Noun+Article+Verb (Present Simple & Continuous - Past Simple & Continuous)

Chapter
THE NOUN
u1ed.1 A noun is that part of speech job title a (dog), a place (park, o*ioial' (happiness)' state )-q,i'iii,/ tu.averv;,. a
Nouns can function as:
ll"-lu*" (;il;' ; trting Ooo[)' an action (writing)'
of
a person
(girl; John)'
an animal
a) the subject of a verb: b)
The boY runs in the street' the direct object of a verb:
c)
letter' the indirect object of a verb:

Jane wrote a
offered mother some flowers'
d) the object of a PrePosition: e)
The girl went to school' to be the comPlement of the verb MY brother is an engineer' an aPPosition:
fl
a telex' sent Miss Smith' my secretary'

!
g) direct address:
Tom/BoY' come here
1.1. FORM
Somewordsfunctiononlyasnouns(fog,lion,courage),whileothersmayfunctionas: a)nounsorverbshavingeitherthesamespellingandPlolunciation(answeru'tu*t ; book - to book; call nf"-"'l-io attempt;io attempt to cost ; to answer, to trinlu; copy - to-copv; cost tii'nu d;";;; -? drive ; end to call; ttive - to "n*g" to dream t"jrr"x-- io ati"r.; dream _ dance; to dance hop: - to hope; ioke - to to fear;';tlp : to help; fear iall; to fall to vote to end; to stop ; try '; to try ; vote '; to offer. ;;;ff* rti'll an(l. t" kiss ioke ; u oift"'"nt pronunciation t, ."io *i'r'i, ', *i.t, wash ; rvalk - to walk ; wash - to
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE
: (0 - (v) (belief - to believe ; proof - to prove), lsl - lzl (advice - to advise; use - to use); l0l - /a/ (bath - to bathe; cloth to clothe), or a different stress: ('abstract - to ab'stract; .conduct - to con'duct; 'desert. - to de'sert ; 'export - to ex'port ; ,import - to im'port ; ,permit _ to per'mit; 'produce - to pro'duce; 'rebel - to re'bet ; ,record - to re'cord) ; b) nouns and adjectives (cold; light).
sometimes, a different spelling
1.1.1. Compound Nouns

In English there are nouns which are made up of two or more parts. These compound
nouns may be either single words or they may be made up of two or more separate words.
Single-word compound nouns may be made up of
l raincoat; saucepan; seaside ; typewriter) ; b) an adjective and a noun (blackbird; blackboard; greenhouse. heavvweight ; longhand; redhead); c) a verb and an adverb particle or preposition (breakdown ; don.npour ; income ; outcome; upkeep): d) an adverb particle or preposition and a noun (outlaw; outlook; upgrowth).
A large number of single-word compound nouns are built up wirh rhe help of suffixes and prefixes. The suffixes may be added to:
a) two nouns (butterfly; classroom; cupboard; footprint; footstep
to defend - defence to defl' - defiance to depart - depanrto depend - depend to descend - descer to describe - descri to destroy - destrui to develop - derelol to discover - discor to disturb - disturt to divide - division to employ - emplor
employment
a)
verbs
to abolish - abolition to accept - acceptance to accompany - accompaniment to accuse - accusation to acquaint - acquaintance to act - action/actor to admit - admission/admitance to adopt - adoption to advertise - advertisment to allow - allowance to appear - appearance to applaud - applause to apply - application to approve - approval to arrive - arrival to ascend - ascent to assist - assistance/assistant to attract - attraction to begin - beginning/beginner to behave - behaviour to bore - boredom to calculate - calculation to cancel - cancellation
to choose - choice to circulate - circulation to clean - cleanliness to clear - clearance to collect - collection collector to combine - combination to communicate - communication to compare - comparison to compel - compulsion to compensate - compensation to complete - connpletion to compose - composition to confide - confidence to confuse - confusion to congratulate - congratulation to conspire - conspiracl' to construct - construction to converse - conversation to correct - correction to cover - coverage/covering to create - creation to decide - decision to declare - declaration
to encourage - enc( to enter - entrance to exclaim - exclam to exhaust - exhaus to exist - existence to expect - expectal to expel - expulsior to explain - explal, to explode - explos; to explore - explon to expose - exposul to extend - extentic to form - formatior to grow - grotvth to happen - happer to hate - hatred to hinder - hindrar to imagine - imagir to imitate - imitatir to inform - inform, to inhabit - inhabit to inquire - inquirl to intend - intentio to interfere - interl to introduce - intri to invade - invasior to invent - inventio to invite - invitatio to judge - judgeme to know - knouledr to laugh - laughter to manage - manal to marry - marrial
THE NOUN
proof - to prove), to bathe; cloth luct - to con'duct ; n'port ; (permit )rd - to re'cord);
to to to to to to to
defend
defy - defiance depart - departure
defence
i lrese compound ::: separate words.

,:
describe - description destroy - destruction ro develop - development to discover - discoverer/discovery to disturb - disturbance
depend - dependence descend - descendant
t-ilep
raincoat
to divide - division to employ - employee/employer/

employment
!;
heavyweight;
rnpour: income;
:pgrorvth).
---,:
:.e.o of suffixes
to encourage - encouragement to enter - entrance/entry to exclaim - exclamation to exhaust - exhaustion to exist - existence to expect - expectations to expel - expulsion to explain - explanation to explode - explosion to explore - exploration
ia
ss
:
ton
lo to to to
expose
extend
form - formation grow - growth
- exposure - extention
.n collector
tr ation
ommunication
arison
ilon
ir pensation
I
to happen - happening to hate - hatred to hinder - hindrance to imagine - imagination
to imitate
ro inform
etion
rsition
nce
(,rn
ngratulation
ra cl
ruc tion
- imitation - information to inhabit - inhabitant to inquire - inquiry to intend - intention to interfere - interference to introduce - introduction to invade - invasion ro inyent - invention
ro invite to judge
,\ation
on
Co|ering
:lon
to know - knowledge to laugh - laughter t,l manage - management t0 marry - marriage
* invitation - judgement
to obey - obedience to obstruct - obstruction to occupy - occupation to occur - occurence to oppose - opposition to organise - organisation to paint - painter/painting to perform - performance to permit - permission to persuade - persuasion to please - pleasure to portray - portrayal to postpone - postponement to prepare - preparation to prescribe - prescription to press - pressure to prevail - prevalence to proceed - procedure to proclaim - proclamation to produce - production to pronounce - pronunciation to propose - proposal/proposition to prosper - prosperity to provide - provision to publish - publisher/publication to punish - punishment to qualify - qualification to rebel - rebellion to recognize - recognition to reduce - reduction to rely - reliance to remain - remainder to repeat - repetition to resemble - resemblance to reside - residence to resign - resignation to resist - resistance to resolve - resolution to reveal - revelation to revise - revision to revive - revival to revolve - revolution to satisfy - satisfaction to seize - seizure
to mock - mockery to move - movement
f
to serve - service to subscribe - suirscriPtion to tempt - temPtation to thrill - thriller
to train - trainer to translate - translation
rgerund+anounrl
It must be underlined iorm is stressed ('Par
preceded bY a Present
to transmit - transmission to warn - warning
'bear);
b)
adjectives
active - activitY absent - absence
free
- freedom kind - kindness

happy
other Parts of sPeech
democrat
democracY
haPPiness
T.2. TYPES OF
}i
c) other nouns art - artist behaviour - behaviourism Berlin - Berliner boy - boyhood
child - childhood Darwin - Darwinism farm - farmer friend - friendshiP hand - handful
historY
historian
impression
imPressionism
Nounst:
London - Londoner mouth - mouthful

member - membershiP owner - ownershiP philosoPhY - PhilosoPher piano -' Pianist Romania - Romanian
1,!.1. ProPer Nour
village - villager
Itel are used for Pani; i:: spelt with a caPital

names 1 : personal ' (su : dtles : Mr. Jackson
-.
Some of the most frequent prefixes used in building up single-word nouns are the
ftu
following:
ante-
antidis-
: :
independence
Lord BYron; Sir Cl
calendar items : Sul geograPhical names
imininternonoversupersurunder-
.,
supertax
The Black S titles of books, ne* United Nations Or
countries: '{ continents : '

lakes' ocears'
names of nationaliri
under-
1.2.2. Common
Some compound nouns are made up of two or more separate words: a) two nouns (chair-teg; department store , grammar book) ; b) an adjective and a noun (common sense; blue print); lady's maid)' c) a possessive case and a noun (artist's model; traveller's check; (a college; a womens noun first Sometimes the apostrophe is omitted from the d) a noun
Tbey are all those nou Such nouns maY be ei Ftween countable and
ri
-r r it can be Preceded
it has a Plural foru
:,
,l
citizens bank); * a prepositional phrase (mother-in-law
it can be preceded friend has a few o
; editor-in-chief ; coat-of-arms)
it can be Preceded
as
THE NOUN
tslation
timission
a
walking stick)' frying p"l' botli'*t"o; only the -ing : : aenlrd + a noun (dancing-shoes; noun' when -ing + noun is a compound
-.must be underlined that'
noun' but a noun while when it is not a eompoundowater .-.rm is stressecl ('parking area)' ; 'dancing p"rii"ipf", Uorfr purau ut. tt..rttO ('running : receded Uy a fresleit
'bear); -.therpartsofspeech(forget-me-not;merry-go-round).
]:
1.1. TYPES OF NOUNS
,
I
)ressionism
iIq!
ProPer: Bngland; John
Nounsl
fcountable:
tunt'non
'Jl
'{
'
\;rshin " r :l -'sopher
lt u,t.ou"toblt {
: bread; milk t abstract : hate; advice

concrete
Nouns
.:nian
r
':- .i..td nouns are
the
personal names
L{omfort ; discontent;
nnour : disinclination
*iuse
;
The Pacific Ocean; The Danube;
Guardian' The Gone witlt the Wind, The

