

Figure 8.2. Text of Transport Emergency (Trem) Card for Bitumen. Ibis has been issued by the Institute of Petroleum to meet the requirement for emergency guidance to be kept available in the driver's cab of a road tanker, and by the driver of a rail train New railcar tanks intended for discharge by air or inert gas pressure, should be designed and constructed to the British Standard pressure vessel code (See 8.2. 1) or equivalent. Railcar tanks constructed to former standards may be used in the UK subject to written approval by the Health and Safety Executive. All railcars should be fitted with relief valves adequate for the relief of any possible pneumatic or hydraulic over-pressure. Railcars should be examined internally at regular intervals. Typically for such cars, cleaning to remove deposits is likely to be required every two to five years and it is normally sufficient to carry out internal examination at the same frequency. Removal of lagging for external examination should be carried out on a regular random sample basis. 8.2.3 Ship and Barge Tanks The tanks of ships and barges for the transport of hot bitumens, must be specifically designed for the temperatures and characteristics of the products involved. Further guidance on the design and construction of such tanks is outside the scope of this code. See also 8.9. 8.2.4 Internal Heating Tubes Road and rail vehicles for the transport of bitumen may be fitted with steam coils or flame tube heaters. Where flame tube heaters are fitted, their vertical exhaust risers may be mounted on the outside of the tank or may pass through the tank vapour space. Where an internal exhaust riser is fitted, high, surface temperatures in the tank vapour space should be avoided by means of a suitably insulated construction. Flame heating tubes and exhaust risers should always be maintained in a clean condition as soot and rust can give rise to overheating causing local hot spots. They should be examined frequently for signs of thinning and they should be replaced as necessary. 8.2.5 Gauges and Fittings Pressure gauges, pressure relief valves and thermowells for thermometers should be fitted to all road and rail vehicle tanks. They should be designed and located for protection against impact. They should be cleaned and checked regularly. It is recommended that a master thermometer be kept for the checking of all service thermometers. The master thermometer should be proved at regular intervals. Access for opening hatches on the top of each road tanker and railcar tank should be provided by means of a fixed ladder and a non-slip walkway of adequate width. Vehicle mounted tanks are usually provided with a single bottom outlet having two valves in series to reduce the risk of spillage in the event of valve failure. The inner valve should be designed so that when the tank is in use the valve remains at a temperature sufficient to prevent plugging. If, due to leakage of the inner valve, a plug of solid bitumen forms between the two valves, discharge pipe work should be properly connected before any attempt is made to clear the plug by opening the two valves simultaneously. See 8.11.

Vents should be sited well away from heater exhaust outlets. Relief valves should be shielded against becoming fouled by bitumen splashes inside the tank. 8.3 ROAD AND RAIL TANK ACCESS GANTRIES Bitumen and cutback tank vehicles are normally loaded through top connections on the vehicle tank. It is therefore necessary to provide safe means of access to the vehicle tank top for loading operations. Such means of access should be provided by way of a gantry with a working platform along or across the vehicle just above tank top level. Gantries should also be provided wherever samples are to be taken from the tops of vehicle tanks. See Chapter 10. 8.3.1 Layout of Road Gantries Traffic lane and gantry layouts in road loading areas should be designed to accommodate, without congestion, the longest vehicles, rigid or otherwise, likely to be used. They should be laid out for one way low of vehicles and should avoid, where practicable, the crossing of vehicle streams. Slip roads should be provided to allow vehicles to leave the installation in case of emergency without passing through the gantries. Auxiliary facilities such as washing bays, administrative stops and fuelling stands should not obstruct normal traffic flow. 8.3.2 Construction Gantries should be constructed in steel and/or concrete. Any cladding sheets used should be of a material that does not support combustion. The gantry and its equipment should be protected against accidental damage from vehicles by the use of bollards, high road curbs or other effective means. Platforms and stairs should be provided with non-slip surfaces. Open grid platforms and stair treads should be avoided where there is equipment or access for personnel beneath, unless suitable means are provided for protection against bitumen releases. 8.3.3 Control of Vehicle Movement Special care is necessary to avoid any accidental movement of a rail or road vehicle while any loading or discharge operation is in progress or any person is present on the vehicle tank top. Written procedures, warning signals and physical stops should be employed as appropriate to each situation. 8.3.4 Access and Escape For personnel access, gantry platforms should allow a free passage at least 0.75m wide over the entire length. Equipment on the platforms should be positioned to minimise hindrance to operators and should not expose operators to the risks of knocks and bums. Gantries should have safe means of escape at both ends. Caged ladders are not recommended for this purpose. Working platforms, stairways and ramps should be fitted with guard rails, normally at lm above platform level, along all open sides. A hinged and balanced access ramp should be provided at each vehicle loading position to enable personnel to walk easily and safely between the gantry and the vehicle top. The ramp should be easily adjustable to cater for vehicles of different heights. Any stair treads fitted should be of the self-levelling non-slip type. Suspended handrails should be provided opposite the ramp at each vehicle loading position to provide protection for personnel standing temporarily on the vehicle tank walkways. Roadcar tank loading gantries should be designed to allow unobstructed access to the driver's cab when the vehicle is in position for loading. 8.3.5 Control Stations The design of the loading system should be such that loading can be controlled from the gantry without the loader having to stand on top of the vehicle. See 8.8.3. Each gantry should have emergency valves which can be operated both locally and remotely from a safe location to stop quickly all product flow to the gantry. The emergency stop arrangement should be such that no unexpected product flow can occur on reset. 8.3.6 Product Segregation and Identification

Gantries for bitumen should preferably be dedicated to bitumen and similar products. Combination with Class I petroleum product loading should not be allowed. On gantries which dispense more than one grade or product, each loading system should be clearly marked to indicate the product it serves. The IP Product Identification System and colour coding may be used. See 7.4.1. Positive separation should be provided between the piping of penetration and similar grades and the piping for cutbacks. 8.3.7 Ventilation If gantry roofs or other weather protection enclosures are used these should be adequately ventilated to avoid excessive concentrations of fumes or hydrogen sulphide vapours during loading. 8.3.8 Lighting Gantries should be provided with sufficient artificial illumination for night time operation. This should normally give a minimum of 50 lux illumination at the vehicle tank top. The electrical equipment within the gantry structure should be to a standard suitable for areas classified as Zone 2. 8.4 PNEUMATIC DISCHARGE SYSTEMS Any air or inert gas supply system for the discharge of a road or rail transport tank should incorporate relief valves as necessary to avoid the vehicle tank relief valves being overloaded by the air or gas supply facilities. It should also incorporate effective knock-out facilities sufficient to ensure that any water which might collect in the gas or air supply system and its piping is removed before the air enters a vehicle tank. Excessive air or gas should not be applied and a restriction orifice may be desirable to limit flow. See also 8.8.6, second paragraph. 8.5 PIPEWORK Pipework systems should be designed and laid out with care in accordance with 7.3.13 and kept clear of block ages when not in use as appropriate by, continuous hot bitumen circulation, trace heating, draining empty, filling with a less viscous product.

Where blockage nevertheless has occurred see 8.11. Hot pipework should be insulated or guarded as necessary to protect personnel from contact bums, and where steam tracing is used (see 7.3.9). Electrical heating elements for pipework should incorporate automatic temperature limitation controls. 8.6 HOSES 8.6.1 Types and Specification Hoses for bitumen and cutback bitumen duties are usually either - of reinforced rubber construction or - of flexible metallic construction. Hoses and hose assemblies should conform to the British Standard BS 6130: 'Specification of hose and hose assemblies for asphalt and bitumen' or equivalent national standards. 8.6.2 Couplings Hoses should be connected by flanged couplings at both ends except where it is necessary to deliver bitumen by a potting hose through a manhole. In this case the un flanged end of the hose should be properly secured to the manhole by means of a chain or hose clamp so that it cannot pull out of the vessel due to a surge of product; failure to make it secure can give rise to serious personnel injuries. Where hose flanges are designed to take particular bolt or washer fittings, only the correctly matching fittings should be used. Where it is necessary to use gaskets, these should be of the correct material and in good condition. Where flanges are bolted, all the bolt holes should be used. The use of flange clamps should not be permitted unless the flanges are specifically designed to accept the clamps.

8.6.3 Thermal Insulation Metallic hoses may be thermally insulated for personnel protection. However, it should be noted that insulation restricts the flexibility of the hose and makes handling more difficult. It also substantially hinders inspection and may conceal corrosion. 8.6.4 Handling and Support in Use Hoses and hose assemblies should always be handled with care. They should not be dragged or rolled in a manner which abrades or twists the body of the hose. Rubber hoses should not be allowed to come into contact with hot surfaces such as steam pipes. A hose, when in use, should be adequately supported along its full length, either by resting on the ground or by suspension using slings with saddles, to spread the load and prevent bending to radii less than the manufacturer's recommendation. 8.6.5 Marking and Inspection Hoses and hose assemblies should be permanently and legibly marked in accordance with BS 6130 or equivalent. On each occasion before use, hose assemblies should be checked by the user for signs of abrasion, splitting, kinking, swelling or flattening of the hose and for any damage to the couplings and their attachments. They should be visually inspected at least every three months by a competent and responsible person, other than the normal user. They should be removed from service at least annually for examination and testing by a competent inspector in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. This will normally entail removal of insulation to facilitate the examination. Records of all inspections, examinations and tests should be kept in a register. There should be a procedure for deciding when a hose assembly is no longer fit for service. Hoses and assemblies discarded as worn or defective should be destroyed or plainly marked to avoid re-use. 8.6.6 Pressure Testing Hoses of reinforced rubber construction will, in addition to the regular visual inspection, normally require pressure testing to the specific recommendations of the manufacturer or to BS 1435: 'Specification for rubber hose assemblies for oil suction and discharge services'. Hoses of flexible metallic construction may require pressure testing but only within the specific guidelines recommended by the manufacturer. Pressure testing of flexible metallic hose, not carried out within the manufacturer's recommendations, can seriously weaken the hose and might render it unsuitable for further service. 8.7 DRAINING OF LOADING ARMS, CHUTES AND HOSES Buckets or other similar containers, of adequate capacity and with means for the disposal of their contents safely, should be provided for the draining of loading arms and chutes and for disconnected hoses after vehicle loading and closure of the filling valves. 8.8 ROAD TANKER AND RAILCAR OPERATIONS 8.8.1 Preparation for Loading A check should be made to ensure that the discharge and drain valves on the vehicle tank are closed before loading is commenced. Care should be taken to ensure that these valves are not open but plugged with solidified bitumen, thereby giving the impression of being closed. Where blockage has occurred, see 8.11. Hose coupling and handling should be carried out in accordance with 8.6.2 and 8.6.4 with, in the case where a potting hose is used, care taken that the unflanged end cannot pull out of the vessel. Alternatively loading arms or chutes may be used. The presence of water or any other material capable of being vaporised in contact with hot bitumen should be meticulously avoided in any part of the loading system, or in the road or railcar that is to be loaded, so that froth-over will not occur, with consequent hazard. Continuously heated pipelines will normally be free of moisture, and there should be no interconnections whereby water could be introduced into the loading system. Where the presence of water in a pipeline is suspected for any reason it should be eliminated before loading or unloading operations are commenced, by cautious blowing with dry air or inert gas. This operation should only be carried out under strict supervision, and at a tem perature that does not exceed the limit in Appendix B. When a vehicle tank has been used for bitumen emulsion or if, even after draining, the presence of water is suspected, the tank should initially be slowly and only partially filled. Up to one hour should then be allowed for any water to be searched out and for frothing to sub side, before continuing with

