Refrigerants

For every refrigerant there is a specific boiling, or vaporization, temperature associated with each pressure, so that it is only necessary to control the pressure in the evaporator to obtain a desired temperature. A similar pressure-temperature relationship holds in the condenser. Halocarbon Refrigerants NUMERICAL DESIGNATION 11 12 13 22 40 113 114
115

CHEMICAL NAME Trichloromonofluoromethane Dichlorosifluoromethane Monochlorotrifluoromethane Monochlorodifluoromethane Methyl Chloride Trichlorotrifluoromethane Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Chloropentafluoroethane Chlorodifluoroethane R-22/115 (48.8/51.2)

CHEMICAL FORMULA CCl3F CCl2F2 CClF3 CHClF2 CH3Cl CCl2FCClF2 CClF2CClF2 C2F5Cl C2H3ClF2 CHCIF2 /C2F5Cl

142b 502

Table 15.2 Some inorganic refrigerants NUMERICAL DESIGNATION 702 704 717 718 720 728 729 732 740 744 744A 764 CHEMICAL NAME Hydrogen Helium Ammonia Water Neon Nitrogen Air Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide Nitrous Oxide Sulfur Dioxide CHEMICAL FORMULA H2 He NH3 H2O Ne N2 78.082% N2 20.945% O2 .93 4% Ar O2 Ar CO2 N2O SO2

Table 15.3 Hydrocarbon refrigerants NUMERICAL DESIGNATION 170 290 600 600a CHEMICAL NAME Ethane Propane n-butane Isobutane CHEMICAL FORMULA C2H6 C3H3 C4H10 (CH3)3CH

Basic choice of refrigerants

REFRIGERANT Air PRINCIPAL APPLICATION The major use of air as a refrigerant is in aircraft,where the light weight of an air system compensates for its low COP. Large industrial low-temperature installations are the applications where ammonia is most frequently used. Many new ammonia systems come into operation each year. This refrigerant is sometimes used for direct-contact freezing of food. Its high condensing pressure usually limits its application to the low-temperature side of a cascade system where a different refrigerant operates in the high-temperature section. Along with the refrigerant 113, this refrigerant is popular for centrifugal compressor systems. This refrigerant is used primarily with reciprocating compressors for service in domestic refrigeration appliances and in automotive air conditioners. Because a smaller and lower-cost compressor can be used with refrigerant 22 than with refrigerant 12, this refrigerant has taken over many air-onditioning applications from refrigerant 12. This is one of the newer refrigerants,with some of the advantages of refrigerant 22 but with the further advantage of better behavior with oil and lower compressor discharge temperatures than refrigerant 22.

Ammonia

Carbon Dioxide

Refrigerant 11 Refrigerant 12

Refrigerant 22

Refrigerant 502

Global Warming
Global Warming is increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses of Earth. The planet has warmed (and cooled) many times during the 4.65 billion years of its history. At present Earth appears to be facing a rapid warming, which most scientists believe results, at least in part, from human activities. The chief cause of this warming is thought to be the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which releases into the atmosphere carbon dioxide and other substances known as greenhouse gases. As the atmosphere becomes richer in these gases, it becomes a better insulator, retaining more of the heat provided to the planet by the Sun. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Scientists predict further warming of 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees (2.5 to 10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year 2100. This temperature rise is expected to melt polar ice caps and glaciers as well as warm the oceans, all of which will expand ocean volume and raise sea level by an estimated 9 to 100 cm (4 to 40 in), flooding some coastal regions and even entire islands. Some regions in warmer climates will receive more rainfall than before, but soils will dry out faster between storms. This soil desiccation may damage food crops, disrupting food supplies in some parts of the world. Plant and animal species will shift their ranges toward the poles or to higher elevations seeking cooler temperatures and species that cannot do so may become extinct. The potential consequences of global warming are so great that many of the world's leading scientists have called for international cooperation and immediate action to counteract the problem.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The Earths atmosphere is made up of different layers. The layer closest to the surface is called the troposphere which extends from the Earths surface up to about 10 kilometers. The ozone layer is located above the troposphere in the stratosphere (10 km to about 50 km high). Stratospheric ozone is Earths natural protection for all life forms, shielding our planet from harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation. UV-B radiation is harmful to humans, animals, and plant life. The ozone layer is being destroyed by certain industrial chemicals including ozone depleting refrigerants, halons, and methyl bromide, a deadly pesticide used on crops. For over 50 years, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were thought of as miracle substances. They are stable, nonflammable, low in toxicity, and inexpensive to produce. Over time, CFCs found uses as refrigerants, solvents, foam blowing agents, and in other smaller applications. Other chlorine-containing compounds include methyl chloroform, a solvent, andcarbon tetrachloride, an industrial chemical. Halons, extremely effective fire extinguishing agents, and methyl bromide, an effective produce and soil fumigant, contain bromine. All of these compounds have atmospheric lifetimes long enough to allow them to be transported by winds into the stratosphere. Because they release chlorine or bromine when they break down, they damage the protective ozone layer. The discussion of the ozone depletion process below focuses on CFCs, but the basic concepts apply to all of the ozone-depleting substances (ODS). In the early 1970s, researchers began to investigate the effects of various chemicals on the ozone layer, particularly CFCs, which contain chlorine. They also examined the potential impacts of other chlorine sources. Chlorine from swimming pools, industrial plants, sea salt, and volcanoes does not reach the stratosphere. Chlorine compounds from these sources readily combine with water and repeated measurements show that they rain out of the troposphere very quickly. In contrast, CFCs are very stable and do not dissolve in rain. Thus, there are no natural processes that remove the CFCs from the lower atmosphere. Over time, winds drive the CFCs into the stratosphere. The CFCs are so stable that only exposure to strong UV radiation breaks them down. When that happens, the CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone faster than it is naturally created. To return to the analogy comparing ozone levels to a stream's depth, CFCs act as a siphon, removing water faster than normal and reducing the depth of the stream. Large fires and certain types of marine life produce one stable form of chlorine that does reach the stratosphere. However, numerous experiments have shown that CFCs and other widely-used chemicals produce roughly 84% of the chlorine in the stratosphere, while natural sources contribute only 16%.