English pcrstructure
Greek
; Italian; Polish ; Spanish'
smPertax
I
,
,t,
underdog; underOfdS
:
L,2.2. Common Nouns

lhey are all
t,:rn e
thing, place, idea. designate a particular-person, those. nouns which do not
if Srchnounsmaybeetthercountabt,o,un,*n.uut".tnordertomakethedistinction shown that a noun is countable i,

re rween countable
, check; ladY's maid)' a \lomens college ; a

i-cbiel
".d schools) I . it has a plural form (girls; (a ân-apnle); aian :. i;;;; be preceded bvgow dog; many or (") f#iH;tt : , it can be preceded uy
friend has a few oranges'1
;
;;;";;ie
nouns,
-usiu"
? rnany books have you got
Your
coat-of-arms)
:r it can be preceded-uv-"nu*uttt
(one pencil; three pencils);
l0 and
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE
it is uncountable if : a) it has not a plural form: (blood; gold; sugar); b) it cannot be preceded by a/an (What fine weather ! ) ;
c) it can be preceded by How much or (a) Iittle
e crust of bread a cube of ice a dash of soda
: (How much sugar do you want ? Your
friend has little luggage);

d)
it cannot be preceded by
numbers.
However, there are some nouns that can be both countable and uncountable. When they refer to single items they are countable and when they refer to an object made from that matter they are incountable: I drink a coffee every morning. Grandfather never drinks coffee. I have corrected all your papers. Paper is made from wood.
a droP of oilirain wat a flash of lightilighten a grain of corn''dirt r a head of hair/cattle lettuce
e heaP of coal/dirt n an item/a Piece of nen

a
jar of jam r jet of water
a loaf of bread
a lumP of coali sugar
The most frequent uncountable nouns in English are: accomodation advice anger applause
assistance
e pat of butter
a claP of thunder
seaside
courage
damage
laughter
leisure
dancing
dirt
education
evidence
lightening
Iinen
shopping smoking
soap
:"lntainers
a barrel of beer
behaviour
bread
business
luck
luggage
spelling
steam
a bottle of
flu
food
fruit milk win' a packet of cigarettt

basket of
trade) capital
(: (:
fun furniture
gossip grass happiness
machinery meat
money
strength
stuff stupidity
sunshine
r flask of tea r glass of water
money)
cardboard
cash
cheese chess
mud music
news nonsense
thunder
: l : ' ;
-:ames
a game of b
timber
toast
harm
homework
patience
(:
bread)
permission
china
hospitality
housework
traffic
transport underwear
violence
clothing
coal conduct cookery countryside
poetry
produce
progress
information
jealousy
:easures: a gallon t e Pint of beerimilk ' ;,resisPecies: a bn drug; a varietl of l:slract nouns: a bi of anger; a Piece o rrouble; a sPell of
scissors/shears sho trousers.
jewelery
knowledge
rubbish
safety
scenery
vocabulary
wealth
:airs : a Pair of boo
work
I.2.3. Partitives
They are those nouns which refer to
:
: :.4. Collective I
amounts:
a) specific items or
a bar of chocolate/soap/metal a blade of grass a block of marble/iceiwood a box of matches
a book of stamps a breath of air
l:q; are used for a gri i :eoPle

:
an arm!'
an assembll'
audience
a bar/cake of soap a cloud of dust
THE NOUN
a crust of bread a cube of ice a dash of soda
a piece of wood/furniture/PaPer/ glass/chalk/cotton/bread/advice/
information/ gossiP/scandal/
wisdom/knowledge
ar .jo )'ou want? Your
a drop of oil/rain/water
a fl ash of light/lightening/inspiration
a srain of corn/dirt/rice/sand a tread of hair/cattle/cabbage/
-:.;ountable. When
lettuce
a heap of coat/dirt/rubbish an item/a piece of news/information
a
..- .rbject made from
a pile of earth a pinch of salt a portion of food a puff of smoke/wind a roll of PaPer a sip of tea
a scrap of PaPer a speck of dust a slice of bread/cake/meat a sheet of PaPer a splash of soda a stick of chalk a strand of hair/wool
a
jar of jam
jet of water a loaf of bread a lump of coal/sugar a pat of butter a clap of thunder
:ontainers
a
:
seaside
shopping smoking
soap
spellittg
steam
strelrgth
stuff stupidity
sunshine
barrel of beer a basket of fruit a bottle of milk/wine a packet of cigarettes a flask of tea a glass of water
jug of water a mug of cocoa a tin of souP a tube of Paste a vase of flowers
thunder timber
toast
'games:agameofbilliards/bridge/cards/chess/cricket/darts/terrnis/volleyball; -measures:agallonofpetrol;alengthofcloth;alitreofoil;anounceofgold; a yard of cloth ; cofiee ; a spoonful of medicine ; a pint of beer/milk , p"""a of
(:
bread)
traffic
transport
underwear
violence
" .t,vpes/species:abrandofsoap;akindofbiscuit;aspeciesoffish;atypeof of cake; ii"g t a variety of pasta; a make of car; a sort truth;afit . abstractnouns: abit/pieceof advice;abitof knowledge;agrainof a spot of calm; of period a a shred oi evia"t'ce;
of anger; a piece oi t"'"u'"t'; of sleep troub-ie ; a spell of work ; a wink
;
vocabulary
rvealth
u
:pairs:apairofboots/braces/glasses/gloves/jeans/knickers/pants/pliers/pyjamas/ i,lstipptts/socks/stockings/tights/tongs/ scissors/she"rrlrn*./,hortsiskates/rt

trousers.
ork
',,2.4. Collective Nouns

.
rey are used for

people
:
as a whole: group of people, animals, things considered
r_,
.
1p
an army
an assemblY audience
a band (of musicians/Pilgrims) a bench (of bishoPs/magistrates) a bevY (of ladies)
12
a board (of directors)
folk
goYernment
a choir (of singers) a class (of pupils/scholars) a company (of actors) a crew (of sailors) a gang (of labourers/thieves) a horde (of savages)
a commitee
.],.3.
a host (of angels)

a
GENDER
jury
a mob (in a riot) nation orchestra
-:i:: 3ie four genders in E: l;'.=.ng to the first r$o i
a congregation (of worshiPers) a council

crowd
enemy
family
a party (of friends) public a staff (of servants/teachers) a team (of players) a tribe (of natives) a troupe (of dancers/minstrels) a posse (of policemen) a pride (of lions) a rag (of colts) a school (of whales) a shoal (of herring) a sloth (of bears) a stud (of horses) a s\ilarm (of bees/insects)
a string (of horses) a team (of horses/oxen) a tribe (of goats) a troup (of lions/monkeYs) a sheaf (of corn) a strack (of hay)
:{i'i.*:en the biological cale --'1 r;. lfltsculina nguns rriI fl.-ms uncle) and feminine uutut. nidorv). The disdn l::l-erent words:
'rtachelor
hoar
:o1'.
b)
animals, birds, insects:
a brood (of chickens) a coYey (of grouse) a down (of hares) a drove/herd (of cattle) a fall (of woodcoks) a flock (of birds/sheeP) a litter (of cubs/PuPs)
a nest (of mice/rabbits)
a pack (of rascals/wolves) a plague (of insects/locusts) a padding (of ducks)
c) plants and fruit:

a bouquet/bunch (of flowers)
a bunch (of grapes)
a crate (of fruit)
a tuft (of grass)

a library (of books) a pack (of cards) a peal (of bells) a sheaf (of arrows) a set (of china) a string (of pearls/beads) a suit (of clothes) a suite (of furniture/rooms) a skein (of silk/wool)
- girl brave - squaw brother - sister b'uck - doe 5ull - cow rltrb - swan crrck (rooster) - hen rult - fillY tuster - donah atad daddY - mum mr dog - bitch drake - duck drone - bee Earl - countess father - mother for - vixen friar - nun (monk
sow
I
- maidlsPilst
\dding suffixes to tbt

: -P\ \
d)
things
a bale (of cotton) a batch (of bread) a budget (of PaPers) a clutch (of eggs) a collection (of pictures)
a fleet/flotilla/squadron (of ships) a flight (of aeroPlanes/stePs) a forest (of trees)
a
abbot
actor - actress adventurer - advent

ambassador - ambs ruthor - authoress
abbess
baron
benefactor - benefa god - goddess
baroness
hail (of fire)
heir - heiress
bost
hostess
hunter
Jes'
huntress
instructor
- instrut
Jewess
THE NOUN
J, GENDER
":
neuter and !1i3?:: jre four genders rn English : masculine' feminine' there is a close connectlon that emphasize must we ones, two first :.: irirq to the ..sex,, uno it-,. grammatical category of "gender"" :3n rhe biological category of fafhes'; ,_r rrasculine nouns witibe all those nouns of irasculine sex (bachelor; stlx (aunt ; queen ;
-:.
common
:::r
a:: nefS)
--..
those nouns of feminine uncle) and feminine nouns will be and feminine can be made by; . \Yidow). The distinction between masculine
:
.lerent words
: rchelor
:-.
maidlsPinster
instrels)
lL-rif - .1v
SOW
gauder - g00se husband - wife
- girl :rave - squaw : rother - sister : uck - doe :ull - cow ::rb - swan ; -,ck (rooster) :0lr - filly
:DSter
king - queen lad - lass lord - ladY

rnale - fernale rnan - womall nephew - niece papa - mam(mla
hen
rarn
ewe
iad/daddy - murn/mummY iog - bitch lrake - duck irone - bee

_'-;\ ).t
donah
sir - rnadam sloven - slut

son - daughter stag - hind
stallion
steer
.arl father
countess
mother
tutor
for
friar - nun (monk)
vixen
uncie
- goveraress - aunt wizard - witch

-
- nrare - herfer
{dding suffixes to the masculine form:

:r -gSS
, - !;;u)
--.rmq)
abbot - abtress actor - actress adventurer - adventuress ambassador - ambassadress author - authoress baron - baroness benefactor - benefactress sod - goddess
lion
lioness manager - rnanageress
rnister - mistress mayor - mayoress nnillionaire - rnillionairess
murder - rnurderess
Negro ogre peer poet
Negress (usually offenstve ln meaning)
heir
- heiress ht-rst - hostess hunter - huntress i-nstructor - instructress Jew - Jewess
ogress
patron
- Patroruess peeress
Poetess
priest
Priestess
1A
prince
- sheperdess sorcerer - sorceress b) -ine hero - heroine Joseph - Josephine

shepherd Iandgrave
proprietar - proprietress protector - protectress
princess prioress prophet - prophetetess
prior
steward
tailor - tailoress tiger - tigeress traitor - traitress
stewardess
male/jack/buck-hr
doe-hare
waiter - waitress warder - wardress
he-leoPard - she-l dog otter - bitch cock-Pheasant - t cock-Pigeon - her
l:e
use of comPoun*
chairman - chair grandfather - 96
landgravine
executor - executrix (executress) prosecutor - prosecutrix
grandson - grald jurYman - jun.v headmaster
c) -ix
administrator - administratrix aviator - aviatrix (aviatress) director - directrix (directress)
testator
testatrix
d) -a
czar
don
- czarina - donna confidante

prot6g6
- her halfbrother - hal landlord - landl: milkman - milkn nobleman - nobl' policeman - Polir
e)
-e/-enne
confidant
comedian - comedienne fianc6 - fianc6e -ette/-use usher - usherette chaffeur - chauffeuse 3. Adding the suffix -er to the feminine:
prot6g6e
3cmmon (dual) gex :;-: and female : adul
tragedian
tragedienne
:nm.inal, doctor, enem;
il
rL:rarian, musician. nei ilerson, pig, Professor. i':=etimes, for claritl. s
m.
widower 4. Adding the suffix -groom to the feminine: bride - bridegroom
widow
him; his; she; ht \euter gender den'l rrrok ; house ; horse