loading. Anti-foam agents are beneficial in controlling frothing. They are more effective when added before loading commences than when added during the operation. However their addi tion should be cleared with the ultimate user. 8.8.2 Loading Temperatures The temperatures chosen for despatch of bitumens or cutbacks in bulk vehicles should be as low as practicable, consistent with efficient onward handling. The loading temperature should never be in excess of the maximum for the grade given in Appendix B. 8.8.3 Conditions During Loading No source of ignition should be permitted within 3 m of the tank vehicle while loading. No person should be on top of or on the ground in the vicinity of the tank vehicle receiving the hot bitumen, in case of a spill or froth-over. See 8.3.5. The person responsible for loading should maintain a constant watch from the loading control station (see 8.3.5) during the operation. If he leaves the platform, filling should cease and all valves should be closed. A deadman's handle may be provided on the loading valve to ensure this. In order to minimise the exposure of the loader to fumes, loading should not take place in a confined space. Where ventilation around the loading point is unavoidably restricted, consideration should be given to the provision of a fume extraction system. Sufficient ullage should be left in the vehicle tank after loading to allow for the expansion which will result from any subsequent reheating. 8.8.4 Conditions During Transit All tank top apertures, other than relief valve discharge ports. should be securely closed and fastened before vehicles are moved. Vehicle tanks should not be heated whilst being moved. 8.8.5 Preparation for Discharge Reheating of a road or rail tank may be required before the product can be discharged efficiently. No attempt should be made to reheat bitumen in a transport tank by the use of a steam or flame tube heater when the bitumen level is less than 1-50 mm above the heating tubes. When reheating is required in such cases, the level of the contents should first be checked and sufficient hot bitumen of the same grade should be added to bring it at least to this level above the tubes before applying the heat. Before heating, the vehicle should be located in a level position with the brake full on. Fire extinguishers should be readily accessible. (See Chapter 4). During heating, the tank should be vented to atmosphere and no source of ignition should be permitted within the vicinity of the vent. There should be an operator continuously in attendance but access to the top of the vehicle tank should be prohibited while heating is in progress. Where flame tube heaters have been in use, a minimum of 15 minutes should be allowed after switching off, before attempting to discharge the vehicle tank. The bulk temperature of the bitumen during reheating should be kept as low as possible consistent with efficient discharge and should nowhere exceed the temperature limits recommended in Appendix B. Before discharge it should always be checked that there is sufficient ullage space in the reception tank or vessel to contain the load. 8.8.6 Conditions During Discharge Vehicle tanks should not be heated whilst they are being discharged. During discharging operations, the responsible person should be in attendance at all times at the valves controlling the operation. The person should be in a safe position, not immediately adjacent to the hose or discharge pipework. When a vehicle tank is being discharged by the use of air or inert gas pressure, the tank valves should be closed as soon as the tank, hose and discharge pipe are empty, in order to minimise the quantity of air or gas blown into the discharge system and the receiving tank. Vent capacity on the receiving tank must be adequate to handle the expected flow into the tank; otherwise roof failure might occur. When discharging a tank by means of a pump, care should be taken that the tank is adequately vented in order to avoid creating a vacuum within the tank. For clearance of hoses etc after discharge is completed. See 8.7. 8.8.7 Preparation for the Return of Empty Vehicles If air or inert gas pressure has been used to facilitate discharge, the vehicle tank should be vented safely down to atmospheric pressure, using the tank vent, before the vehicle is despatched.

A check should be made before departure that all hatches, covers and valves on the vehicle tank are closed and secured in the closed position. 8.9 SHIP AND BARGE OPERATIONS FOR BULK BITUMEN CARGOES 8.9.1 Wharves and Jetties The principal concerns for the loading and unloading of bitumen cargoes are that there should be: adequate means of access and escape in the event of fire at the loading or unloading manifold, adequate ship-shore communication, written emergency procedures, adequate arrangements for fire fighting, including provision of first attack equipment and access for fire fighting appliances. See Chapter 4. For detailed advice reference should be made to the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT). 8.9.2 Ships' Tanks As for any other oil cargo, the general procedures recommended by ISGOTT should be followed. Additional precautions are necessary when handling bitumen in ships' tanks. As for shore tanks (see Chapter 7) these include: - care to remove water and other volatile materials from the transfer pipework as in 8.8. 1, - care to remove water and other volatile materials from the tanks before adding hot bitumen and cautious initial filling to allow any frothing to disperse. (See following paragraph.) - care to avoid overheating of the bitumen product, and/or carbonaceous deposits at the surfaces of tank heating coils, and the uncovering of heating coils, - regulation of personnel access to tank tops when bitumen heating operations or product movements into or out of tanks are taking place, - precautions to check and protect against the presence of hydrogen sulphide in tank head spaces and from vents and other tank openings. Water or other volatile liquid might be present from a previous cargo, an unblanked valved connection, a bilge clearing operation, a deck leak or rainwater ingress through a manhole. This can sometimes be removed by adding fuel oil to the tank, sufficient to cover the heating coils, and then 'boiling out'. A sufficient level of oil to cover the coils should be maintained throughout the operation which should be carried out only under care fully controlled conditions. In order to limit the production of flammable vapours and avoid the risks of auto-ignition of carbonaceous deposits during this process, oil temperatures in excess of 140 oC and heating times in excess of 12 hours should be avoided. 8.10 PACKAGING 8.10.1 Containers Packages should be checked before filling to ensure that they are mechanically sound. The interiors of the pack ages should be dry. All packages (e.g. cardboard kegs) should be of types known to be suitable for filling with hot liquid bitumen. 8.10.2 Conditions During and After Packaging No source of ignition should be permitted in the vicinity of the operation. Adequate personal protection including suitable protective clothing and personal hygiene protection as recommended in Chapter 2 should be used. Manual handling of hot packages should be kept to a minimum, and no attempt should be made to move individual packages until the contents have cooled. Filling temperatures should be below the upper limit permissible for the type of package and as low as practicable consistent with an adequate filling rate. Where bitumen is cast into bays, it should be completely solid before removal is attempted. 8.11 CLEARANCE OF PIPEWORK BLOCKAGES Notwithstanding arrangements and procedures designed either to keep bitumen pipework hot or to drain it when not in use (see 8.5), pipework blockages occur occasion ally due to cooling and solidification of the product. The methods used to clear such blockages will depend upon the circumstances.

Controlled flame heating, using an LPG torch or equivalent on the outside of a pipe or valve to clear a blockage within, should be allowed only where there is no reasonably practicable alternative. Burning oil soaked rags must not be used for this purpose. Where flame heating is permitted locally, a specific procedure should be established for each particular set of circumstances and should be carried out under a permit to work by a person experienced in the application of flame beating for this purpose. Flame heating should never be applied: in a location classified as hazardous(see Area Classification under 7.2.1,7.2.2 and Appendix D), when the pipework system is under pressure, or contains cutback, in conjunction with blowing by air or inert gas, where the pipework system is blocked-in by valves or might be blocked-in by solid plugs of bitumen.

A fire extinguisher should be at hand when flame heating is applied. The use of air pressure to clear bitumen pipework blockages is not recommended because its discharge is difficult to control, and a breakaway can be hazardous. Where they are available, steam lances can be tried, but steam should not be used internally for attempted displacement purposes. The use of oil under hydraulic pressure may be considered where it is suspected that only a very limited blockage is present in some poorly heated part of a long line. When this is applied, it is important that the oil chosen should have a flash point in excess of the stock temperature so as not to create a flammable atmosphere in any tank to which the oil might eventually be discharged. 'Me procedure should be carried out under the control of a competent engineer to ensure that the system is not over pressured. Where pipework blockages persist, the only recourse might be to dismantle the system for piecemeal clearance by burning out in an area designated for that purpose. 8.12 OPERATOR PROTECTION All loading, discharge and packaging stations should be arranged so as to protect the operator from splashing, frothing. fumes and spillage, and bums from hot un insulated surfaces. A cold water supply and an emergency shower should be readily accessible locally for skin bum treatment. See also Figure 9.2. Operators should wear suitable protective clothing and observe the personal hygiene precautionary measures as stipulated in Chapter 2.

9 PRODUCT USER GUIDANCE

9.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter gives guidance on safety in user installations including: road maintenance depots, bitumen/aggregate mixing plants, mobile road-laying and spraying facilities, mobile facilities serving roofing and flooring operations.

In addition to the guidance contained in this chapter, users of bitumen should refer to and apply the recommendations of Chapter 2 which give appropriate guidance on the requirements for protective clothing, personal hygiene precautions and first aid/medical treatment for bums and other exposures; Chapter 3 in respect of fire risks; Chapter 4 for the fighting of fires involving bitumen, including the type and recommended minimum provision of portable equipment; Chapter 7 for design, layout and

operation of bulk tankage; and Chapter 8 for the loading, conveyance and discharge of bitumen in bulk. Note: The reference test method cited in 2.3 for the determination of total particulate matter (TPM) and benzene soluble material (BSM) in bitumen fume is a complex procedure not suitable for everyday use. How ever data provided in IP technical paper IP 84-006 have been incorporated in the respective sections following to serve as an indicator of typical exposure levels in the different types of user application. It should be noted that the guidance note EH40/90, paragraph 33 states that in the absence of a specific exposure limit for a particular dust, and where there is no indication of the need for a lower value, personal exposure should be kept below 10 Mg/M 3 8-hour TWA total inhalable dust or 5 mgl/m 3 8-hour TWA respirable dust. It follows from this that the 'TPM' data determined in the above method, and where quoted in the sections of this chapter, are indicative of the combined exposure to both mineral (airborne) dust and petroleum fume. 9.2 BULK SUPPLIES Bulk supplies may be delivered by road, rail or barge. Installations receiving bitumen in bulk provide discharge points, stock tanks and pipework systems as necessary for receiving and transfer of the product to the points of use. Allowing for the difference in scale their design and opera tion should follow the guidance given in Chapters 7 and 8. 91.1 Discharge Points All access of personnel to the vicinities of discharge points at user storages should be strictly regulated. Discharge points should be clearly marked and labelled so that valving, piping, tank number and pro duct grade can be clearly identified. First aid advice and a set of key instructions for safe operation should be posted in clear view close by the discharge point. For examples of such notices see Figures 9.1 and 9.2. Water drench facilities for personnel should be avail able in the area of the discharge point. Discharge should not be commenced until the person making the delivery has received confirmation, preferably written by the person responsible for receipt, that the discharge system is ready and the receiving tank has sufficient ullage to receive the specified load. See 8.3.3 and 8.8.5. Where a receiving installation has been shut down for a period or is in intermittent use, the predischarge inspection should include the check that water is absent from the receiving piping, and, in the case that the receiving tank is at a temperature less than 100*C, that there has been no inadvertent entry or accumulation that could give rise to froth- over upon entry of the hot bitumen. See 8.8. 1. During vehicle discharge all sources of ignition must be excluded both from the vicinity of the discharge point and from the vicinity of the receiving tank vent. See also 8.8.6. For hoses and couplings, see 8.7. If sampling from the top of the delivery vehicle is likely to be required a fixed access gantry should be provided. See 8.3.