Large volcanic eruptions can have an indirect effect on ozone levels. Although Mt. Pinatubo's 1991 eruption did not increase stratospheric chlorine concentrations, it did producelarge amounts of tiny particles called aerosols (different from consumer products also known as aerosols). These aerosols increase chlorine's effectiveness at destroying ozone. The aerosols only increased depletion because of the presence of CFC - based chlorine. In effect, the aerosols increased the efficiency of the CFC siphon, lowering ozone levels even more than would have otherwise occurred. Unlike long-term ozone depletion, however, this effect is short-lived. The aerosols from Mt. Pinatubo have disappeared, but satellite, ground-based, and balloon data still show ozone depletion occurring closer to the historic trend. One example of ozone depletion is the annual ozone "hole" over Antarcticathat has occurred during the Antarctic Spring since the early 1980s. Rather than being a literal hole through the layer, the ozone hole is a large area of the stratosphere with extremely low amounts of ozone. Ozone levels fall by over 60% during the worst years. In addition, research has shown that ozone depletion occurs over the latitudes that include North America, Europe, Asia, and much of Africa, Australia, and South America. Over the U.S., ozone levels have fallen 5-10%, depending on the season. Thus, ozone depletion is a global issue and not just a problem at the South Pole. Reductions in ozone levels will lead to higher levels of UVB reaching the Earth's surface. The sun's output of UVB does not change; rather, less ozone means less protection, and hence more UVB reaches the Earth. Studies have shown that in the Antarctic, the amount of UVB measured at the surface can double during the annual ozone hole. Another study confirmed the relationship between reduced ozone and increased UVB levels in Canada during the past several years. Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes nonmelanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UVB has been linked to cataracts. All sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal ozone levels. It is always important to limit exposure to the sun. However, ozone depletion will increase the amount of UVB, which will then increase the risk of health effects. Furthermore, UVB harms some crops, plastics and other materials, and certain types of marine life.

Colder Temperatures Increase Ozone Damage Ozone depletion damage gets much worse when the stratosphere is very cold. This has been the case the past two years, causing extensive ozone depletion. This past winter, ozone depletion reached the most severe levels ever recorded over the Northern Hemisphere. Western United States ozone levels also continue to drop 3-4 percent per decade. Even if all of our efforts to stop harmful emissions are successful, the ozone layer is not expected to begin recovery until around 2020 at the earliest. Global Warming Can Increase Ozone Depletion Scientist's are concerned that continued global warming will accelerate ozone destruction and increase stratospheric ozone depletion. Ozone depletion gets worse when the stratosphere (where the ozone layer is), becomes colder. Because global warming traps heat in the troposphere, less heat reaches the stratosphere which will make it colder. Greenhouse gases act like a blanket for the troposphere and make the stratosphere colder. In other words, global warming can make ozone depletion much worse right when it is supposed to begin its recovery during the next century. Effects of Ozone Depletion and Global Warming (UV-B) radiation causes skin cancer, cataracts and immune suppression in both animals and humans, (Learn More). UV-B also damages plants including hardwood forests, and phytoplankton (algae is a type of phytoplankton which is the building block of the oceanic food chain). Skin Cancer Is Increasing

There has been an 1,800 percent rise in malignant melanoma since 1930. One American dies of skin cancer every hour. One in five Americans develops skin cancer. People get 80 percent of their lifetime sun exposure by age 18.

Ozone Depletion Potentials Compound Ashrae Number R-11 R-12 R-113 R-22 R-123 R-124 R-141B R-142B R-125 R-134a R-152a ODP 1.0 1.0 1.8

CFC

HCFC

0.05 0.02 0.02 0.7 0.06 0 0 0

HFC

Replacements Refrigerants Compound CFC Ashrae Number R-11 R-12 R-22 R-123 R-134a Possible replacement Refrigerants R-123 or R-22 R-134a or R-600a

HCFC

R-134a

HFC

R-413a