.
For stYlistic PurPose
':inine. In this wa) s-
5.
The use of compounds in which the first element specifies gender:
: :
nouns denoting Pa-':
fury, love, murder.
a)
nouns denoting persons
boy friend
boy scout - girl scout boy student - girl student brother-inlaw - sister-in-law father-in-law - mother-in-law
- girl friend
male child
b)
nouns denoting animals
male pacient - female patient man cashier - woman cashier man friend - lady/woman friend prince-consort - queen-consort son-in-law - daughter-in-law male/tom-cat - female/tabby-cat bull/male elephant - cow/female
elephant he-/dog fox
female child
names of things that storm, stream' sum
i : : : : :
;
On the other hand rl nouns that suggest D
justice; melanchol
nouns thatdenote neg
vanity;
he/male ape - she/female ape he-boar - she-boar he-bird - she-bird bull-calf - cow-calf
male camel
nouns denoting eler names of arts and s names of countries. names of aeroPlale
she-/bitch fox
submarine;
female camel
he-/billy-goat
she-/nanny-goat
rulmes of
univenitier
:
ri-l^-ug55
THE NOUN
tf
male/jack/buck-hare
doe-hare
female/
buck-rabbit
he-leopard
::
JS
dog otter
'a!s
.
cock-pheasant - hen-pheasant cock-pigeon - hen-pigeon
she-leopard
bitch otter
he-/cock-sparrow - she-/ hen-sparrow he-swallow - she-swallow
doe-rabbit
dog-wolf
- bitch-wolf
:
:s
use of compounds in which the second element specifies gender
juryman - jurywoman
headmaster
chairman - chairwoman grandfather - grandmother grandson - granddaughter
salesman
shopman
:;rI\
,
head mistress
aexecutress)
-iecutrix
halfbrother - halfsister landlord - landlady milkman - milkmaid

nobleman policeman
- noblewoman - policewoman
- saleswoman - shopwoman spaceman - spacewoman spokeman - spokewoman statesman - stateswoman turkey cock - turkeY hen bulldog - bull bitch Englishman - Englishwoman Frenchman - Frenchwoman
i;E
;dienne
. - . and female: adult, animal, artist, baby, child, companion, comrade, cook, . - :inal, doctor, enemy, fool, foreigner, friend, guardian, guest, infant, inhabitant,
::arian, musician, neighbour, novelist, orphan, owner, parent, partner, passenger, I : r!0[, pig, professor, pupil, relative, servant, speaker, student, teacher, writer, etc. , -:timis, for clarity, some "gender markers" are used : boy-friend ; woman-student ; .' ; him; his; she; her. \euter gender denotes things, ideas or beings whose sex we are not interested in: ::-k; house; horse; baby; thought.
l..,mmon (dual) gender denotes either sex and the same word may be used both of
ior stylistic purposes, a few nouns that are neuter may become either masculine or -..rine. In this way such nouns as the following may become masculine :
:.cuns denoting passions, violent actions: anger, crime, despair, discord, fear,
_ '
:emale child - female patient - rloman cashier
fury, love, murder, terror
:ames of things that suggest power,
dignity: death, graYe, mountain, ocean, river,
storm. stream. summer, sun, time, winter.
faith; hope;
iadl rvoman friend r - queen-consort laughter-in-law
- female/tabby-cat rhant - cow/female

she- bitch fox - she-,'nanny-goat
IO
PRACTICE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND
\\-hen the final -o ts
domino
echo
domint
1.4. NUMBER
more In English, singular means one and plural means form of singular the making up plurals is to add -' o' -"i to than one' The general rule of
the.
embargo
noun' The suffix -s
emba hero - heroes mosquito - mos{
echoes
ispronounced/s/afterthesounds/k/-books;lfl-laughs;lpl-cups;/t/-pets; /0/_months,orlzlaftervowels-letters,eyes,taxisandthesounds/b/-pubs;ldlheads;/g/-dogs;/l/-girts;lml-rooms;/n/-hens;/r1l-mornings;/v/-waves' after the sounds /s/ - dresses i lll - bushes; The suffix -.r, pronou"tiJ /izl is used nouns garages ; lzl -vases' as well as after some /d3l - villages; /tJ'i - benches ; l3l ending in -o: heroes.
ThefollowingrulesconcerningthepluralofnounsinEnglishmustbeobserved: to the singular form : day add ;s1. Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel simply -v in -v nr"ceoeo oy^1::Ton"nt change the days ; bov - uovr] ittii" irt"t" "nding be must Mention enemy - enemies' to -ie and then add -s: country - countries; group' so that such nouns as consonant a as made of the fact ,ttu'-q"- is reckoned colloquyorsoliloquywillhavetheformcolloquiesandsoliloquies,respectively,in
the Plural.
lhcre are some :rl rrchipelago
archiPel:
:-3\os:buffalo-buffa :Limmandoes; domint j:ra"sco - frescos/fresc ot :Cos haloes: lasso - l'
:. :
nentoslmementoes it-,letto - stilettos stile ::rnandoes ; volcano
\{ost nouns end:::
must say names ending in -y get -s' So we Quotation words and proper I'm interested in all the whys and therefores' There are three Marys in our family'
However,wechangeytoieinsuchexamplesas:thetwoSicilies;thePtolemies. 2.Nounsendingin-ogeteither-sor-eswhenturnedintotheplural.Thesuffix-swill be added to: a vowel: a) those nouns whose final -o is preceded by
bamboo - bamboos cameo - cameos cuckoo - cuckoos kangaroo
roofs; safe - safe Jere are 3 fgs --'' el : r-i - calves ; elf self-s<l r:tj-loaves; u:if - q'olves. But ; .\i the same tine' : -:']: beef - beeG rwarves; handkerc
.
5fe-fifes:grief
nuncio
- kangaroos nuncios
:r{ _ turfs/turves - \ouns ending il d'

cloth-cloths' sloth - sloths' nonths. or (0:
:
curio
embrYo
- curios - embrYos folio - folios

b)
oratorio - oratorios portfolio --portfolios radio - radios

scenario
:luns whose Plr
studio origin: some nouns ending in -o' of foreign
scenarios
studios
brothes (brr:: I >:0s)/(a:0zt' lar sheath (ji:i: :i:d)
albino - albinos alto - altos canto - cantos casino - casinos dynamo - dYnamos
magneto
magnetos
rvreaths
merino - merinos rondo - rondos
: :
The noun house
soprano - sopranos tango - tangos
photos (( photograph); pianos c) abbreviations: kilos (< kilogramme);
(<
mouse - mice ' - .\ number t'i :-l lid Plural:
S.'me of the ::: l: same ccT'--..'-
Pianoforte)
d)propernames:Filipino-Fitipinos;Eskimo-Eskimos;Ilindoo-Hindoos;
Romeo
nOUfIS
fi:=:--
roe
salmo:
Romeos
THE NOUN
l'7
When the final -o is preceded by a consonant, the suffix -es
will be
added
domino
r- The general rule of i- noun. The suffix -s : - cups ; /t/ - pets ; *:ls ibl - pubs ; /d/ rornings; lvl -waves. resses; /J/-bushes;
echo - echoes embargo - embargoes
dominoes
domino
echo
dominoes
echoes
embargo
hero - heroes mosquito - mosquitoes
hero - heroes mosquito - mosquitoes
embargoes
:.i
as after some nouns
: :uust
be observed:
.lrsular form: day

ries. Mention must
:-Tonant change the -y

be
as
There are some nouns ending in -o that may have both -s and -es for the plural : i--:hipelago - archipelagos/archipelagoes; banjo - banjos/banjoes; bravo - bravos/ : :rroes ; buffalo - buffalos/buffaloes ; calico - calicos/calicoes ; cornmando - commandos/ : .:nmandoes ; domino - dominos/dominoes ; flamingo - flamingos/flamingoes ; 'i:sco - frescos/frescoes ; ghetto - ghettos/ghettoes ; grotto - grottos/grottoes ; halo :"i*os/haloes ; lasso - lassos/lasoes ; manifesto - manifestos/manifestoes , memento : . nentos/mernentoes ; motto - mottos/mottoes ; portico - porticos/porticoes ; ,i .tto - stilettos/stilettoes; tobacco - tobaccos/tobaccoes; tornando - tornandos/ ,::andoes; volcano - volcanos/volcanoes i zero - zeros/zeroes.
..: that such nouns

:.'JSI
I'fost nouns ending in -f or -fe get -s in the plural: belief
quies. respectively, in
J SAY
:
:ilies
.:,i.
the ptolemies. The suffix -s will
Iaroos
t
:l os
olios
ri os
etos
5
ros
:::cgraph);
Hindoo
pianos
Hindoos;
:-oofs;safe-safes. lirere are a few nouns that change -f or -fe into -ves when turned into the plural : . ;.: - calves ; elf - elves ; half - halves ; knife - kniyes ; leaf - leaves ; life - lives ; ':r-loaves;self-selves;sheaf-sheayes;shelf-shelyes;thief-thieves;wife-wives; u, -; - rvolves. But we say "still lifes" (: pictures representing inanimate objects). .1i the same time, some nouns with the same ending may have either -s or -ves in the : -:.1: beef - beefs (kinds of beef)/beeves (carcasses of oxen); dwarf - dwarfs/ : q rrves ; handkerchief - handkerchifs/handkerchieves ; scarf - scarfs/scarves ; -:: - turfs/turves : wharf - wharfs/wharves. - \.runs ending in -th get -s in the plural. The ending -ths is pronounced either /0s/ : ;loth - cloths ; death - deaths ; faith - faiths ; heath - heaths ; moth - moths ; sloth - sloths; birth - births; hearth - hearths; length - lengths; month nonths, or (dz) : bath - baths ; mouth - mouths ; path - paths. There are some =:uns whose plural form -ths may be pronounced either /0s/ or ldzl : broth (brcO) crothes (brc:0)/(brc0z); cloths - clothes (klc0s)/(klau0z); earth (e:0) - earths :0s)/(a:02); lath (la:0) - taths (la:0s)/(la:02); oath (euO) - oaths (eu0z)/(auDz); sheath (Ji:e) - sheaths (Ji:0s)/(Ji:dz); truth - truths (tru:0s)/(tru:02); wreath :'ri; - wreaths (ri:Os)/(ri:dz) : l:e noun house /haus/ has the form houses lhauzizl in the plural. ' S:me of the nouns that have irregular plurals are : brother - brethren (members of ::.i same community) ; child - children ; foot - feet ; goose - geese ; louce - lice ; nouse - mice; man - men; tooth - teeth; woman - women; ox - oxen. - -. rumber of nouns get "zero plural" that is they have the same form in both singular -d plural: : nouns referring to hunting and fishing : carp ; cod; game ; grouse ; hake ; plaice ; roe ; salmon ; sheep ; snipe. However, when the idea of "varieties" or "breeds
- beliefs; ctiff - cliffs; :ife-fifes; grief -griefs;gulf -gulfs;muff -muffs;proof -proofs; roof -
18
of" is implied such nouns can be used in the plural : deer - deer(s) ; buffalo buffallo(s); herring - herring(s); mackerel - mackerel(s); trout - trout(s).
3an-ser"l'ani
flarmer
:. ;s.'; i;;;-i
get
b) nationality names:
Ceylonese Ceylonese; Chinese Chinese; Japanese Japanese; Portuguese - Portuguese; Swiss - Swiss ; Vietnamese - Vietnamese.
-Templar
- [i
i;;
.
c) nouns
expressing number or measurement: two dozen boxes ; five hundred dollars ; three thousand people ; ten million books ; two gross of stamps ; five score pencils ; three hundred weight of coal ; four joke of cattle ; three brace of partridges; several head of cattle; five gross of nails.
! -;: :'::::.:s
:,: f Pr . conon
::
r;:: -'tn ledge . Iuc :::lsense . nr lol
These nouns may occur in the plural when they express an indefinite number: hundreds of pages ; millions of dollars ; dozens of boxes. Besides, when such indefinite indicators of number as a few, many, several, some precede the nouns hundred; thousand ; million, these nouns can have either a zero plural or a regular form. But we must say: many thousand books or many thousands of books. And, one must note the difference in meaning between: Some hundreds of people (: several hundred)
and Some hundred people
* heat
$.eather
;::-: :l :e:e: i; : aCr ice furniturt