SAFE RECEIPT OF BULK BITUMEN

BEFORE THE TANKER ARRIVES Check that there is a clear and unobstructed route for the tanker to and from the bitumen delivery point. Ensure that the delivery flange of each bitumen tank is legibly numbered and marked with the bitumen grade. Ensure that the tank contents gauges are working property and that there is sufficient spare capacity in each tank to receive the amount of product ordered. In any event, tanks should not be filled to more than 90 % of total capacity. Where applicable, check that any tank pipework valves are, correctly set to receive the delivery. For cutback grades, ensure that there are no sources of ignition near the discharge points and that a suitable fire extinguisher is placed close by.

WHEN THE TANKER ARRIVES

Check the Delivery Note and make sure that the grade and quantity of product are as ordered. Fully complete the Delivery Note and hand top copy to driver before delivery commences. Retain copy for your records. Check the contents of the storage tanks once more, and ensure that there is sufficient space therein to receive the actual loaded quantity of bitumen as stated on the Delivery Note, with 10% of tank capacity spare. If the bitumen tanks are contained within a tank house, make sure that there is no one within the structure during the period of the bitumen discharge. Show the driver the correct tank filling points. Where applicable, check again that all tank and pipework valves are set correctly. Wherever possible, remain in attendance throughout the delivery.

BEFORE THE TANKER LEAVES Where applicable reset any valves operated during the delivery. Sign the Delivery Note to confirm that the delivery has been received. Ensure that the copy is retained.

IF YOU HAVE ANY PROBLEMS OR QUERY ABOUT THE DELIVERY, YOU SHOULD INFORM THE DRIVER AT ONCE. HE SHOULD THEN TELEPHONE HIS DEPOT AND RECEIVE INSTRUCTIONS. THE DRIVER IS INSTRUCTED TO TELEPHONE HIS DEPOT IF, IN HIS OPINION, THE DELIVERY CONDITIONS OR PROCEDURES ARE UNSAFE
Figure 9.1. Example of a Guide for the Safe Receipt of Bulk Bitumen

TREATMENT OF BITUMEN BURNS - FIRST AID

SKIN 1 2 The affected part should immediately be plunged into clear cold running water until thoroughly cold. No attempt should be made to remove adhering bitumen from the skin unless the site of contact or nature of the product makes this essential. Bitumen will provide a sterile covering until healing occurs and it will then detach itself. Where it is absolutely necessary to remove adhering bitumen from the skin use liberal amounts of warm medicinal paraffin or a medicinally approved vegetable oil or with care medicinal paraffin and kerosine. Kerosine can cause skin irritation. Follow this by gentle washing with soap and clean warm water. Apply a proprietary refatting agent or a skin cleansing cream. Bitumen encircling a limb or finger may cause a tourniquet effect as it cools and such cases should receive immediate medical attention to relieve this without delay.

EYES 1 A splash of hot bitumen in the eye should be immediately cooled by irrigating with clean cold running water for at least FIVE minutes. The casualty should then be promptly sent to hospital for assessment and further treatment.

ALL BITUMEN BURNS SHOULD RECEIVE PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION

Figure 9.2. Suggested Text for a First Aid Poster (to be Posted in Clear View at All Bitumen Plants) and for Pocketsize Cards (for Distribution to Workers Handling Hot Bitumen)

9.2.2 Stock Tanks The advice given in Chapter 7 is applicable to bulk receipt storage tanks at users' premises, and particular attention should be given both in design provision and in operation to the measures necessary to keep tank temperatures within the maxima set by Appendix B and for the avoidance of local overheating as in 7.3.2 and uncovering of the heating elements. If these conditions are correctly observed during the storage of penetration, hard and oxidised grade bitumens it is unlikely that vapour evolved into the confined ullage space will reach the flammable range. Nevertheless accurate temperature control as in 7.4.3 and 7.4.7.3, to minimise the possibility of carbonaceous deposits becoming self- heating, is essential good practice in the avoidance of fire and explosion. Since the vapour produced during the storage and delivery of cutback grades is likely to be in the flammable range, a similar control is necessary in order to minimise the issue of flammable vapour from the vent and other tank openings. In addition, cutback tanks should be clearly marked 'DANGER FLAMMABLE' on their shells and in visible proximity to vents and other tank openings. 9.2.3 Pipework Systems Pipework systems for occasional use should, as noted in Chapter 7, be designed for ease of draining to low points from which the product can conveniently be removed between operations. An incline of not less than 8% is recommended for any bitumen pipeline to be self-draining. Pipework systems which might be left full of bitumen between operations should have adequate thermal insulation and trace heating facilities to prevent blockage due to solidification of the product. Where trace heating is provided, care is necessary to avoid heating liquid -full sections trapped between closed block valves or plugs of solid product. Pressure relief valves cannot normally be relied upon to protect sections of heated liquid-full bitumen pipework against the hydraulic pressures which can be produced by thermal expansion. Where electrical tracing is used it should be fitted with automatic temperature limit controls. Pipework systems, whether for occasional or continuous use, should be thermally insulated as necessary to protect persons from contact bums. Flanged pipe connections are preferred to screwed connections in bitumen service, to facilitate dismantling when necessary for the clearance of blockages. 9.2.4 Safe Clearance of Pipeline Blockage Unsafe methods of attempting to clear pipeline blockages can give rise to serious accidents due to the heated nature of the product and should not be permitted. The precautions listed in 8.11 should be drawn to the attention of all personnel involved. 9.3 PACKAGED SUPPLIES Those bitumens which are solid at ambient temperatures can be supplied in light weight steel drums, cardboard kegs, paper sacks or plastic wrappings. Cutback bitumens can be supplied in heavy gauge steel drums. 9.3.1 Removal of Solid Bitumen from Drums Solid bitumen can be removed from a light weight steel drum either by melting from the drum or by cutting away the drum using a cold chisel. Care is necessary when melting from the drum to avoid localised initial heating. Normally both ends of the drum should be removed before any heat is applied. Heating should then be applied generally to the full length of the drum. This can best be done by placing the drum on a specially designed grid over the mouth of the bitumen heating unit or kettle into which the product is to drain. When using a cold chisel, care is necessary to protect all personnel in the vicinity from flakes of bitumen and metal which might fly. 9.3.2 Melting Solid Blocks of Bitumen Bitumen blocks, after removal as necessary of the card board or plastic coverings, should, where practicable, be reduced in size using hammers or chisels before being added to the kettle. When charging lumps of bitumen into a kettle, special care is necessary to protect personnel from splashes of the molten product. This entails both well designed feed ing arrangements and suitable protective clothing. (See also Chapter 2.) 9.3.3 Removal of Cutback Bitumen from Drums Drums containing cutback bitumen are normally provided with two 50 mm diameter bung holes in one end to enable the product to be poured out.

Products packaged in this way normally flow sufficiently well for them to be poured from the drum at ambient temperature. If heating is required, special care is necessary because the products contain volatile flammable diluents. The drums must not be heated above 30 oC without removing one of the bungs. Once a bung has been removed, the drum must be kept well away from all sources of ignition. Empty drums containing remnants of cutback bitumens are particularly at risk of explosion, if subjected to flame beating. They should be stored with both bung holes open, in a place free from fire risk, pending disposal. 9.4 MOBILE BITUMEN HEATING KETTLES FOR BITUMENS AND MASTICS

Kettles are extensively used during roofing and flooring, construction and maintenance. They are usually fitted with a lid sufficient to stop rainwater entering and are heated from beneath by a bottled gas burner. This type of kettle should never be used for heating cutback bitumens. Drums should not be used for the melting or holding of molten bitumen stocks unless specifically designed for the purpose. When bottled gas is employed for heating a bitumen kettle, those cylinders actually in use should be located not less than 3 m from the kettle; and any cylinders not in use should be located at least 6 m from the kettle. The arrangement should be such as to prevent any spillage from the kettle reaching the cylinders. Vehicle mounted kettles should not be heated during transit. Gas supply lines should be protected against damage. For other precautions in the use of LPG fuel and its equipment the references given in 3.4.3 should be consulted. 9.4.1 Kettles in Transit Vehicle-mounted kettles should not be heated during transit. All transportable kettles should be set on firm, level foundations before being heated. After use their contents should be allowed to solidify before they are moved. 9.4.2 Heating Kettles should not be left unattended while they are being heated. When heating from cold, heating rates should be kept low until the product is clearly fluid and any water present has been driven off, and the heating kettle should never be filled above the capacity level specified by the manufacturer. Overheating of the product should be avoided by temperature control based upon reliable thermometer readings. Temperatures should be kept as low as practicable, consistent with efficient application of the product. Unnecessary overheating may result in deterioration in the life of the bitumen, and for most grades it should not be necessary to exceed the temperature limits given in Appendix B. However, there is an exception in the case of certain oxidised grade bitumens which for some applications require the use of temperatures that exceed the recommended limit of 230 oC in Table B. 1. In such cases the temperature guidance given in appropriate user standards such as those provided by the Flat Roofing Contractors Advisory Board (FRCAB), BS CP144 etc. should be followed. Note: In respect of these exceptions, it should be noted that, unlike the case where the build -up of a flammable vapour concentration may develop within the confined space of a heated bulk storage tank, the open lidded construction of a heating kettle should permit dispersion of vapour given off (see 3.2.2.1). Nevertheless sources of ignition should be kept away from the proximity of the lidded area of the kettle. Molten product may be removed from the kettle using either a side branch or a ladle. It should be conveyed to the point of use in spill resistant containers by persons fully protected by clothing against spills and splashes as in 2.2. 1. Operators should minimise breathing fumes from hot bitumen kettles which should, wherever possible, be sited downwind of the job. See also data under 9.5 below. 9.5 ROOFING Oxidised grade bitumens are used as 'mopping adhesives' for the fixing of roofing felts. The adhesive is prepared by heating the bitumen in a kettle to a temperature normally in the range 200oC to 230 oC (or such necessary application temperature as specified in appropriate user standards referred to in 9.4.2), transporting the product to the work area in a bucket and spreading it over the area to be covered using a mop. The felt is rolled on to the bitumen while it is still hot. The risks of spills causing bums to the bucket carrier should be minimised by care in providing a safe route from