iiash of lighteni
:,:::-.:-::e A::::-:
c:
:--'^lr(
:,
:- ;
(=
about a hundred)
prjamas . :.:--S :: f"
sl
8.
Nouns that are part of compound adjectives denoting measure, quantity, etc. also get
zero plural when they precede another noun: a two-hour exam; a ten-month
:-";:SS::.]., rickets.
pliers
calendar;athree-daytrip; afive-footladder; afour-cylindercar;afive-minute

conversation; a two-minute pause ; a three-mile walk ; a five-year (old) child a two-week vacation; a five-pound note; the eight-hour day.
;
scal
:-.:eS --:
rnarbles
S.
9.
The plural of compound nouns follows the patterns

a) the
n
S:
final element is made plural, especially if it is a one-word noun (armchair armchairs ; bedroom - bedrooms ; goldfield - goldlields ; horseman - horsemen ; hoursewife - hoursewives ; pickpocket - pickpockets), but also when the
elements of the compound are not themselves nouns (breakdown
:.i::i3S::
cr bernatics
g] mna-itics
mathemati(
tactics
-:--+:-i'-:
drawback
grown-up - grown-ups; good-for-nothing - good-for-nothings; ne 6er-do well - ne'er-do.wells; merry-go-round - merry-go-munds ; outbreak- outbrrcaks ;
outcomes); when b) the first element of a compound is a noun followed by a prepositional phrase, adverb or adjective, it is the noun that takes the plural form: brotheroutcome
drawbacks
; dugout -
dugouts
; forget-me-not -
breakdowns forget-me-nots
; ;
. the
-i
ineieiuert
:--r:_
s!r
eepings
.
commander-in-chief - commanders-in-chief ; editor-in-chief - editors-in-chief; father-in-law - fathers-in-law; justice-of-peace - justices-of-peace ; looker-on - lookers-on; man-of-war - men-of-war ; mother-in-law - mothers-in-law; passer-by - passers-by ; c) when the compound is made up of a noun and an adjective, the noun generally gets the plural form, although in everyday speech plurals with -s are often met: attorneys-general-attorney-generals; knights-errant-knight-errants; poets-laureate - poet-laureates ; sergents-major - sergent-majors ; d) when the first element of a compound is one of the words : man, woman, lord, gentleman, knight, yeoman, both elements of the compound are made plural:
-in-law
brothers-in-law
iommons
r
aluablcs
:-r_
-.a^5
eadqirarr t
^-- .l-5 --L.-i j- r
F
thanhs
-:
. wt
-r.--
-1.1-.-'-
:
:lrs.t
THE NOUN
19
r - deer(s); buffalo ; trout - trout(s).

Chinese; Japanese
man-servant
farmer
tnamese
:,oxes
gentlemen farmers ; Iord Justice - Lords Justices ; Knight-Templar - Knights-Templars ; yeoman-farner - yeomen-farmers.
men-servants
woman-teacher
women-teachers
gentleman
Vietnamese.
gross of stamps ; five : :attle; three brace of
five hundred
"r
lndehnite number:
. many, several, some :a:r have either a zero ks or many thousands
A few nouns are used only in the singular being called Singularia Thntum nouns. Such examples of nouns are: advice ; barley ; bread ; business ; butter ; clergy copper; cotton ; flour; furniture; happiness ; intelligence ; income; information knowledge; luck; luggage; maize; meat; merchandise; milk; money nonsense; nylon; peace; police; progress; remorse; rice; sand; tobacco *heat; weather; l,ondon; Europe. None of these nouns can be preceded by the lndefinite article a/an and, as some of them have a collective meaning, when we \\'ant to refer to the singular, we must use the words piece or item, etc: a piece of advice/furniture/luck/nonsense, a piece/item of information ; a loaf of bread ; a flash of lightening.
::
{ number
a)
'11
of nouns (Pluralia Tantum) have only a plural form:
'e.rarn; a ten-month iercar;afive-minute

fir.e-rear (old) child
:,
. q'Jantity, etc. also get
.) names of diseases or illnesses :
of dress: braces; breeches; drawers; jeans; knickers; pants; pyjamas ; shorts ; tails ; tights ; trousers ; parts of the body : entrails ; genitals ; thews ; vitals ;
articles
measles
mumps
rheumatics
hysterics
l)
e
rickets
tools and instruments consisting of two parts names of some games : billiards marbles ; ninepins ; skittles ;
names
bellows
binoculars
glasses
pliers; scales; scissors; spectacles; tongs;
cards
bowls
dominoes
draughts
,::d
noun (armchair lorseman - horsemen;
of sciences or subjects: astrophysics; aesthetics; ballistics; civics;
; . bur also when the ido*'n - breakdowns;

not - forget-me-nots ; -nothings ; ne 'er-do outbreak - outbreals ;
cybernatics gymnastics tactics
mathematics; optics; phonetics; physics; politics; sonics; statistics
diplomatics ; dynamics hidrostatics ; informatics

;
;
;
economics
electronics
ethics
;
;
kinematics
; kinetics;
linguistics
g) h)
therapeutics
geographical names : the Alps
; the Carpathians ; the Highlands; the Indies
the Netherlands;
,ed b1' a prepositional plual form: brotherrmmanders-in-chief ; rs-in-law ; justice-ofof-war - men-of-war;
i) J)
s : diggings ; doings ; savings ; surroundings some nouns ending in -ing sweepings ; takings ; winnings ; some adjectives turned into nouns by adding the suffix -(e)s : antics ; chemicals
commons; necessaries; news; odds; Olympics; riches; theatricals

valuables:
miscellaneous
). !i.
(: flag); contents; corps; customs; fireworks; funds; ;

innings
alms
annals
auspicies
barracks
clothes
colours
the noun generally '*:fi -s are often met : inight-errants ; poets-
headquarters
manners
means
remains
gallows; sands ; spirits ;
thanks; works,
Some of the foreign nouns have been absorbed into English having a normal English
Ejors; man, woman, lord, :'-:rd are made plural:
plural, others have preserved their foreign plural, and others have both English toreign plurals:
and
20
The Orisin Lansuase
Intin
a) -us
Singular Noun
bonus campus
English Plurul
bonuses campuses
Foreign Plural
The
Oigin Language
-il-ora/-era
-G is'
-eslizzl
circus
genius cactus focus
circuses
geniuses cactuses focuses
genii cacti foci
fungus
nucleus
funguses
nucleuses
fungi
nuclei
radius
syllabus
terminus alumnus
bacilus
radiuses syllabuses terminuses
radii
syllabi
stimulus b) -a
termini alumni bacili stimuli

genera ;
--rO
- -fl
-ae
genus
arena
dilemma
idea
arenas dilemmas
ideas
'y
lch
_l.ru
-eaux/-ieu
tf *\
era
sonata antenna
eras
sonatas
antennas
antennae
larva
c) -um
-a
vertebra album
vertebras albumus aquariums
larvae vertebrae
aquarium curriculum forum

medium memorandum stadium addendum bacterium
aquaria
curriculums
forums mediums memorandums
stadiums
curricula
(fora) media memoranda stadia
addenda
:--i
bacteria
erratum
ovum
errata
ova
!:netimes, the t$t
stratum
d) -ex/-ix
strata
apexes apices
, nre
::,fmUla
fdiesr=r--
-ices
ldi..,:,.
( {(
( (
formula-' formulae
geniuses
apex
index appendix
indexes appendixes
indices appendices
matrix
matrixes
matrices
lenlus
genii
THE NOUN The Origin Language
Foreign Plural
analyses axes
bases
crises
lcto::
i cactl
! ioci I fungi i nuclei
I radii isyllabi Itermini ialumni i bacili
diagnosis
diagnoses
ellipsis
hypothesis
oasis
ellipses hypotheses
oases
paranthesis thesis
-on
parantheses
theses
-a
demons
automatons
phenomena phenomenon ;-t.nch
]stimuli
i Benera
-.u.t
-eaux/-ieu
|ea\
plateau portmanteau bureau tableau

adieu
plateaus
portrnanteaus
bureaus tableaus adieux
plateaux portmanteaux bureaux tableaux
antennae
larvae vertebrae
-: - zero plural (in
*'u'i6inoJfiutar
=-*ît;
:tlian -: - -l
chassis
^^:tl'lr;sil
plural in speech: chamots I 1i t'r*cizl'; corDs lkcJ - lkc"zl l'lnsizl
aquaria
curricula
(fora)
media
soprano
sopranos
virtuoso libretto
solo
virtuosos
(virtuosi)
librettos
solos
libretti
(soli)
memoranda
stadia addenda
temPo
tempos
temPi
:
bacteria
errata
ova
strata
apices
meanings forms of nouns have different Sometimes, the two plural ( dies .--- (= menl stamps for making money) wood used in games of chane) ^" cubes boue or wo ^"x'" ^f of h^tre small oi"t
) " clle \
' (:
indices appendices
matrices
(: forms of words) formula I to.*.,t"" (: mathematical term) great mental powers) ( geniuses (= persons of unusually . genrus t genii 1= good or evil spirits)
(
formulas
22
index {
( (
indexes indeces
(:
tables of contents)
(= algebrical signs) -. ( mediums (= people claiming medium{ ( media (= means; agencies)

penny
effect ::su1t, consequenc: communication with spirits)
( (
(: individual coins) Pence (: collective value)

Pennies
ground :e solid surface
-: Earth)
/a)
staff
cloth
(: a set of five horizontal lines used in music) f cloths (: different kinds ofcloth) ( clothes (: articles of dress)
(
staves
:
staffs
(=
a body
ofpersons; sticks, poles)
.,,..
sisn oi::; alitrat,e:
( u; epistLe
manner ;3) )
14. There are some nouns whose plural form has different meanings
age
ai.i
compass
- The Middle Ages (: affected manners - airs compasses
rinute
,: ace of time)
to give oneself airs)
(instrument for navigation)
f a) instrurnents for navigation < (b) instruments for drawing circles (a)
hues
;Jtn ,:iiering)
:remise . ::oposition frc:-,
colour
(hue)
colours
' ::;h
a conclus:t-i-
(b)
regimental flag
content (that which is

contained)
- contents
(the list of chapters)
luarter , .: iourth)
sand
a) habits
:,:i particles
;
of
custom (habit) damage
customs
b) import duties
,. ::.ished rock
ipectacle
also the body people who collect these and
their place of activity damages (compensation for injury or loss)
: -:.:c shou )
;- rli
(injury or harm that impairs value of usefulness)

draught
(current of air)
,..".
draughts
Godf
fa)
currents of air
b) a game played on a board with twenty four pieces
;.:3:s. figures ar:
-.::
Plural b'i aJi
drawer
(sliding compartrnent as in a piece of furniture)
drawers
( a) sliding compartments ,
\ou must:::.. Her d's a:e :-':

Such ha'-s
lhr /-n.
U; a garment for the lower part of the body with separate ponion for each leg
',,
.::
..1
-rr-
.\11
the \LP.s
THE NOUN
.ffect
:3SUlt, C0nsequence)
effects
fa)
results
iairirs)
sfound re solid surface
grounds -
[b; goods. personal Property ( a) enclosed land attached to a house
{t . b) dregs, especially of coffee

.
: Earth)
( a) sign of the
.etter
alPhabet
- letters {
f a) signs of
b; ePistles
alPhabet
( u; epistte
( c; learning and literature ("a man of letters")
nanner
.,.
manners
e),)
f (
a) ways; customs
b; uet auiour
a) sPaces of time
,:gs
nirute
i:ace of time)
pain
minutes
{( b; secretary's record of proceedings ut a meeting
ro give oneself airs)

.-:dilUll
iift-eriry)
rremise
( a) sufferings . - Parns I b; trouble, effort

( a) things assumed -, ----:^^^ { - Dremtses ^ t b) buildings
as basis
.,'l,ne.ircles
for an agreement
:
.
proposition from hicir a conclusion is drawn)
quarter
rne fourth)
quarters
a) fourths b) allotecl place or station, especially
for troops sands (beach)
:
:
.and ::ny particles : crushed rock)

:he body of
:hese and
::)
spectacle :ublic show)
(
spectacle.
t
I
a) oublic shows Oi eye_glasr"s
:.'.in or
loss)
a) souls
rpirit srui; God)
- spirits {
b; alcoholic drinks
( .) stat. of mind, temper
.
:
rOard
i:es
.-.'i-r part of the body

-
t-r
r panh lac
3rrers, figures and abbreviations as well as other substantivized parts of speech are ::ade plural by adding the suffix -s : You must cross all Your t's. Her dts are too small. Such hats were in fashion in the 1950's. The children were walking in twos or in threes (= two by two/three by three) All the M.P.s (= Members of Parliament) were present.
24
There were a lot of V.I.P.s (= very important persons) on the plane' We'll listen to all your pros and cons. She knows I have had many upr and downs in my life'
-----'l-_ " ! ,rl: Jr:-
Each
E!.erJ
Eithe
But the abbreviations made up of isolated letters make the plurals by doubling that
\eitb
. a -t.,, -1;.-'l! --- :- ^,-,-rl -rrû
- -- -.t
letter: c.
n.
(: chaPter) - cc. 1: page) _ pp.
\eitt
--. -,- '"r
. - -- 1-p 1\:
1.4.1. Concord between Subject and Predicate

1. The general rule is that a singular
takes a plural verb: subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject
\tr:q
.--l -! _';^ -' -.--! - :]: ! 'A :;\l-i
Cttr
2.
This girl sPeaks English. These girls sPeak English. Collective nouns may be followed either by a singular verb or a plural one. When such a noun is regarded as a whole it takes a singular verb:
-lr-ii
The
Tom
My familY is called Smith. but when it is thought of as a group of individuals, it takes a plural verb : My familY ar at home. However, such collective nouns as : cattle, clergy, people, police, public are always followed by a plural verb.
The cattle were grazing in the field. The police are investigating this case' Two singular subjects connected by either ... or; neither ... nor; not only ... but also; no less than ...; and not are followed by a singular verb: Either the boy or the girl knows the answer' But when one subject is singular and the other one plural, the "rule of proximity" must be observed: Neither the teacher nor the pupils are in the classroom' Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the classroom' Two or more subjects connected by and take a plural verb : The cat and the dog are under the table. However, when the two subjects are regarded as a whole, a "single idea", they are followed by a singular vcrb: Fish and chips is a traditional English food. Whisky and soda is Tim's favourite drink. My neighbour and friend comes here every day' (one person) trly neighfour and my friend come here every day. (two different persons) The same thing happens to nouns denoting units of measurement which t;rke a singular verb when they are preceded by a numeral: Fifty pounds is a lot of money. (= sum) Five years is a long time. (= period) TwentY miles is a long distance.
Jale
{ f:1 li:3
'-r:, :tlnt:
fUe
Tbe
d
-_: - ---.i -^*-l
l:
-,L -J
Tbe
3.
AN
! -rrts:
:' . S::,:'-l
It
" J: -4.;..
ii
T:L
4.
i'tngulari.:
kl1,ru ledg
\,-" K:t
Fluralia ]
.d!' --
i-
-i
--
lbemical
.;;'
3etr r:n::
- -- i-=r
:-: :-
:-: rl
-.:-.: :ir-'+t!.
lL
:::;-
i:
m,arhema
THE
NOUN
25
:e
plane.
Asingularnounprecededbyeach,either,everyorneithertakesasingularverb:
Eiach boY tells us a joke' Either book is interesting. EverY student knows this answer' Neither solution was good'
i::ls by doubling that
be followed either by a singular When a plural noun is preceded by neither of, it can
or a plural verb:
Neither of the girls lives/live in this house' the plural whenever they refer The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are used in to more than one person: Many pcople lost their lives in World War II' greater than one unit: one and a half years'
The plural must be used with anything The words with, together with, as well as, in additiorr subject do not affect the irumber of the subject: The wornan with a large hat is very pretty' Friday' Tom, together with his sister, gces to the cr:ncert every milk' of lot a drinks her brother, Jane. as well as ,,formal subject" of a sentence is there, the predicate must agree with the $:hen the
: :nd a plural subject
to, including following
a plural one. When
:llral
verb:
-real subject":
ice. public are alwaYs
nor
l:
:
: not only ... but
preceded by the definite article the The noun number takes a singular verb when it is and a plural verb when it is preceded by a: The number of mistakes is very large' A number of people were waiting for me'
There is a book on the table' There are many trees in the garden'
-- when
the pronoun
it
is used in identifying or emphatic constructions,
it is followed
"rule of proximity"
by a singular verb: It is these boys who broke my window' person as the word it modifies: The relative pronoun takes the same number and
Thisisoneofthemostinterestingbooksthathaveeverbeenwritten.
-.singulariaTantumnouns(advice;information;furniture;damage;luggage;
single idea", they are
.
verb: Xnowt"age, machinery, etc') are followed by a singular Your information is very interesting'
KerrY's luggage was verY heavY'
pluralia Tanturn nouns will be follorved either by plural verbs when they name things when they are one of these: ntade of two parts (glasses; scissors; trousers)' or
'ison)
chemicals;contents;ashes;riches;surroundings,etc.,orbysingularverbs cards)
a
Jifferent persons)
iiement which hrke
draughts ; i'hen they name diseases (measles ; mumps), games (billiards ; or by plural singular by either t, *o"t ; news : ; or when they are one of these "t..
r.erbsafternamesofsciences,sub.iects(acoustics-thesingularverbreferstothe
science, the plural '.,erb refers to the acoustic features
science, the plural verb refers to mathematics, etc.), or after iuch nouns as : means; series
refers
to the
phonetics - the singular verb the phonetic features; physics'
species'
John's birthdaY
rron ? (the woman)

essive
form of the
see the ... signal. .: . .. welfare should i. ,babies) 6. The .. ' ]d in the staff room
Chapter 2
THE ARTICLE
TherearethreearticlesinEnglish:TheDefiniteArticle,ThelndefiniteArticleand
The Zero Article.
I I must buY some

:,i sugar at (the shoP ie baker). 5. Father
tave a coat made at :i at (the workshoP
shop owned bY the

at
l,'. I had a haircut
2.1. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

TheDefiniteArticlethehasthesameformforsingularandplural,andforallgenders: op-tn' fh: t: pronounced /0a/ before The boy is not at home; The window' u" train, or /0i : / before vowel sounds or before Jonsonant sounds: the book; the hat; the
a! arm's distance
. 9. a stone's thrcw;
rmuteh:theapple;theeye;thehonour;theheir'Sometimes'ifwewanttodraw /0i: / even before consonants: to the noun that foilows, the is pronounced
artention
:legului fratelui meu

recent Dre avion, am avut o
nele au fost
eramenului de ieri.
pi o odihnl de zece r lntAlni in trei zile.

:ult mai bine" te
l. i,
Is he the singer you were telling me about? The Definite Article is used: or it is well known: When the noun has already been mentioned interesting' . . Yesterday I saw a film' The film was very we are in) room the of (The door ! Open the door, please one" : the earth only nouns which are considered unique' "the
Before
; the Bible ;
the skY
t$o forms of the
-rrcdrii. 3. SPuneli-i il;ament Pacientului.

-am explicat
relative clause Before a noun that is particularized by a This is the boY who broke mY window' -t. Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase: The caPital of France The house with large windows This is the road to Swansea'
the sun.
:
biielilor
:r mele in fiecare an.
of a class: 5. Before a singular noun used as a representative

The elePhant is a big animal' the definite article is no longer used: When such nouns are turned into the plural, ElePhants are big animals'
Tom
pirinlilor t[i ?
i.Beforeacommonnounfollowedbyapropernounwhichidentifiesit:thenovelist expressing professions usually follow Hemingway, the ptay Macbeth' But' nouns
44

the proper names and are preceded by the : Brown, the lawyer Fanny, the milkwoman ; ; Jackson, the singer. Similarly, nouns in apposition take the before them : Bucharest.
the capital of Romania; Lucy, the girl we met yesterday.
: :.
TTIE T\
:
The United Kingdom; The Netherlands. In a few cases the cornmon noun that (river).
Before the name of a country made up of smaller entities or which has a plural form
accompanies the geographical name has been dropped, being easily understood, and then the geographical name is preceded by the: The Sahara (desert), The Mississippi
.-,-....a11
l;l:::iella. a fat
-_,__..-^.1
\-r --
8.
9.
11
or islands in of-phrase : The Thames, The Btack Sea ; The pacific (ocean) The carpathians; The Rocky Mountains; The Hebrides; The Isle of Man. Before names of ships, trains, aeroplanes: The
Before names
of rivers, seas, oceans,
chains
of mountains, group of
islands
;
{r. ?ion.-il' ',r'::: a mutg h

! -: -:-iL.r
Titanic; The Flying Scotsman. 10. Before names of shops, hotels, buildings, institutions : The Ritz Hotel The University of Florida; The White House.
-::-,.3i
:
-a
!-:
habl
-- '.'' --3
llds a:ln,aai_--f
Before names of persons to particularize a certain person The John I'm talking about is not your friend.
" - ---.l+-
12. Before plural names to refer to a group as a whole: The Browns The Tudors the dynasty).
(:
(:
the family);
.\ ban
13. Before adjectives, Past Participles the rich the poor; the dead (= the ones that are missing).
or Gerunds used to represent a whole class: the accused; the grayhaired ; the missing
,,
-{ gall, A hear -{ slee

F: l-i:_ -.'
14. Before names
The French.
of nationalities to refer to a group as a whole : The English;