the kettle to the work area and by the wearing of appropriate protective clothing in accordance with 2.2. 1. Fume exposure (see 2.3) should be minimised by working as far as reasonably practicable on the upwind side of the work. Sampling data during re-roofing with oxidised grade 95/25 on two separate days gave TPM 8 hour TWA exposures for kettlemen hand-carrying the bitumen to the roof, of 4.1 and 6.4 Mg/M3, with benzene soluble values of the bitumen fume of 3.5 and 5.4 Mg/M 3 BSM respectively. These data suggest that the use of orinasal masks might be necessary in still air conditions. Figures for the other workers involved ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 Mg/M 3 (average 1.3) TPM, with 8-hour TWA exposures to BSM of between 0.2 and 1.1 mg/rn 3. In another study (Finland) eight personal samples during roofing gave TPM exposures from 0.2 to 3.4 Mg/m3 during spreading (mean 1.6) and a benzene soluble level from 0.2 to 2.9 rng/m 3 (mean 1.4). 9.6 FLOORING Bituminous mastics (blends of penetration grade bitumen with finely ground mineral fillers) are used for flooring. The mastic is prepared by beating in a kettle to a temperature not exceeding the level appropriate to the user standard, transporting the product to the work area in a bucket and trowelling it as necessary to produce an even surface. The hazards are similar to those of roofing but because of the indoor conditions, the troweller can be particularly exposed to fume levels which could exceed the exposure standard. For any indoor operations with hot mastic it is essential to ensure adequate ventilation. Thus exposures measured during laying of a mastic containing 11 % by weight of 10/20 pen bitumen at a temperature of 265-280'C, inside a building ventilated only through open doors and windows, were reported as 8-hour TWA exposures for indoor workers of 10.5 to 18.5 Mg/M 3, with benzene soluble bitumen fume of 6 to 13.6 Mg/M3. For the outside kettleman, exposures of 2.9 to 7.7 Mg/M 3 TPM, and 1.8 to 5.0 Mg/M 3 BSM were significantly lower. In another indoor mastic laying operation, 8-hour benzene soluble TWA exposures were 7.7 Mg/M 3 for the pourer, 8.7 for the carrier and 11 for the troweller, compared to 2.8 mg/m 3 for the kettleman. Exposure should be minimised by taking full advantage of all possible natural ventilation and supplemented if necessary by the provision of effective local artificial ventilation in the vicinity of the work or the use of an orinasal face mask. See 2.3. 1. 9.7 ASPHALT MANUFACTURE AND USE Asphalts are mixtures of bitumen with mineral aggregates and their use for road paying represents the largest use of bitumen. 9.7.1 Hot Mix Asphalts Hot Mix Production Hot mix asphalts are produced either continuously or batchwise by adding typically 4 to 8% mass of a penetration grade bitumen to hot aggregate, and mixing at a temperature in the range 135 to 180 oC. Usually, the hot asphalt mix is discharged directly into waiting trucks for transport to the paving site but, increasingly, sonic of the production is stored in silos awaiting demand. Personal sampling was carried out on two modern mix plants incorporating a range of bitumens from 60 to 700 pen into the asphalt mix, and covering both the operator in the control cabin and the operator located at the hot mix storage lines. The 8-hour TWA exposures ranged from 0 to 1.7 Mg/M 3 TPM with an average value of 0.7 mg/m 3. Hot Paying Asphalt Application Hot paving mixes are applied using paving machines, the hoppers of which receive the hot mix directly from the delivery trucks. These machines spread and partially compact the applied mix to a desired thickness and width of pavement, which is then finally compacted by rollers. The laying team comprises the paying machine driver (the payer), a rakerman immediately behind the machine. correcting imperfections in the newly laid asphalt layer, and a screedman also at the rear, to adjust the screed to give the desired road profile. Semi-automation and open air application reduce exposures to a minimum, but the use of excessively high asphalt temperatures under still air conditions will increase the exposure of the payer driver and other operatives to bitumen fumes unnecessarily. The following exposure studies have been reported: In one survey over 14 days, with wind variation from nil to medium, of the laying of a hot mix containing 4 to 6% by weight of 70 pen bitumen and mix temperatures of 132 to 168 oC, total particulate TWA emission levels varying from 0.15 to 5.6 Mg/M 3 TPM (14 results with a mean of 1.26) were found for the payer driver, who is located closest to the hot feed hopper. For the other operators levels of 0.25 to 3.46 mg/rn 3 TPM (mean 0.93) were determined for the raker and 0.33 to 1.47 (mean

0.83) Mg/M3 for the screedman. For these TPM data, extraction of the benzene soluble portion (bitumen fume) was not carried out, but the survey commented that the petroleum asphalt fume 8-hour TWA value of 5 Mg/M3 was exceeded by only one of the measured total particulate exposures which would have included road dust. In another study (Denmark) of hot mix road laying personnel exposures, the following average 8-hour TWA exposures, again on a TPM total particulate basis were determined. The study states that a very few results above 5Mg/M 3 TPM were found, all from the payer operator, with the highest 6.4 Mg/M3, most results being very much lower than 5 Mg/M 3. In a further study of hot mix paving using asphalts at 132 to 135'C, personal sampling measurements over periods from 225 to 265 minutes gave benzene soluble (BSM) figures of 0.1 to 0.2 Mg/M 3. These figures amounted to 0.5 to 51 % of the total particulate matter. Precautions as outlined in Chapter 2.should be taken to prevent skin and eye contact. 9.7.2 Cold Mix Asphalts Cold mix asphalts are produced, on a smaller scale than hot mix asphalts, by mixing at ambient temperatures, special cutback or fluxed bitumens with dry aggregates, normally batchwise. These mixes are used for small repair work on paved surfaces, usually with application by manual tools and simple mechanical aids. Health and safety precautions associated with the products depend largely on the type and quantity of solvent employed in their manufacture. As the products are generally used in the open air at ambient temperature, exposure to hydrocarbon vapour is minimal, although the measures in 2.3.1 should be considered and adopted if appropriate. However, from the viewpoint of prolonged and repeated skin contact, should protective measures not be taken, the more the base bitumen is diluted with solvent, the greater the potential hazard becomes. This is particularly the case when solvents other than kerosine are used. Impermeable gloves should always be worn, together with barrier creams to assist cleansing, and other protective clothing may be necessary to prevent skin contamination of other parts of the body. (See 2.5 to 2.5.2) These precautions are particularly relevant when aromatic extracts of petroleum distillates or coal tar products (e.g. creosotes) are used as cutback diluents. Any doubts about the type of solvent employed should be resolved by the supplier, who should provide a Safety Data Sheet. 9.8 SURFACE DRESSING OF ROADS The road maintenance technique of surface dressing entails spraying the road with a thin film of binder, which may be a cutback bitumen, a penetration grade bitumen or a bitumen emulsion. This is followed by the application of a layer of stone chippings (crushed aggregate, slag or gravel). The road is then rolled to embed the chippings into the surface. The binder is stored hot in fixed stock tanks from which it is pumped, or gravity fed, into mobile spray vehicle tanks as required. These are then driven to the application site. Spray vehicle tanks are fitted with flame tube heaters in order to be able to boost the bulk liquid temperatures. This is necessary for example when periods of inclement weather have delayed the start of a surface dressing operation. Stock tanks may also be fitted with flame tube heaters. 9.8.1 Operations using Cutback Bitumens as Binders 9.8.1.1 Use of Flame Tube Heaters The temperatures necessary for spray application of cutback bitumens are given in Appendix B. These temperatures of 150 to 170 oC require protection against skin and eye bum. See below. No flame tube heater should be operated whilst product transfer operations or spraying are taking place in the vicinity. Where external flue heaters are not fitted the heater should have been extinguished and left to cool for at least 15 minutes before the start of any such operation. The spray vehicle should be located on level or near level ground with the hand brake fully on before being heated. The flame tube heater should not be used unless there is everywhere within the tank a covering of at least 150mm of bitumen over the heating tubes. The tank should be adequately vented, remotely from the driver and the flame tube flue discharge, and its contents circulated throughout the heating process.

Before the heater is ignited, two fire extinguishers should be placed in a safe location within easy access for the operator at the burner front. When igniting the flame tube heater, the operator should not stand directly in line with the flame tube in case there is a flash back. During heating and for a minimum of 15 minutes thereafter, the operator should remain in attendance to ensure that the bitumen is not overheated (beyond the maximum temperature recommended for the grade by Appendix B) and that there are no operations in the vicinity which might release cutback vapours before the flame tube is cool. 9.8.1.2 Transfer of Cutback to the Spray Vehicle Tank Before transfer of cutback from the supply tank to the spray vehicle tank all flame tube heaters must be extinguished and sufficient time given for them to cool down. This should be at least 15 minutes. The spray vehicle itself should stand on level or near level ground with the hand brake fully on. At no time during the transfer of binder should the vehicle be left unattended. Before any transfer of hot cutback bitumen to a spray vehicle takes place, it is important to ensure that there is no water or bitumen emulsion in the tank or its fittings. If the presence of water is suspected, action should be taken to dispel it before filling with cutback. This may be achieved by transferring a small quantity of hot cutback, sufficient only to enable circulation through the spray bar, and to circulate this until frothing and evolution of steam have subsided. The hose for transferring the cutback from the supply tank to the spray vehicle should be of the correct quality (see 8.6) and in good condition. It should be correctly attached to the vehicle tank filling flange and not placed loosely through the tank manhole. During the transfer of cutback, it is necessary to ensure that there are no naked lights or other sources of ignition in the vicinity of the tanks. Overfilling should be avoided and sufficient ullage space should be left to allow for expansion of the con tents when further heated. After filling but before moving off, all hoses and man hole covers should be secured and the appropriate Hazard Warning Panels clearly displayed. 9.8.1.3 Spraying Cutback Bitumens In order to minimise fire risks and avoid excessive fuming, the temperature of the cutback in the spray vehicle tank should be kept as near as possible to the optimum for the grade and should never exceed the maximum recommended for the grade in Appendix B. During spraying, clear warning signs against smoking and naked lights should be displayed at appropriate points on site, visible to the general public where this is appropriate. Where practicable, coning or other means should be employed to keep possible sources of ignition at least 1 m from the extremities of the spray bar. Coning also gives operators room to work around moving machinery without fear of stepping into the line of passing traffic. Where this leaves insufficient room for passing traffic, roads should be closed while spraying operations are in progress. All operators and particularly spray bar operators, should minimise their breathing of cutback fumes. Data for typical surface dressing operations have shown the following: In one study of automated spraying of solvent cutback bitumen at 120 to 140 oC controlled by an operator from the vehicle cabin, operator exposures web well below 0.2 Mg/M 3 of benzene soluble material oh an 8 hour TWA basis. In another study during a hand laying personal exposures of barrowmen/rakers over 185 minute periods were 0.4 and 0.8 Mg/M 3 as total particulate material (TPM). Benzene solubles on the first of these samples (0.3 Mg/M3) were 81 % of the TPM figure. In a Danish study of the spraying of a cutback containing 87% penetration bitumen (100 to 200 pen), 12% by weight of a 50/50 mixture of kerosine/white spirit and 1% of an adhesion agent, at 135'C from a tank truck with a spray bar, the average 8-hour TWA for 9 samples was 0.8 Mg/M 3, with a maximum of 1.3 Mg/M 3. In Finland, surface dressing with a solvent cutback containing 10% white spirit at a mixture temperature of 150 oC gave figures for four sampling periods of 0.8 to 2.5 Mg/M 3 (mean 1.7) for TPM, and 0.1 to 0.4 Mg/M 3 (mean 0.2) for benzene solubles. Spraying operators should where possible take advantage of wind direction to minimise exposure to fumes. 9.8.1.4 Protective Clothing and Personal Hygiene for Cutback Spray Operations All operators should be dressed appropriately to avoid skin and eye contact with the product as recommended in 2.5.1 and they should follow the personal hygiene recommendations given in 2.5.2. Spray bar operators when working in the open near the spray bar should wear orinasal fume masks. For work alongside open highways operators should wear high visibility jackets and reflective patches. 9.8.2 Operations Using Penetration Grade Bitumens as Binders Operations using penetration grade bitumens as binder are less common than those using cutback bitumens.

Similar precautions are necessary throughout, including protection of skin and eyes from contact with hot material. 9.8.3 Operations Using Bitumen Emulsions as Binders 9.8.3.1 Use of Flame Tube Heaters When using bitumen emulsions as binders, the spray temperature required is normally in the range 60 to 85 oC. Precautions to be taken in the handling of bitumen emulsions should be the same as for cutback bitumens (see 9.8. 1). Additionally overheating of the binder should be avoided. A maximum of 9WC is recommended be cause overheating to temperatures approaching 100 oC can produce boil- over due to the water present. Flammable atmospheres are not generated by bitumen emulsions at normal working temperatures. It is there fore less important than with cutback grades to ensure that flame tube heaters are thoroughly cooled before product transfers or spraying operations commence. 9.8.3.2 Transfer of Bitumen Emulsions to Spray Vehicle Tanks The same precautions to avoid spills are necessary as when using cutback bitumens. 9.8.3.3 Spraying Bitumen Emulsions There are no concerns regarding flammable atmospheres in the vicinity of spraying operations. Nevertheless, where practicable, coning or other means should be employed to give operators protection from passing traffic. 9.8.3.4 Protective Clothing and Personal Hygiene in Using Bitumen Emulsions Skin contact with the product and breathing of the fumes which arise from the spray should be avoided. Protective clothing including eye shields should be worn and hygiene precautions should be followed as for operations using cutback bitumens. See 9.8.1 and 2.5.3. 9.9 SUMMARY OF HEALTH PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PETROLEUM BITUMENS 9.9.1 The foregoing health precautions given in this chapter, in association with the more detailed guidance in Chapter 2, should enable bitumen to be used safely. However the recommendation given in 2.6, of self examination on a regular basis for any abnormalities of the skin, is a prudent measure and should be conveyed to all employees handling bitumens, including those who are changing jobs or retiring. This is particularly relevant in respect of older employees, since in the past many bituminous materials were in use with little or insufficient distinction as to whether these were of petroleum or coal tar origin or mixtures of both. 9.9.2 'Me typical exposure data reviewed under the headings of the various modes of bitumen application should enable sensible means of minimising this exposure. Thus the studies quoted have in their assessments reached the general conclusions that: 9.9.2.1 Bitumen fume exposures are usually below 5 Mg/M3 in operations in the open air involving: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) bitumen refining and distribution, including road and rail tanker loading, road surfacing using aggregate mixes containing about 5% bitumen, rooting using oxidised grade bitumens, surface dressing of roads by spraying of cutback bitumen.

It is noted however that exposures in (ii) and (iii) may occasionally exceed 5 mg/M 3 in some situations involving adverse (e.g. still air) conditions. 9.9.2.2 Bitumen fume exposures can easily exceed 5 Mg/M 3 in indoor application unless good ventilation is provided for, and supplementing of natural ventilation by local artificial ventilation should be considered.

10 SAMPLING
10.1 INTRODUCTION. Sample needs range in size from a few millilitres for laboratory testing to the several hundred litres which might be required for equipment trials. Sampling of hot bitumen is particularly hazardous because of the risks of bums from spills and splashes of the material. Whatever the size of the sample or the methods (as described in 10.2 or 10.3) that are to be used, appropriate protective clothing should always be worn. See Chapter 2. The area should be well lit whenever sampling is required during the hours of darkness. Sampling of bitumens and cutback bitumens through tank vapour spaces can also be hazardous because of exposure of the operator to the tank vapours and the risks of ignition when tank atmospheres are in the flammable range. See 10.2. In respect of this aspect of dip sampling, the guidance given in 6.2.1 and 7.4.6 in respect to access to cutback or hot bitumen tanks should be followed; namely that access by personnel to hot bitumen tank roofs should be avoided, wherever practicable, during product movements into or out of the tanks concerned, and that no personnel should go onto the tank roof during the mixing or circulation of a cutback blending tank. Where such sampling is essential the mixing/circulation should be temporarily stopped. Similar restrictions should be placed on the sampling during filling or discharge of road or rail tank cars, and of ships or barge tanks. The potential for the presence of hydrogen sulphide should be recognised when dip sampling a heated bitumen tank (see 7.4.2), and samplers should be alert to the possible presence of hydrogen sulphide in the vapour space, and take all necessary precautions in accordance with the guidance in 2.4. 10.2 DIP SAMPLING This is sampling by dipping a weighted can or 'thief' on the end of a rope or rod into the surface of the liquid in a tank. 'Me method is simple and can produce, with little waste of product, samples which are well representative of the tank contents. It is normally not satisfactory, how ever, for taking samples larger than one or two litres in size. Sample 'thiefs' which can be opened by remote control to take samples at levels below the liquid surface are not normally necessary for bitumen sampling. Dip sampling gives rise to some risk of introducing air and creating a source of ignition at the sample point. It should therefore be avoided in circumstances where the tank vapour space may contain a flammable atmosphere. Sections 3.2.2.2 to 3.2.2.4 show that this is possible in the case of rundown tanks that are connected to receive product from the manufacturing processes, and in particular in the case of the air blown oxidised grades (see 5.4.3.2). It should also be avoided when tanks are being held under an oxygen depleted atmosphere. See 7.3.8 and 7.3.4. Dip sampling from cutback tanks in particular should be avoided, or carried out with caution because of the risks of the presence of flammable atmospheres in tank vapour spaces. See 10. 1 and 6.2. 1. Where the risks of flammable atmospheres in hot bitumen tank vapour spaces are assessed as being negligible, dip sampling might be preferred, for cleanliness and simplicity, to other methods of taking small samples. See however 7.4.6. Provisions should be made to protect the area around the sample point to avoid contamination of thermal insulation materials which might lead to auto- ignition. See 7.3.10. & access to the sample point, protected by hand rails. 1ould be provided. See 7.3.1. Gantry access should be provided where dip samples are required from vehicle tanks. See 8.3.4. The area of the tank roof or vehicle gantry should be well lit whenever sampling is required during the hours of darkness. 10.3 SAMPLE VALVES Sample valves may be provided for sampling from pipe lines or from tanks. They should be designed to be kept sufficiently warm by the product in the pipeline or the tank, to avoid blockage when in the closed position.

The valve may be of the screw driven, plunger type with the plunger, when closed, extending into the fresh product. With this type of valve, a representative sample of the fresh product can be obtained without fore runnings. If the sample valve is not of the plunger type it should preferably be a ball or plug type valve with its 'closed' position clearly marked on the stem. With these types of valve, provision must be made to dispose safely and cleanly of the fore-runnings, collected before the representative sample is produced. The valve discharge nozzle should be firmly fitted but readily detachable for cleaning. The sample collector should be clamped in place below the nozzle while the sample is being taken and the sample valve operator should be protected against accidental splash or spill by appropriate splash deflectors and overspill collectors, and also by wearing protective clothing in accordance with 2.2. 1. If the sample does not flow immediately when the valve is cracked open, the valve should be fully closed again and a pre-established procedure for clearance of the blockage should be initiated. Depending upon the particular circumstances and subject to appropriate safety precautions, blocked sample valves can sometimes be cleared by external heating using steam or by oil purging from the outlet end using a high flash point oil. See 8.11. Whichever method is used the sample valve must not be left unattended in the open position in case the blockage suddenly clears. Designs for bitumen sampling valves are given in: - Asphalt Institute Manual Series No. 18: 'Sampling Asphalt Products for Specification Compliance' - RILEM Recommendations BM2 April 1987:'Methods for Sampling Hydrocarbon Binders'.

Appendix A CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS BY THE INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM

The following classification, based (except for liquefied petroleum gases) on the Closed Cup Flash Point Test is used by the Institute of Petroleum to provide appropriate guidance on the location and spacing of facilities as in Chapter 7, and for the selection of precautionary measures against fire: Class 0: Class I: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Liquids which have flash points below 21 oC

Class II(1): Liquids which have flash points from 21 oC up to and including 55 oC, handled below flash Point Class II(2): Liquids which have flash points from 21 oC up to and including 55 oC, handled at or above flash point Class III(1): Liquids which have flash points above 55 oC up to and including 100 oC, handled below flash point Class III(2): Liquids which have flash points above 55 oC up to and including 100 oC, handled at or Above flash point . Unclassified: Liquids which have flash points above 100 oC NOTES: 1 The definition of flash point is given in the Glossary, and for petroleum products in Classes I, II and III the flash point can be taken as an indication of the lowest temperature at which the product is likely to produce a concentration of vapour that is flammable when in contact with the air. While Classes 0 (LPG) and I (e.g. petrol) will always give rise to a flammable vapour when

handled in air, it will be noted that Classes II and III, into which cutback bitumens fall, are subdivided into Classes II(1) and III(1) and Classes II(2) and III(2) in accordance with the temperature at which they are handled, dependent upon whether this is below or above the flash point. Thus under different handling conditions they may sometimes correspond to subdivision (1) while in others at higher temperatures they become classifiable as subdivision (2). This subdivision of Classes II and III enables an important distinction to be made in the design, location and operation of their handling facilities, since materials in Classes II(1) and III(1) require less onerous conditions than those in Classes II(2) and III(2) which are stored and handled at temperatures above the flash point. See Chapter 7. This distinction will also affect the requirements for area classification of the facilities in determining the type and location of electrical equipment and precautions against non-electrical sources of ignition. See Appendix D and 7.1 and 7.2. (It must nevertheless be borne in mind that all petroleum liquids, even at temperatures below that at which a flammable vapour will be formed, when dispersed in a state of very fine subdivision as in mist, spray or foam, can be ignited at temperatures we I I below the flash point. Thus even for Class II(1)and III(1) products, when mist, spray or foam formation is possible, precautions should be taken to avoid sources of ignition in the vicinity.) 3 The testing of cutback bitumens blended with kerosine diluent by the IP closed cup flash point method IP 34/88 or its equivalent, shows that, at the normal range of temperature at which they are stored and used. they will fall into Class III(2)-and that the vapour produced is likely to be within the flammable range (see 3.2.1), calling for the measures prescribed in 7.2.2 and 9.8.1 in order to avoid the risk of ignition. Unclassified Petroleums, including Bitumens and Fuel Oils Blended with Heavy Residual Fractions Penetration, hard and oxidised grades of bitumens nominally fall into this category of > 100oC flash point. However because of the slow and variable after-reactions which, as outlined in 3.2.2.3, can occur during storage in heated tankage, (giving rise to the evolution of very light flammable vapours which cannot be detected by the flash point test on the liquid), the flash point so determined is not a reliable indicator of the temperature at which the product in a confined space is likely to produce a flammable atmosphere; nor whether the confined ullage space within a tank so sampled and tested for the liquid flash point is in the flammable range. The measures to be taken to safeguard against such circumstances are described in Chapters 3, 5 and 7. These include the avoidance of all sources of ignition, electrical and non-electrical, in such tanks or in the vicinity of vents or other openings. Similar measures should be followed in the case of tankage for heavy residual heated fuels (see 3.4.2-third paragraph) since there can also be a build up of flammable vapour in the ullage space.