;
: - ;,1 --
;T
the second; the tenth; the last. 16. Before names of musical instruments : to play the piano/violin/guitar. 17. Before names of publications : The Guardian ; The Times ; The Long Beach press
Telegram.
15. Before superlatives and ordinal numbers : the best ; the longest ; the most interesting
the
first;
18' Before names of days, months, seasons, when the reference is made to a special day, month, season, or when these names are preceded by the prepositions in oi during:
I remember the Sunday we left London. The winter of 1954 lasted five months. I think I mer her ir the January of 1980. She visited us several times during the spring of that year. 19. Before historical epochs or documents : The Stone Age; The Middle Ages The ; French Revolution; The Magna Carta.
20. In a number ofphrases: by the way; on the one hand/on the other hand; in the country; in the mountains; at the seaside; for the time being; in the meanwhile,
on the whole; in the morning; in the afternoon the merrier; to tell the truth.
; in the evening ;
the more ...
THE ARTICLE
45
a-nnv.
the milkwoman;
iore them: Bucharest,
:.].
.::
:
THE INDM,F'INITE ARTICI.E
;;h has a plural form
13 common noun that
:asily understood, and 'sen), The Mississippi
Indefinite Article a/an is, historically, an adjective, being a weak form of one. A is -::ounced lel in fluent speech and is used before consonant sounds : a tlook; a new when speaking with speciai emphasis, a is
:
urbrella; a forgotten story. Sometimes, :::rounced /eii, with or without a pause

An, pronounced
::.
islands he Pacific (Ocean) ;
group
of
The Isle of Man. r FIf ing Scotsman.
The Ritz Hotel;
And do you call this a /ei/ car ? lanl , lnl or lnnl (when emphasized), is used before vowel sounds or :,:.:re a mute h: an elephant ; an apple; an hour; an heir; an honest man. Some ' -:Js beginning with h rnay be preceded either by a or by an, at the discretion of the :,=.ker: a habit; a hotel; a historian, or an habit; an hotel; an historian. When -::r rvords are preceded by an, their initial h is not pronounced or is pronounced softly. The Indefinite Article can be used only with singular countable nouns, irrespective of -:..: gender: a boy ; a girl ; au egg. A few piuralia tantum nouns can also be preceded
1 a an:
wns
se
(:
the family)
A barracks was seen in the distance.

;
aired cle
nt a whole class : , the missing
A gallows was erected in the centre of the town. A headquarters was established near the city. A steel-works has just been closed.
The Indefinite Article is used
:
The English;
;
\\'hen a countable noun is mentioned for the first time :
he most interesting
r
re
guitar.
Long Beach Press
I looked out of the window and I saw a big dog. 3efore a singular countable noun used as a representative of a whole class: A driver is a person who drives a car. \\'hen we want to classify people in terms of :
.i
r
their origin:
He is a Mexican. She is an American.
Lade
to a special day, irions in or during :
r their occupation
tr
am a doctor. You are a teacher.
3ut, if the noun denotes a title or office that can only be held by one person at a time, ':e Indefinite Article is no longer used
:
]tiddle Ages;
The
Jack was elected captain of the team. (not: "a captain") As chairman of the society, he took the floor first. (not: "a chairman") tsesides, the Indefinite
other hand ; in the in the meanwhile;
Article is not used after the verb to turn when it means to
recome
aing; the more ...
She used to be a teacher, but then she turned singer.
:,
rheir religion : She's a Catholic. He's an Orthodox.
46
d) their politics:
Tom is a Republican.
But if the noun foll,
What weatt
However,
4. With
the meaning
"one", "no matter which": Mother, can I have an apple ?
He had nere
it is con
A cube is a solid body having six equal square faces. Although a/an and one are interchangeable when referring to : a) whole numbers : a/one hundred/thousand/million :
* -
Before a noun pre He came to
She gave rnc
b) fractions : a/one quarter/third/half; c) money: a/one dollar/pound; d) weight/measure : a/one kilo ; a/one foot/metre,
they are not interchangeable when:
In a number of
as a rule as a reward
PJ
as a matter of
fr
a) we count and we want to oppose one to two or more:

The old man has only one leg.
b)
we want to denote any one. In this case a/an and not one must be used: Can you lend me a pen, please?
5. Before Miss/Mr./Mrs.
* surname, to denote a person known only as a name: A Mrs. Williamson is waiting for you.
6. In expressions of measurements, when we refer to one unit of measurement in terms

of another. In this case, when we want to emphasize each, we use per instead of alan'. a) price in relation to weight: 90 p a/per kilo ; b) distance in relation to speed: 80 km an/per hour; c) distance in relation to fuel consumption: 50 miles a/per gallon ; d) frequency in relation to time: twice a/per week.
7. With the meaning "the same"

8.
at a distance at a blow at a discount/Pn at a bargain at a time a long/short tim all of a sudden in a loud/low vo on an average on an equal foot of a size once upon a ti-m once in a blue n three times a wt n-ith a view to on a large/small it's a pity
Birds of a feather flock together. (the same feather) The two dogs are much of a size. (the same size) Before a noun in apposition, when the person or thing is considered to be unfamiliar John, a friend of mine, saw this film,
She has a little money to spare. We have a few friends here.
10.
:
it's a shame
to keep a secret to keep an e)'e o to be in a hurr.r
9. With little and few:
:.3. THE ZERI

:
In exclamatory sentences beginning with what, such or so What a difficult problem ! What a day ! My boss is such an ass !
The news gave me such a shock.
-: ls used : . Before abstracl x love ; hate etc.) Most PeoPi

I
But,
if
Mention must be made of the fact that the Indefinite Article precedes the adjective when used with such and it follows the adiective when used with so :
He was such a good worker He was so good a worker !
!
the refere The death
oi sno gold; iron; . Coffee is I

Before names
THE ARTICLE
4'7
:{owever,
the Indefinite Article is not used But if the noun following what or such is uncountable, What weather we are having at the moment ! theirs' He had never before met such kindness as pity is an uncountable noun. although say what a pity,
it is correct to
3efore a noun Preceded bY as: He came to the ball dressed as a pirate'

She gave me a camera as a Present'
ln a number of Phrases : as a rule

as a reward as a matter
. :e used:
'SSaname:
i-:inent in terms
r: per instead
of
of fact at a distance at a blow at a discountiPremium at a bargain at a time a long/short time all of a sudden in a loud/low voice 0n an average on an equal footing of a size once upon a time once in a blue moon three times a week rrith a view to on a large/small scale it's a pity
to be in a temPer to be in a Position to have an aPPetite for
to have a head for
to have an oPPortunitY/a chance
to have a fancY for to have a right to to have a talent for
to have a headache/a Pain/a cough/ (but: to have toothache/earache/
rheumatism/influenza) to have a mind to
to give a hand just a moment to put an end to to make a fire to make a fool of oneself
to make a fortune to make a noise to make a fuss to take an interest in to take a Pride in to take a dislike to to take a seat
it's a shame .:
be unfarniliar
to keep a secret to keeP an eye on to be in a hurrY
3. THE ZERO ARTICLE

used love
:
3eforeabstractnounsusedinagenerarsense(life;death;freedom;liberty;
; hate etc.)
Most PeoPle fear death'
3ur,ifthereferenceismadetocertainabstractnouns'theyareprecededbythe:
::les .soi
the adjeotive
The death of this child saddened us very much' (milk 3efore names of materials used in a general sense ; iron; snow ; cotton ; wool etc')
Botd
; bread ; butter ;
coffee
Coffee is rather exPensive'
48
But:
The coffee you bought yesterday is very good.
3. Before
to be in debt
be1'ond reacl
plural nouns used in a general sense: Books are silent friends.

The books you lent me are very interesting.
br n'a1. of . ir from time t,

to mouth.
But:
4. Before names of meals used in a general sense : We have breakfast at 7 o'clock every morning.
:.1. EXERC
But:
The breakfast we had yesterday morning was delicious. 5. Before names of persons, names of towns, countries (made up of a single word) Robert ; Bucharest; Romania.
:
- {dd the btfo ;1..p ; 1. :;c r :-: ildal : 9 : : :ram: 15 B

=-rir>p-
But:
6.
?
The Hague; The Congo; The Gambia; The Yemen ; The Sudan. Before the nouns Cape, Lake, Mount: Cape Cod; Lake Windermere; Mount Everest. Before nouns in the possessive case or before a possessive adlective my hat. Before names of languages : Mike speaks English.
ll
Turn the fol

The
Jane's b\ouse
8.
9. Before
titles followed by a proper noun: Queen Elizabeth ; King Richard ; Doctor ; Lnrd Byron; President Bush. 10. Before such nouns as cook, nurse, teacher, gardener, milkman, etc. when they have the meaning "our cook/teacher/etc." Teacher is going to give us a test today. 11 . Before words like church, school, prison, hospital, market, bed, etc. when they are used for their primary purpose: to go to church (to a service) to go to school/university (as a student) to go to prison (as a Prisoner) to go to hospital (as a Patient)
Brown
:*
',\ I nk oe
-:=:-:;
"
The
tt
12.Before names of days, months, seasons, holidays : Monday is the first day of the week in Romania. February is the shortest month of the year. Children always look forward to Christmas.
m' ifo'; p[
l3.Before names of subjects, sciences My sister studies Music.
Physics
Chemistry, etc'
.
l4.Before means of transport: by air ; by bicycle ; by boat ; by bus ; by car by coach; by land ; by plane ; by sea ; by ship ; by train; by tube ; on foot. 15.In a number of stock phrases: arm in arm; face to face; from top to bottom: hand in hand ; to come to light ; to keep in mind ; to make fun of ; to make friends; at dawn/dusk/night; by day/night; in the face of danger; at anchor:
THE VERB
In steP-bY-steP lns::j -':: First, I tahe
1.1. TIIE SIMPLE PRESENT

1.1.1. Form
Affirmative
I/you/we/they speak He/she/it speaks
o
and Parsier l:-
'
In
sPorts commeil;:
lnterrogative
Do I/you/we/they speak
Does he/she/it speak?
?
(which are finished :'i is used for longer :;

The goal-ke::''
he shoots al; second hal; N[stase sert es Ndstase is ser
Negative
Negative-Interrogative Do I/you/we/they not speak? Don't I/you/we/they sPeak?

Does he/she/it not speak?
activitY)
I/you/we/they do not sPeak I/you/we/they don't speak.

He/she/it does not speak. He/she/it doesn't speak.
To exPress an
programme:
':l
The chamPr'-: The touris:s r
Doesn't he/she/it speak
5.
To exPress a furu:e
1.1".2. Use
1.
To express "eternal"/"general" truths, or tO make Statements Of general validity: Ice melts in the sun. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West'
a) in a If "sndilitrnii Your coust; b) in a dme claus' Tom will hi:
In Proverbs,
sar
la
e
2. To express
actions. Such actions are usually accompanied by the adverbs: every (day/week/month/year/, etc'), never, occasionally, often, sometimes, seldom, twice a week, usually, etc' We go to school every morning. (repeated)
repeated/habitual/permanent
Father smokes too much Jane works in a big factory. (habitual) (permanent)
DesPair gir WhY do
-0. In certain colrte\l:
1i:
se
,1 . In exclamatory
Here theY ct
There goes
3. In Direct
Speech, to introduce quotations:
But,
if
these st:tr
Shakespeare says:
"Not marble, nor the gilded monuments
4.
Of princes shall outlive this powerful rhyme". (Sonnet 55) Sometimes in giving the summary of a story, being called "Narrative"/"Historic"
Present
:
TheY're cor The tratn ts

theY contatn
-2. With the ver'r' tt -;
ln
went into the dark room and, suddenly, I hear a strange noise' But, in telling stories, both Simple Present and Present Continuous can be employed, although theri is a difference between their uses. While the Simple Present is used for the events that happen one after another (sees, meets, says, goes, etc.) the Present
a continuous lt-: The chilo:; The PuPli'
Continuous occurs with "background situations", that is with the things that are already happening when the story starts or at a certain moment of the story: The prince enters the cave and there he sees a witch. The witch is ttoiling something and is talking to a huge black cat that is looking at itself in a mirror.
But, when to gt.t What is gc
THE INDICATIVE
o.
In step-by-step instructions or demonstrations onion First, I take the potatoes and slice them. Then, I slice the tomatoes, fry the and parsiey in a little fat until the onions are translucent"' In sports commentaries. In this case the simple Present refers to quicker actions
:
(wfrlctr are finished before the sentences that described them). The Present Continuous is used for longer activities :
Thegoal-keeperpassestoMaradona,butHagiintercepts;HagitoLlcituqand
goals to nil in the he shoots and it,s a goal l The Romanians are leading by three second half. Ndstase serves ! (this very moment) continuing NIstase is serving in the game we are watching now. (the service is a
activitY)
To express an officially planned action or an action belonging to a

programme:
The championship starts next Saturday' (will start) The tourists visiithe British Museum on Friday morning. (will visit)
8.
settled
To express a future action
:.leral validity:
a) in a conditional clause: If your cousin comes here tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema' b) in a time clause whose action is simultaneous with another future action: Tom will like English grammar when he understands it'
In proverbs, saYings:
Despair gives courage to a coward.
10.
:r
\
usually accom-
er. occasionally,
11.
In certain contexts, especially in interrogative sentences, to render a modal hint: Why do you move so slowly ? (reproach) trn exclamatory sentences beginning with here or there :
Here they come ! There goes the train
I
:
But.
if
must be used these statements are not exclamatory, the progressive aspect
They're coming' The train is going now
:::i\e"/"Historic"
_i:
i2.
with the verb to continue and its
:.r ::
i::.ent
be employed, is used for :.: I the Present
equivalents (to go on, to keep on, etc.) as to use they contain in themselves the idea of continuity, and so, it is not necessary a continuous form: The children continue to write. The pupils go on reading'
What is going on there
?
But, when to go on means to happen, the continuous aspect must be used:
:hings that are - -t:3 stor)': ; ,r rtJir is boiling : ..s:.: in a mirror.
THE INDICATIVE
TJ
':
do a lot ofexercises
1.2. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

1.2.1. Form
Affirmative
Interrogative
Am
'-i rvash your hands./I ::k.iI 6. The boys fly

.s every evening./You
Sunday./They
I am/tr'm speaking
You are/You're sPeaking
We are/We're sPeaking They are/TheY're sPeaking
He is/He's speaking
She is/She's speaking
speaking
? ?
Are you/we/theY sPeaking

Is he/she/it sPeaking
?
Ir is/It's speaking
-.lits to the map now. :,.lntain now 5. I am : low. 7. The people
Negative
Negative-Interro gative Am I not sPeaking ? Are you/we/th"Y nolPgSling ?-Aren't vou/we/theY sPeaking ?
Is he/she/it not sPeaking ? Isn't he/she/it sPeaking ?
::s now. 9. I am not ::e not dancing now. ,"::ing the roof of his
.s not rising now.
I am not/I'm not sPeaking

You /we/they are not/aren't speaking He/she/it is not/isn't sPeaking
i.2.2. Use ,. To express an action which

r;s
song./I 4. Tom
i--. rn rhis factory./his :ne piano./my sister
progress started before the present moment, which is in in the future' This form of the at the moment of speaking, and which will terminate of the action is limited' The feeling of immediate
verb indicates that the duration present is often emphasized by just and now:
-s 3. Do you study
-j:-
:,;:
-< Does your father

ar home ? (Yes) 'res) 10. Does
The sun is shining in the skY now'. 'fhe pupil is jasl writing the exerclse' their meaning is understood The words 3ust and now are no longer mentioned when Look, the children are sleePing !
l.
3
'
To express a temporary action : going by cab' We usually go to work by bus, but today we are is, perhaps, the most usual To express a definite arrangernent in the near future. It way to present somebody's immediate plans: What are You doing tomorrow ? of the action must be given in this case in order to avoid confusion' time The
:-:.:
3. help mother
-l.Toexpressfuturity,especiallywithverbsofmovementlike:tocome'toarrive'
to go, to leave:
Our friends are amiving tomorrow He is going to London on FridaY'
":rles/we/yes; ',;: :-'': 9. cfOsS the
14
5. To
express
annoyance,
THE VERB
a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct meaning of
I tO See
SLrX
irritation, sarcasm. In this case the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as: always, constantly, continually, for ever: He is always borrowing money from his friends but never gives it back.
Why are the children being so noisy today
?
Tc:
to see hai'm
It is to be noted that with the verbs expressing physical feelings (to ache, to feel, to hurt, etc.) and the construction to look forward to there is no great difference
between simple and continuous forms: How do you feel /How are you feeling today ? My finger aches/is aching. We look forward/are looking forward to their arrival.
TO HEAR
. :
to feceivt
I'n
rvhen re:t
Ti
6. Sometimes,
in subordinate clauses of time or condition:
TO FEEL .: is usuallr
The boy will play in the park while his mother is making a cake. I will not disturb her if she is watching TV.
::nporar)
:
7. With the verbs to get or to grow to express

It is getting dark.
a transition from one state to another
\f
B,v
- -r :-!
ua"
a!'nr!.11_ ! '
i
l
Our parents are getting older and older. Verbs not used
denPrt -Eerr!'*" r^ lu
in the continuous
aspect
l.
Verbs of
perception: to feel, to hear, to notice, to see, to smell, to taste:
idea o:
I
'
The hay smells nice todaY. Do you see the birds now ? The soup tastes delicious. If one means to emphasize the idea of continuity of these words, can/could must be used: I can see the plane now. We can hear the waves at last. However, the verbs to smell, to taste and to feel may be found in the continuous aspect when they imply a voluntary action on the part of the subject : The cat is smelling the bush now. Mother is tasting the soup to see if it is warm enough for the baby. When verbs of perception are used with meanings which are different from their "basic" ones, they may be used in the continuous aspect :
r io ca'isa
unde:
s
to trJ.
aspe;i
TO SEE
a) to meet by appointment, to interview: I am seeing my dentist on FridaY.

Jane is seeing her manager now.
^ \,pr: ; to fint
to retr
to
b)
c)
to visit (generally used in connection with tourists) : Mary is seeing the sights so she will be a little late. to see about (to make arrangements or inquirements): Our form master is seeing about the trip to the mountains.
The mechanic is just seeing to the engine of our car.
tru
d) to see to (to put right, to deal with):
THE INDICATIVE
15
:.stinct meaning of
;ombined with such
e) to see somebody off/up/down/out:

Tom is seeing his grandfather
off at the railway station now'
0
:."es it back.
to
see hallucinations:
I'm
seeing things'
.: ito ache, to feel,

i.-r _qreat difference
TO HEAR
a) to receive news of or from:

I,mhearinginterestingthingsaboutournewneighbour'(youarejusttellingme)
b) when referring to legal

TO FEEL
: aKe.
cases, meaning to try The judge is just hearing the witnesses'
Itisusuallyemployedinthesimpleaspect.ItscontinuousformsuggeststhattheStatels
temporary
13 State to another:
feeling well today' Mary felt well yesterday but she is not to smell and to taste w: By way of conclusion to the verbs to feel'
:^YT:*lat
they
aregenerallyusedinthreedifferentways'withthreeslightlydifferentmearungs:
ll. to taste:
a)toexperienceaparticularsensation.Inthiscasethesimpleaspectistobefound.The verbs can/could : idea of continuity may be given by the

shoulder' Jane feels/can feel a pain in her here'. in | (can) smell a Perfume
The children
(cin)
taste something strange in the cake'
:-i, can/could must
b)tocausesomebodytohaveaparticularsensation.Thesimpleaspectmustbeused
under such circumstances : We know that silk feels soft' The mountain air smells fresh' This Pear tastes sweet'
: :r
- ;-L
the continuous
c)totrytogetaparticularsensation.Inthiscaseboththesimpleandthecontinuous meaning of the context: Ue employed according to the

aspect may
.
--: :-r b)
foot' The doctor is feeling the patient's
:.::erent from their
Fatherfeelstheedgeofhispenknifebeforestartingtosharpenhispencils.
Thegirlsmellsthe'flowersintheg^.oenatthistimeeverymorning.Thatiswhy
she is smelling them now'
Mothertastesthemilkbeforegivingittothebaby.Asshewantstofeedthebaby
now, she is tasting it again'
2.Verbsexpressingmentalactivities:toagree'tobetieve'todistrust'todoubt' imagine, to know, to mean, to mind, tofind, to foresee, to forget, to gu".a,-t"o toremember,torecognize'torecollect'tore-gard'tosuppose'tothink(that)' to trust, to understand, etc' :
She knows what You mean'
Do You mind if
give her this book ? come Does she think that he will be able to now' lesson the I'm sure she understands
16
THE VERB
But, some of these verbs may appear in the continuous aspect, having a different meaning
TO FORGET
I forget her address now. (I don't remember/fail to remember it) I'm forgetting figures. (it expresses a gradual loss of memory as to figures) Are you forgetting your manners ? (usually said to a child who has failed to
perform a conventional act of politeness)
TO THINK When it means to imagine, or an opinion is asked for, the common aspect is used: I think (imagine) they have already arrived. What do you think of the new prices ? (What is your opinion about these prices But, when no opinion is given or asked for, the continuous form is used
:
What are you doing
I'm thinking.
What are you thinking about? I'm thinking about our new teachers.
TO MIND
When meaning to object to or to dislike, it is to be found in the common aspect: Maggie doesn't mind if her husband comes home late. It's rather cold today, but I don't mind it. This verb may be used in the continuous aspect when it means to look after : At the moment Ann is minding her sick mother. It has already been shown that some verbs which are not normally used in the continuous aspect, may occur in the progressive form whenever irritation, sarcasm, annoyance, reproach are implied :
We foresee no difficulty in solving that problem. (neutral) She is always foreseeing difficulties which never occur. (irritation) I doubt whether they will arrive here on time. He is always doubting his friend's words. We distrust our new classmate. Juliet is always distrusting her own judgement.
3.
Verbs expressing
wish: to desire, to intend, to want, to wish, I want that book now.
etc.
4. 5.
Verbs expressing attitudes, feelings, emotional states
to abhor, to adore, to detest.
to dislike, to displease, to like, to love, to hate, to please, to prefer, etc. I think she loves you very much now
Verbs expressing possession: to belong to, to own, to possess : How many friends have you (got) here ?
Jane is having breakfast. We are having a bath now.
to have, to hold, to keep, to
owe,
But, to haye rnay be used in the continuous aspect when it belongs to different corstructions
cr, hauing a different meaning:
THE
INDIC{TIVE
6' verbs expressing a state, a condition: to appear,
remember it)
as ro figures) 3l ro a child who hai faited to
r.Tgrl
to be, to consist (ofl), to contain, to differ' to deserve, tocquar, to exist, to resembre, to r"",o, io suit, etc. But, to be may rurn up in the continuous aspect: a) in passive constructions:
b) to imply that the
cornmon aspect is used: opinion about these prices ?) )us form is used:
c) sometimes
d)
Look, how kind our aunt is Ueiog to us today ! to express reproach: Why are you being so mean? with adjectives such as : absurd, careless, c.rumsy, razy, rude, sentimentar, silly, stupid, etc., to express a temporary behaviour:
A new block of flats is being built near our house. subject is temporar'y exhibiting some quarity:
*hurirer you may think. , y:::?H::f:.,verbs: to compare, to expect, to matrer, ro resurt (from),
f'm not being
sentimrntol,
^ But:
the common aspect:
I expect
(suppose) you know him. an important guest now.
expecting (waiting for) ^ Modal I'm 8. verbs: I can drive a car now.
She may go to the cinema now. You must learn the new words now.
THE INDICATIVE
;,r,:,:r.'lngrulesconcerningthePastTenseoftheregularverbsshouldbeobserved
(to dance Infinitive of the verb ends in -e' only -d is added D4-::: to recile - recited, etc')' .'i,i"--'-'re-syllableverbendsinasinglr;consonant(withtheexceptionofc'worx)
ilui':::-. -i,3 Short
rr--:-:t:tbyasinglevowel,thefinalconsonantisdoubledand-edisadded " :r -,p - droPPed ; to Pat - Patted ; lc')' (to panic ] :: .':lbs ending in.c, add k after c and then the suffix -ed is added .l;.:,:rcJ: to picttic - picnicked; etc')' by i':..:, rerb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant preceded (to " omit stressed is syllable final if the ., _ . -_;,: crvel, the final consonant ii doubled :,:-iled . to occur - occurred)' stressed (to visit ] -, :-: :lnal consonant is not doubled when the final syllable is not : to listen - listened). " s.irl Z::rriotts: to kidnap - kidnapped; to handicap - handicapped'
--::-
by a vowel.' the :he Short Infinitive of a verb ends in -y i:'receded
y does not
-:,-;-But,iftheyisprecededbyaconsona''t,iti'changedintoiandthen-edis -*-;- ,to play - played; to try - tried)'