Appendix B RECOMMENDED BITUMEN HANDLING TEMPERATURES

B.1 INTRODUCTION Bitumen normally has to be applied hot in order to keep it fluid enough for working. Trying to work at too low a temperature can increase overall risks by adding general handling and operational difficulties. The principle to be followed is that, in order to minimise the risks from burns, fumes, flammable atmospheres and fire, every operation should be carried out at as low a temperature as practicable, compatible with efficient working, and always below the maxima recommended here.

B.2 MAXIMUM STORAGE AND HANDLING TEMPERATURES The maximum storage and handling temperatures recommended in Table B.1 have become established as safety limits through generally satisfactory experience over many years. They can be considered safe, subject to appropriate precautions as follows: The recommended maximum handling temperatures for cutback grades are well in excess of product flash points. For this reason they can be considered safe only so long as all sources of ignition are avoided in the vicinity of tank vents and where open air operations are carried out such as spraying. See 7.2.2 and 9.8. 1. For bitumens other than cutback grades the recommended maximum handling temperatures are below their notional flash points but at these temperatures there are risks that pyrophoric deposits or other sources of ignition might be present in some tank vapour spaces in which evolution of flammable vapour may accumulate. See 3.2.2. For this reason the guidance given in 7.4.7 and 9.2.2 should be followed together with the design and operational recommendations for ensuring accurate temperature control and adequate cover of heating elements in Chapter 7. The Area Classification guidance in 7.2.1 should also be adhered to, in respect both of electrical equipment, and the avoidance of non-electrical sources of ignition in the proximity of tank vents and other openings. B.3 PUMPING TEMPERATURES Table B.1 indicates the minimum temperatures required for pumping liquid bitumens. For normal pumping operations, temperatures 10 to 50 oC in excess of these may be more appropriate. B.4 BULK LOADING TEMPERATURES To achieve realistic loading rates, temperatures 40 to 50 oC above the minimum pumping temperature may be necessary. The maximum storage and handling temperatures shown in Table B.1 should not be exceeded. B.5 MIXING TEMPERATURES The temperatures typically required for mixing bitumens with aggregates or fillers are indicated in Table B.1. These illustrate that in some cases working temperatures have to approach very close to the maxima recommended. In such cases good temperature control is essential for safety. B.6 SPRAYING TEMPERATURES The viscosity required for spraying depends upon the type of spray head used. Viscosities of 30-50 cSt are required for swirling jets and 60-90 cSt for slotted jets. See 9.8.1. B.7 KETTLE WORKING TEMPERATURES Temperatures should be kept as low as reasonably practicable and should not normally be allowed to exceed the maxima recommended by Table B. 1. See however the special circumstances in 9.4.2 where application requirements for certain oxidised grades will require higher temperatures as specified by appropriate user standards bodies. When working at or near these temperatures good ventilation is essential to avoid fume and fire hazards. There must be careful temperature control and special attention is necessary to fire fighting precautions. B.8 ROAD TANKER AND RAILCAR TANK TEMPERATURES When heating road tankers and railcar tanks, good temperature control is essential to ensure that temperatures do not exceed the maxima recommended in Table B.1 and care is necessary to control sources of ignition in the vicinity. See 8.8.5. Table B.1. Recommended bitumen handling and storage temperatures ( oC) (To be read in conjunction with B.1 to B.8 inclusive)

Grade (BS 3690) Penetration Grades 450 pen 300 pen 200 pen 100 pen 70 pen 50 pen 40 pen HD 35 pen 25 pen 15 pen Hard Grades H80/90 H100/120 Oxidised Grades* 75/30 85/25 85/40 95/25 105/35 115115 Cutback Grades 50 sees 100 secs 200 sees

Minimum Pumping Temperature Note (1) 90 95 100 105 110 115 125 125 135 140 160 190 150 165 165 175 190 205 65 70 80

Typical Bitumen Temperature at Time of Application Mixing Note (2) 130 135 140 155 160 165 175 175 185 190 200 230 195 210 210 220 230 230 105 110 120

Maximum Handling and Storage Spraying Temperature Note (3) Note (5) 160 165 175 190 200 Note (4) 150 160 170 190 190 190 200 200 200 200 220 220 220 230 230 Note (7) 230 230 230 230 230 230 Note (6) 160 170 180

* See following note (7) in respect of oxidised grade rundown tanks, and B.7 above in respect of kettle/application temperatures for these grades. Notes: (1) Based on a viscosity of 2000 cSt (all grades). (2) Based on a viscosity of 200 cSt (all grades). (3) Based on a viscosity of 60 cSt (penetration grades). (4) Based on a viscosity of 30 cSt (cutback grades). In conformity with the maximum spraying temperatures recommended for road surface dressing by the UK Department of Transport. See TRRIL Road Note No. 39. (5) Based on generally satisfactory experience of the storage and handling of penetration, hard and oxidised grades in contact with air. Subject to avoidance of flammable atmospheres in the vapour spices of storage tanks as outlined in B.2. (6) Based on generally satisfactory experience of storage and handling cutback grades in contact with air. Subject to avoidance of sources of ignition in the vicinity of tank vents and open air operations. (7) In oxidised bitumen rundown tanks, i.e. those that are, or can be. directly connected to the process plant. and except where oxygen depletion is applied temperatures should not exceed 200'C. Where this limitation conflicts with the required delivery temperatures for certain oxidised heavy grades, where these are loaded direct from their rundown tankage, three alternative options can be followed: to have the bulk temperature higher than 20WC and, as in 7.3.8, hold the tank under a controlled oxygen depleted atmosphere, to reheat the delivered bitumen to the required temperature by the installation of an outflow heater or heat exchanger in the line to the loading point, to provide for a separate delivery tank, without connection to the process plant, in which the bitumen may be reheated to the required level, but not higher than 230'C.

Appendix C GLOSSARY OF TERMS

For the purpose of this Code the following interpretations apply, irrespective of any meaning the words may have in other connections. Where used in the Code, defined terms are printed in italics.

Additive: Any substance ' which is added in small proportions to bitumen to impart some particular property e.g. improved adhesion, emulsification etc. Adhesion agent: An additive which forms a water resistant chemical bridge between binder and chippings. Anti-foam agent: A substance, e.g. silicone oil, which when added to a bitumen will reduce the surface tension and hence the frothing tendency of hot bitumen in the presence of water. Approved eye protection : Goggles, visors, spectacles or fixed shields which meet the requirements of The British Standard BS 2092: Specification for Industrial Eye Protectors or equivalent. Area classification: The notional division of a facility into hazardous areas and non- hazardous areas, and the sub-division of hazardous areas into zones graded in accordance with the probability of the presence of a flammable atmosphere within them. See definition of 'Zones' and Appendix D. Asphalt: A natural or mechanical mixture in which bitumen is associated with a substantial proportion of inert mineral matter. The term is normally qualified by an indication of the origin or type, e.g. Trinidad lake asphalt, rolled asphalt, mastic asphalt. Auto-ignition: Ignition which results from beating of a substance in the absence of a source of ignition when exposed to an atmosphere containing oxygen. Auto-ignition temperature: (Synonymous with ignition temperature and self ignition temperature) The temperature above which a substance, when exposed to air, might ignite in the absence of a source of ignition as a result of contact with a hot surface or by self- heating alone. Auto-ignition temperature is not an intrinsic property of the substance. It depends upon the surrounding physical circumstances including the size and shape of the substance and the degree of ventilation around it. Therefore, the auto-ignition temperature for any substance can only be indicated approximately. See 3.33, 3.3.4 and 3.3.5. Barrier cream: A non-dermatitic cream or ointment which, when applied to the skin, gives some protection against contamination and facilitates subsequent cleansing with soap and water. See 2.5.2. BCF: Bromo chloro difluoro - methane; a vaporising liquid used as a fire extinguishing agent. See Chapter 4. Binder: The mixture of bitumen, fluxes, etc used for road sealing or the manufacture of asphalt mixes. Bitumen: A viscous petroleum-derived liquid or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene. It is substantially non-volatile and softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colour and possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. Bitumen is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum and is also found as a natural deposit in some parts of the world as a component of naturally occurring asphalt. See Chapter 1. Bitumen emulsion: A dispersion of bitumen in water achieved by the use of suitable chemical emulsifying agents. See 1.3. Blowing flux: A heavy petroleum liquid which is added to a bitumen to facilitate the production of oxidised grades. See 5.3. 1. Blown bitumen: See oxidised grade bitumen. Boil-over: The rapid increase in volume caused by the presence of water in hot bitumen and the subsequent overflow from a tank. Breathing apparatus: Respiratory protective equipment which supplies the wearer with breathable air, not taken from the immediate environment. Bund: A compound around a tank, capable of retaining a spillage from the tank or associated pipework. Carcinogenic : Capable of causing cancer. Combustible: A substance not failing into the flammable classification as such, but capable of self sustained burning in air, once ignited. See Flammable. Competent inspector: A person having the necessary knowledge, experience and authority to carry out and witness the required inspection and testing of plant or equipment and to assess and certify the results of such inspection and testing. Creosote: A coal tar fraction boiling mainly between 200'C and 350'C. It has been used as a diluent in certain special cutbacks. See Addendum in 2.8. Cutback bitumen: Bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by the addition of a suitable diluent such as kerosine, to render it more fluid for ease of application. See 1.2.4. Diffuser nozzle: An adjustable fire fighting nozzle which is capable of converting a stream of water into fine spray. Flame tube heater : Means of heating bitumen, normally applicable to smaller sized vessels or tanks. It consists of an oil or gas fired burner associated with a flue pipe immersed in the product to be heated. Flammable: A combustible substance, solid, liquid, gas or vapour, which is easily ignited in air. It is synonymous with 'inflammable' but the term flammable is much preferred. The term non- flammable

refers to substances which are not easily ignited but does not necessarily indicate that they are non- combustible. See Combustible. Flammable atmosphere : A mixture of flammable gas or vapour with air in such proportion that, without any further addition of gas or air, it will burn when ignited. See Appendix A. Flammable limits: The upper and lower limits of concentration of a flammable gas or vapour in air Within which the mixture will burn when ignited. These are referred to as the upper flammable limit (UFL) and the lower flammable limit (LFL) respectively. They are sometimes referred to as 'explosive limits' i.e. 'UEL' and 'LEL' respectively. See Appendix A. Flammable range. The range of gas or vapour concentrations between the flammable limits. Flash point: The lowest temperature at which the application of a small flame in a prescribed manner causes the vapour above a flammable product to ignite when the product is heated under prescribed conditions. The flash point may be measured according to IP Method 34188 or equivalent in a Closed Cup or by IP 36/84 in an Open Cup. See Appendix A for IP Classification by flash point. Flux: See Blowing Flux. Foam: A collection of bubbles of air or gas formed in a liquid. Foam for fire fighting is produced from Water and chemicals, usually with mechanical aspiration, and is applied to the burning zone to exclude oxygen by blanketing of the surface. See Chapter 4. Froth-over: Spilling over a tank rim caused by the evaporation of water droplets within a hot bitumen mass producing an eruption of froth. Fume: Vapour carrying suspended solid particles or liquid droplets. See 2.3. Fume mask: A face mask which removes, by filtration, solids and liquids from air drawn by the wearer from the immediate environment. See Orinasal cartridge respirator. Gantry: A fixed structure providing access to the top of a transport vehicle for loading or discharging operations. Gas detector: An instrument, fixed or portable, designed to detect and measure the presence and Concentration of flammable gas in an area or enclosed space. Gas-free: An enclosed space or area is considered to be gas-free when the concentrations of flammable and toxic gases in it are within prescribed safe limits, and the oxygen content is sufficient to sustain the respiration of personnel. 'Me area or enclosed space must also have been protected against ingress of harmful gas or vapour. For tanks see 7.6. Hard grade bitumens: These are manufactured in a similar way to penetration grade bitumens. See 1.2.2 and 5.2. 1. They have lower penetration values and higher softening points than penetration grade bitumens. British Standard grades are normally designated by the prefix 'H' followed by two numbers representing the limits of the softening Mint. See Table 1.2. Hazard: A physical situation with significant potential for human injury, damage to property or damage to the environment. See also Risk. Hazardous area: A space or zone in which a flammable atmosphere is expected to be present at such a frequency as to require special precautions for the construction and use of any electrical apparatus installed within it. See Appendix D. Hazardous atmosphere: (Synonymous with flammable atmosphere.) Hot work: Work involving flames or equipment which might cause ignition of any flammable vapours present. It includes welding, or the use of any flame or electric spark or any equipment likely to cause beat, flame or spark, such as drilling, riveting and any other such heat-producing operation unless it is carried out in such a way as to keep the temperature below the level at which ignition of a flammable atmosphere could occur. Ignition source: Accessible source of beat or energy, electrical or non-electrical, capable of igniting flammable atmospheres. See Chapter 3. Ignition temperature: See Auto- ignition temperature. Inert gas: A gas or mixture of gases which will not support combustion. Loss on heating: 'Me percentage loss of mass and the percentage drop in penetration value, as measured after heating a bitumen for 5 hours at 163'C by IP Method 45/58 or equivalent. Lower flammable limit (LFL) : See Flammable limit. Occupational exposure standards (OES): The contaminant concentrations in the working atmosphere annually set, in the UK by the Health and Safety Executive, either as limits which should not normally be exceeded or as limits of good practice. These limits are normally set as Long Term Exposure Standards (8-hour time weighted average values) and/or as Short Term Exposure Limits (10-minute time weighted average maximum exposure limits (MEQ). See 2.3.1. Other countries have similar standards. Orinasal cartridge respirator : A cartridge type half face respirator. See 2.3. 1. Oxidised grade bitumen: Grades produced by passing air through soft bitumen/flux mixtures under controlled temperature conditions. See 1.2.3 and 5.3.1. British Standard grades are normally designated by two numbers representing the mid-points of their softening point and penetration ranges. See Table 1.3. Penetration grade bitumens : These are usually produced by vacuum distillation of petroleum,

followed in some cases by an oxidation process. See 1.2.1 and 5.2.1. British Standard Grades are normally designated by a number representing the mid-point of the penetration range and the suffix 'pen'. See Table 1. 1. Penetration value: A measure of the consistency of bitumen, determined as the depth to which a standard needle penetrates the sample under the conditions prescribed by IP Method 49/86 or equivalent. Permit to work: A document issued by an authorised person or persons permitting specific work to be carried out in a defined area during a stated period of time, provided that specified safety precautions are taken. Petroleum class: A class of petroleum products as defined by the Institute of Petroleum system of classification. See Appendix A. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH): Also synonymously known as 'Polycyclic Aromatics (PCA)' or 'Polynuclear Aromatics (PNA)'. High boiling members of the family of ring type aromatic hydro carbons present in the low percentage range in bitumens, some of which, with 4 to 6 fused rings and present in minute traces in bitumen, have been shown by animal testing to have carcinogenic potential. See Chapter 2. Potting hose: A hose terminating in a short piece of metal pipe, used for delivery of bitumen through the manhole of a tank or vessel. Pyrophoric deposit: A deposit, normally formed in an oxygen depleted environment, which can produce self heating when its temperature or the surrounding oxygen concentration is increased. See 3.3.5. Resuscitation equipment: Equipment which either increases the ventilation of the lungs by mechanical means or supplies oxygen in a controlled manner to aid recovery after a period of inadequate respiration. See Chapter 2. Risk: The likelihood of human injury, damage to property or damage to the environment from a specified hazard. Self-heating: Temperature rise of a substance caused by oxidation of the substance when exposed to an atmosphere containing oxygen. See 3.3.5. Self-ignition temperature: See Auto- ignition temperature. Skin sensitisation: A condition which can lead to a skin disorder, e.g. dermatitis. Slop over: Displacement of hot product from a tank during fire fighting, due to violent evaporation of water beneath the surface. See Boil-over. Snuffing/blanketing steam: Steam which is used to extinguish a fire or to prevent the build up of a flammable atmosphere. It might be injected into a vessel or tank vapour space or used through a steam lance in the open air. Softening point: The temperature in degrees C at which a bitumen attains a particular degree of softness with reference to test conditions prescribed by IP Method 58/86 or equivalent. Source of ignition: See Ignition source. Type of protection: The terms used to define the measures applied in the construction of electrical apparatus to prevent ignition of a surrounding explo sive/flammable atmosphere by such apparatus. See Appendix D. Ullage: The space above the liquid level in a tank. Upper flammable limit: See Flammable limit. Ventilation: Air movement and replacement by fresh air. Natural ventilation refers to ventilation caused by wind or convection and artificial ventilation refers to ventilation caused by air purge or mechanical means such as fans. Viscosity: A measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Various scales of measurement are used. The Standard Tar Viscometer (STV) is used in the IP Method 72/86 to characterise cutback bitumens in 'seconds'. Kinematic viscosity is a derived characteristic which can be used to represent the fluid in technical calculations. Zone 0: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is continuously present or present for long periods. See Appendix D. Zone 1: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation. See Appendix D. Zone 2: That part of a hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation and, if it occurs, will exist only for a short period. See Appendix D.

Appendix D

THE APPLICATION OF AREA CLASSIFICATION

D.1 INTRODUCTION Because of the arcs, sparks and hot surfaces that they can produce, ordinary type industrial equipment and fittings including lighting, switches, motors, heating and measuring instruments are capable of igniting a flammable atmosphere. This is true for the bitumen vapours that may accumulate under the confined conditions of the head space of a heated bitumen storage tank. Fires and explosions can also occur due to non-electrical sources of ignition such as naked flames or hot work which is carried out in the proximity of vents and other tank openings. Ideally, electrical equipment should only be installed in 'safe' areas remote from a location in which a flammable atmosphere can arise, but often this is not reasonably practicable and alternative measures are required, which will also control the use and location of non-electrical sources of ignition. For these reasons, under the heading in Chapter 3 of the 'Control of Sources of Ignition' the need is stated (see 3.3. 1) for area classification and its grading of areas in and around plant from which flammable atmospheres can arise. The recommendations given in 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, covering the various classes of bulk bitumen storage are based upon the IP Area Classification Code: 1990. D.2 In that Code, which conforms to the internationally recognised concepts expressed by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 79/10; CENELEC EN 50014) and, for the UK, BS 5345 Parts 1 and 2, the areas around plant and vessels are subdivided according to the degree of probability that flammable concentrations of vapour can arise, these subdivisions being defined as follows: Zone 0 long Zone 1 Zone 2 An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture is continuously, present or present for periods (this is termed a 'continuous grade release'). An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture is likely to occur periodically or occasionally in normal operation (termed a 'primary grade release'). An area in which a flammable vapour/air mixture can only occur in abnormal operation, and if it does occur is likely to do so only infrequently and for short periods (termed a 'secondary grade release').