:ltguiarverbsare:rllthoseverbsthatdonotmakethePastTenseandthePast began ::.: b,v adding the suffix -ed, but have thr:ir own forms: to begin i: to give - gave - given; to see - saw - seen; etc'
[. J L. Form
i"";1lE
Affrrmative
- :.e she/it/we/the
had
Had I/you/he/she/itlwe/they ?
Negative
- he she/it/we/theY had not - :; she/itlwe/theY hadn't

,, EL Negative
Had I/youlhe/she/it/we/ they not?

Hadn' t
l/you/he/she/itlt"ltlgl
Ne
gative-Interro gative
? ?
:lei It
:
waS
Was l/he/she/it
'.',e/they were
Were you/we/theY
26
THE VERB
I/he/she/it was not I/he/she/it wasn't You/we/they were not You/we/they weren't
Was I/he/she/it not Was I/he/she/it not
Although the time o; it occupied a period Some proper ruIrnes.
for the Past Tense
Were you/we/they not ? Weren't you/we/thev ?
ShakesPeare r'
(It is thus imPlied tl
To express a past b: Grandmother
In this case used to We went tc tt

I/you/he/she/itlwe/thev did Did I/you/he
I she/ itl w e / thev ?
We would usr
In Indirect Speech
"We live in The giri said
t
a
I/you/he/she/ itl
/ he
I she I it/ w
e I they did not e/they didn, r
Did I/you/he lshe/it/we/they not ? Didn' t I lhe I sheI itl welthev ?
To introduce someb "Where are d
TO PLAY/TO GO
In conditional claus My friend *t After the verb wisl

subjects are differer I wisft I were
I/you/he/she/
it I w e /
they
Did I/you/he/sh e I itl we I they play Did I/you/he/she/itlwe/they go ? Negative-Interrogative
He is
sPeak;n
It's (high1 rrn
I/you/heishe/itlwe/they did not play I/youihe/she/itlwe/they didn' t play /it/we/they did not I/you/he/she/itlwe/they didn' t
The construction w if the subjects, as a Our neighbou
Did I/you/he
I sheI itl w e I thev Didn' t I/you/he / she/ it/ w e trhey
But,
play-
Did I/you/he/she/itlwe/rhev
Didn't I/you/he/she/itl
the two sub' Paul would .l Mention must be n verbs is not used to
if
desirability. They
1.3.2.
I
Use
To express a future expressed by Furur
'
To express an action or state wholly completed at some moment or during some period in the past' In fact, the simple Past Tense is a narrative tense. In this case, a past tense adverbial srrch as when, then, yesterday, rast week, last month, Iast year, that day, the other day, once, in r9g9, on sunday, ago, etc. occurs in the sentence : Yesterday I met my old friend Jack. When did the train arrive ? Sometimes, the time becomes definite as the result of a question and an answer in the Present Perfect:
Where has Tim been? He has been to the cinema. Whar film did he see ?
He Promised
The Tran. Perfect simplu; Pe When he oP
Cdnd a descl
3. Imperfect
3.
The linle t'.B5ie{elul err Conjunctiv perfect Helen said sl Elena a sPus
THE
INDICATIVE
2.7
.Lrterrogative
Although the time of the action in the last sentence is not given, it is understood that it occupied a period of time now terminated. Some proper nu*"r, by reason of their definite meaning, may provide the conditions
for the Past Tense :

Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays.
(It is thus implied that shakespeare is dead or is no longer writing plays.)

2.
I I'u qAtlYe
3.
To express a past habit, or a repeated action in the past: Grandmother drank three cups of coffee a day' (habit) In this case used to or would may also be employed. We went to the theatre every Friday evening. (repeated action) We would/used to go to the theatre every Friday evening' In Indirect Speech to express a Present Tense from Direct Speech: "We live in a big house," the girl said. The girl said they lived in a big house' To introduce somebody's words in Direct Speech : "Where are the children? ", mother asked. In conditional clauses, to express a Present Conditional: My friend would help me if she were here.
-i
nrerrogative
After the verb wish or after as if/as though; if only; would rather (when subjects are different); it's (high) time: I wish I were on holidaY now. He is speaking as if he knew everything about the accident'
It's (hieh) time my son learnt English, too. The construction would rather holds a special place. It is followed by a Past if the subjects, as already shown, are different:
the
Tense
I:. i e rrogative
-.
r ::--,
,t: during
some
.
Our neighbours would rather we didn't make so much noise in the afternoon. But, if the two subjects are not different, the Short Infinitive must be used : Pavl would rather stay here now than go there. Mention must be made of the fact that in cases 5 and 6 the Past Tense form of the verbs is not used to indicate tense, but rather supposition, implying non-fulfilment or desirability. They are actually subjunctives. To express a future action, in a time clause, which is simultaneous with another one expressed by Future-in-the-Past : He promised me that he would tell me the truth when he knew it'
.:.-,-.:. In this case, a .-::i nloltth, last year, , - --: ir the sentence:
The Translation of the Simple Past Tense into Romanisn Perfect simplu; Perfect comPus
:
When he opened the door, he saw the dog.

Cdnd a deschis usa,
vizu
cAinele.
- .: ;il answer in the
Imperfect:
The little boy was very tired. Bdielelul era foarte obosit. -r, Conjunctiv perfect : Helen said she felt lonely before she met him' Elena a spus ci se sim{ea singurd inainte si-l fi intAlnit'
THE VERB
4.
Conditrional prezent : I would read that book if he gave it to me. Ag citi cartea aceea dac[ el mi-ar da-o.
5.
I didn't know she loved music. Nu gtiam c[-i place muzica.

6.
The girl said that she would come here when she was free. Fata a spus cI va veni aici cdnd va fi liberl.
r,arre urlr vacanl5.
1.3. THE PAST TENSE SIMPLE
rO BE
199ing the
.,,I:*:,J;ffi#ffT:Til:;n"jj,"# suffix -"0 to rn.l,-";"^:.,::1t.Tuke
According to the wav they form the pasr verbs are divided Tbnse and the pas participre, in;oi:Îij"h r Engrish
the Past Tense and
rh
I he/she/it was
',ii^',:";,W,::ij,,,X!,,1!i'i,',",!,i,',UiJi*JHlill##:iliTlli

Noun+Article+Verb (Present Simple & Continuous - Past Simple & Continuous)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Noun+Article+Verb (Present Simple & Continuous - Past Simple & Continuous)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter

ll"-lu*" (;il;' ; trting Ooo[)' an action (writing)'

a) the subject of a verb: b)

The boY runs in the street' the direct object of a verb:

letter' the indirect object of a verb:

offered mother some flowers'

d) the object of a PrePosition: e)

a telex' sent Miss Smith' my secretary'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THEORY AND PRACTICE

1.1.1. Compound Nouns

Single-word compound nouns may be made up of

a) two nouns (butterfly; classroom; cupboard; footprint; footstep

defy - defiance depart - departure

i lrese compound ::: separate words.

depend - dependence descend - descendant

to divide - division to employ - employee/employer/

form - formation grow - growth

to happen - happening to hate - hatred to hinder - hindrance to imagine - imagination

to know - knowledge to laugh - laughter t,l manage - management t0 marry - marriage

to mock - mockery to move - movement

to serve - service to subscribe - suirscriPtion to tempt - temPtation to thrill - thriller

to train - trainer to translate - translation

to transmit - transmission to warn - warning

active - activitY absent - absence

- freedom kind - kindness

other Parts of sPeech

London - Londoner mouth - mouthful

1,!.1. ProPer Nour

Itel are used for Pani; i:: spelt with a caPital

Lord BYron; Sir Cl

calendar items : Sul geograPhical names

The Black S titles of books, ne* United Nations Or

countries: '{ continents : '

it has a Plural foru

citizens bank); * a prepositional phrase (mother-in-law

it can be preceded friend has a few o

1.1. TYPES OF NOUNS

ProPer: Bngland; John

\;rshin " r :l -'sopher

: bread; milk t abstract : hate; advice

':- .i..td nouns are

The Pacific Ocean; The Danube;

Guardian' The Gone witlt the Wind, The

; Italian; Polish ; Spanish'

L,2.2. Common Nouns

thing, place, idea. designate a particular-person, those. nouns which do not

if Srchnounsmaybeetthercountabt,o,un,*n.uut".tnordertomakethedistinction shown that a noun is countable i,

, check; ladY's maid)' a \lomens college ; a

? rnany books have you got

(one pencil; three pencils);

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THEORY AND PRACTICE

e crust of bread a cube of ice a dash of soda

: (How much sugar do you want ? Your

friend has little luggage);

e heaP of coal/dirt n an item/a Piece of nen

jar of jam r jet of water

fruit milk win' a packet of cigarettt

r flask of tea r glass of water

:airs : a Pair of boo

a bar of chocolate/soap/metal a blade of grass a block of marble/iceiwood a box of matches

a book of stamps a breath of air

l:q; are used for a gri i :eoPle