It should be noted that the zone number (grade of release) of such areas is a function solely of the assessed frequency and duration of flammable presence or release. All other areas of the facility are deemed, for the purpose of area classification, non-hazardous areas-for which the probability of a flammable atmosphere being present is so low that special protection vis-a-vis electrical and non-electrical sources of ignition need not be provided (although other precautions, as for the carrying out of hot work etc may be needed, as under 3.3.2 and its Note). D.3 While zone number is a function of frequency and duration only of the potential flammable release, the extent (i.e. dimensions) of the zone is a function of the volatility characteristics of the petroleum material as determined in Appendix A and the operating conditions of temperature. ventilation etc. See 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.4. These assessments have been incorporated in the guidance given in 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, and nothing further need be carried out in this respect prior to proceeding to the selection of an appropriate type of protection for electrical equipment suitable for operation in the specific zones in accordance with D.4 below. D.4 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE TYPE OF PROTECTION FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE HAZARD ZONE NUMBER

Having identified the respective zone number for each of the hazard zones specified in 7.2.1 or 7.2.2. it is then the function of an appropriate electrical specialist to select the type of protection to which

electrical equipment, including instruments, should be certified as suitable for installation from among the nine internationally recognised types of protection listed in the following tabulation: Zone Type of Protection BS 5345 Code Part Reference 0 Intrinsic safety Type 'ia' Part 4 Type 's' special protection Part 8 (specifically certified for use in Zone 0) 1 Any explosion protection suitable for Zone 0 and: Type V flameproof Part 3 Intrinsic safety Type 'ib' Part 4 Type 'p' pressurisation Part 5 Type 'e' increased safety Part 6 Type 's' special protection Part 8 2 Any explosion protection suitable for Zone 0 or 1 and: Type N or 'n' Part 7 Type o oil filled Part 9 Type 'q' powder filled Part 9 Notes 1 The details have been condensed from Table 7.1 of the IP Area Classification Code 1990, BS 5345 Part 1; 1989 and BS 5345 Part 2, together with the listed individual part numbers of BS 5345 given in the last column. 2. Intrinsic Safety protection is at two levels 'ia' and 'ib', only type 'ia' being certifiable for Zone 0 installation. Some but not all types of special protection 's' can be certified for Zone 0. See BS 5345 Part 8. 3. The above types of protection are designated as 'Group W, being suitable for above ground usage in flammable atmospheres. (Group 1 apparatus is specifically for mining application.) Some Group 11 types are further subdivided in order of increasing severity into Apparatus Subgroups A, B and C according to the dimensions between their joint surfaces and the properties of the flammable vapours involved. 4. All types of protected equipment also have to fulfil the following further requirements: 5. All equipment should be assigned an appropriate 'Temperature Class' from one of six recognised Temperature Classes TI to T6, listed in ascending order of severity. and chosen to ensure that the surface temperatures attained by the apparatus, both internal and external (i.e. casing), will at its full rating not exceed the ignition temperature of the gas or vapour that will be encountered. 6. The required degrees of environmental protection, against access into the equipment of a) foreign objects such as dust, tools etc, or parts of the body; b) the ingress of fluids including rain. water jets etc. For both of these aspects there are six categories of protection that can be selected, denoted by a double digit number preceded by the initials 'IP' in accordance with an international scale prescribed in IEC publication 144, CTNELEC EN 60 034-5 and Appendix C of BS 5345 Part 1 (1989) (Note the designation 'IP' does not relate to the Institute of Petroleum, but to 'ingress protection'). For more details of the selection of the above four factors, i.e.: - selection of the appropriate type of protection in accordance with the zone number. - selection of the appropriate apparatus sub grouping in accordance with die characteristics of the vapour or gases. - selection of the appropriate 'Temperature Class' in accordance with the ignition temperature of the vapour or gases involved. - the degree of environmental (mechanical) protection. Chapter 7 of the IP Area Classification Code 1990 and the revised IP Electrical Safety Code 1990 should be consulted. These give full references to the relevant standards, including certification and marking of such apparatus. installation, maintenance, inspection etc. Reference may also be made to the guidance given as to the choice of suitable electrical equipment in HSE Health and Safety Booklet HS(G)22. For the vapours released from heated bitumens an apparatus sub-group II-A and a T(Temperature) Class T2 (maximum surface temperature 300 oC are typical, while for cutback grades with kerosine diluent a II-A apparatus subgroup with T Class T3 (maximum surface temperature 200 oC) should be considered. Conclusion

The above notes focus on the application of area classification to electrical equipment. However its zoning of plant areas is also relevant to the need to avoid non -electrical sources of ignition in such hazard zones.

Appendix E EXPOSURE TO BITUMEN BY SKIN CONTACT AND INHALATION

As noted in Chapter 2, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France, an agency of the World Health Organisation, has concluded, in a published monograph on polynuclear aromatic compounds Part 4 (1985): 'Bitumens, Coal Tars and derived products, Shale Oils and Soots', that petroleum bitumens do contain small quantities of 4-6 ring high boiling polycyclic aromatic compounds some of which have been shown in animal testing to' have carcinogenic properties. The presence of these constituents in petroleum bitumens has been shown to be many times less than the quantities present in coal tar and pitches (see 2.1), which are recognised carcinogens. Since the significance of carcinogenic potential is very much a function of the level and duration and the 'bio availability' (i.e. access to the body organs), interpretation can be very difficult when applied to the conditions of human exposure during occupation. Certain studies in respect of petroleum bitumen have been associated with similar involvement with coal tar materials or coal tar bitumen mixes. Inhalation studies on rats and guinea pigs (Huepar WC and Payne WW 1960) and on mice (Simmers MH, 1964) did not find any carcinogenic effect of bitumen fumes. However Huepar and Payne found that neither was there any such effect on a control group exposed to fumes from coal tar. Animal testing in 1983 (Thayer PS, Menzies KT and Thuna PC) has shown that the application of the condensate from bitumen fumes on the skin of mice had almost as strong an effect as the condensate from coal tar fumes, but in neither of these is there a direct correspondence with human occupational exposure. A recent worker in this field (Hansen ES 1989) has pointed to studies in the US in 1976 in which excess mortality was reported in asphalt workers from lung cancer and cancer of buccal cavity, pharynx, digestive organs, bladder and skin, compared to the population at large, but has commented that 'although the studied groups of roofers had been exposed to bitumen fumes , no clear conclusions could be drawn regarding the carcinogenicity of these fumes because the roofers had been concomitantly exposed to the known carcinogen coal tar'. Hansen's own study-was on 679 'heavily exposed' long term mastic asphalt workers in Denmark followed up from 1959 to 1984, of whom only the older, it was said, would have handled both bitumen and coal tar. Of these 679, whose work was to hand-trowel in the kneeling position heated mastic at 250*C from open buckets, and who were exposed to high fume concentrations (see below), some 194 were born between 1893 and 1919; 129 between 1920 and 1929 and the remaining 356 between 1930 and 1960. Observed cancer incidence was found to be almost twice that of the total population, mainly of the respiratory and digestive systems. Hygiene measurements were stated to have considerably exceeded the 5 Mg/M 3 Danish standard, with a range from 0.5 to 260 Mg/M 3 (mean 41.4) of fume during flooring with mastic asphalt, compared to two samples during manual road paving of 4.3 and 3.4 rng/M 3. Hansen noted that only the two older sub-cohorts referred to above had the possibility of working with coal tar, due its use during the World War II period. Hansen states that it is not possible to restrict the increased lung cancer risk to the mastic workers who had possibly been exposed to coal tar pitch during World War II. Nevertheless, from the tabulation of the 27 lung cancer cases, only three with birth dates of 1930, 1931, and 1934 were from the younger sub-cohort and Hansen does not show a breakdown for other diagnoses 'because almost all the cases occurred among workers aged 65 years or over, and there were no men of these ages in sub-cohorts II and III'. From the above, it is evident that further study should be carried out, but that care should be taken to keep exposure to all bitumen fumes as low as possible, with strict control over temperature to avoid overheating. Skin Contact Skin contact is avoidable by good personal hygiene and adherence to the use of protective clothing, and there are no data to show that them is a problem with occupational exposure. Nevertheless, the

IARC and other studies show that in animal skin painting tests, the bio-available contact level when bitumens are dissolved in solvents and applied to the skin is such that tumours are produced. This should be viewed as having relevance where bitumens in solution form, e.g. cutback blends, are handled. See 2.5. 1.

Appendix F REFERENCES
The following publications are referred to in this code. F.1 American Petroleum Institute Std 2000: Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks F.2 American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM D5-86: Standard Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials F.3 Asphalt Institute Manual Series-No 18: Sampling Asphalt Products for Specification Compliance F.4 British Standards Institution BS CP 144 Roof Coverings BS 434 Bitumen Road Emulsions (Anionic and Cationic) BS 1435 Rubber Hose Assemblies for Oil Suction and Discharge Services BS 1676 Heaters for Tar and Bitumen (mobile and transportable) BS 1707 Hot Binder Distributors for Road Surface Dressing BS 2092 Eye Protectors for Industrial and Non-industrial Uses BS 2594 Carbon Steel Welded Horizontal Cylindrical Storage Tanks BS 2654 Manufacture of Vertical Steel Welded Non-refrigerated Storage Tanks with Butt Welded Shells for the Petroleum Industry BS 3690 Bitumens for Building and Civil Engineering Part 1 Specification for Bitumens for Road Purposes Part 2 Specification for Bitumens for Industrial Purposes Part 3 Specification for Bitumen Mixtures BS 5345 Selection, Installation and Maintenance of Electrical Apparatus for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres BS 5500 Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels BS 6130 Hose and Hose Assemblies for Asphalt and Bitumen F.5 CONCAWE (The oil companies' European organization for environmental and health protection) Report 6/84 Review of Bitumen Fume Exposure and Guidance on Measurement F.6 Institute of Petroleum (a) Methods for Analysis and Testing of Petroleum and its Products IP 27/74 Distillation of Cutback Asphaltic (Bituminous) Products (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 27) IP 34/88 Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 34) IP 36/84 Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup (technically identical to BS 4689) IP 45/58 Loss on Heating Bitumen (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 45) IP 49/86 Penetration of Bituminous Materials (technically identical to BS 4691) [P 58/86 Softening Point of Bitumen. Ring and Ball (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 58) IP 72/86 Viscosity of Cutback Bitumen and Road Oil (technically identical to BS 2000 Part 72) (b) Model Code Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 15 Part 16 of Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry Electrical 1990 Marketing (under revision 1990) Refining 1981 Area Classification 1990 Tank Cleaning 1989

(c) Other Codes of Practice Product Identification System for Marketing Operations and Distribution 1988 (d) Technical Paper IP 84-006 IARC Review on Bitumen Carcinogenicity. Bitumen Production, Properties and Uses in Relation to Occupational Exposures F.7 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monograph 35 (being part 4 of the series on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans: 1985): Bitumens, Coal Tars and derived products, Shale Oils and Soots F.8 International Chamber of Shipping/Oil Companies International Marine Forum / International Association of Ports and Harbours International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals F.9 International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 79/10 Classification of Hazardous Areas F.10 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Technical Association COP 1. Installation and maintenance of bulk LPG storage at consumers' premises. Parts I, II and III COP 7 Storage of full and empty LPG cylinders and cartridges COP 22 LPG piping system design and installation F.11 Resuscitation Council (UK) Guidance leaflet: The ABC of resuscitation (available from the British Heart Foundation) F.12 RILEM (Reunion intemationale des laboratoires dessais et de recherches sur les materiaux et les constructions) Recommendation BM 2: April 1987: Methods for Sampling Hydrocarbon Binders F.13 UK Department of Transport Transport and Road Research Laboratory Road Note No 39: Recommendations for Road Surface Dressing F.14 UK Health and Safety Executive Guidance Note CS4 The keeping of LPG in cylinders and similar containers Guidance Note EH40 Occupational exposure limits (updated annually) Booklet HS(G)22 Electrical apparatus for use in potentially explosive atmospheres Booklet HS(G)34 The storage of LPG at fixed installations Booklet MS(I1)4 Skin cancer caused by pitch and tar F.15 UK Statutes 1981 SI 1059 Dangerous Substances (Conveyance by road in road tankers and tank containers) Regulations 1981 1989 SI 2169 Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989 1984 SI 1244 Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances Regulations 1984 1988 SI 1657 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988