MTK3004 Lect Note 121212

MTK 3004: Introduction to Calculus
This course is
offered by
Department of Mathematics
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
By
Shalela Mohd Mahali
September 2012
Contents
1 The Real Number System 1
1.1 Types of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Properties of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Mathematical problems involving inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Solving a Linear Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Solving a Twosided Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Solving an Inequality Involving a Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Solving a Quadratic Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.5 Solving an Inequality Containing an Absolute Value . . . . . . 8
1.4 Number in Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Matrix and Determinant 15
2.1 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Row Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Augmented Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Matrix Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 Properties of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 Finding Determinants: The Method of Cofactors . . . . . . . 22
2.5.3 Cramers Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Vector Algebra 25
3.0.4 Introduction to vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
iii
3.0.5 Vectors in the Plane (2D vector) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.0.6 Vectors in the Space (3D vector) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.0.7 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.0.8 The Cross Product (or Vector Product) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 One Variable Function 39
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.1 Vertical Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.2 Polynomial and Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.3 Function Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.4 Finding Roots of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.5 Finding Domain and Range of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.6 Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Trigonometric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.1 Trigonometric Function as a Periodic Function . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.2 Denitions of Trigonometric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.3 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.5 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Hyperbolic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Function Derivative 57
5.1 Denition of Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1.1 Derivative as Slope of Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2 Derivative Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.1 The Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.2 General Derivative Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.3 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2.4 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
iv
5.3 Derivative of Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.3.1 Derivative of the Trigonometric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.3.2 Derivative of the Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . 66
5.3.3 Derivative of the Hyperbolic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.4 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.5 Implicit Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.6 Applications of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6 Integration 81
6.1 Introduction to Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Indenite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2.1 The Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2.2 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.2.3 The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.3 Denite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3.1 Properties of the Denite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.4 Integration Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.4.1 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.4.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7 Dierential Equations 107
7.1 Introduction to Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2 Analytical Solution of First Order ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2.1 Linear Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2.2 Separable Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2.3 Exact Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.2.4 Bernoulli Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2.5 Homogeneous Dierential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
v
vi
List of Tables
1 Values of sin and cos functions at a few angles in both degrees and
radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
vii
viii
List of Figures
1 Subsets representing real number system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 An open interval (, 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 An open interval (2,
3
2
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Number lines to represent each term in the fraction . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 An open interval (, 2) [1, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6 Number lines to represent each term of the quadratic expression . . . 7
7 An open interval (, 3) (2, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8 The distance between a and b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9 [x 3[ < 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10 Points A, B, C and D plotted on a cartesian coordinate . . . . . . . 10
11 Sketching lines on a cartesian coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12 Shading the region for inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
13 A vector represented by a directed line segment . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
14 Equivalent vectors, a = b = c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
15 Vector in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
16 Vector in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
17 Types of relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
18 Vertical line tests on various curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
19 Inverse function, g = f
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
20 Graphs for sin and cos functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
21 Right triangle to dene trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
22 Denition of cos(x) and sin(x) on a unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
ix
23 Derivative Rules (Source: math.arizona.edu/ calc/Rules.pdf) . . . . . 67
24 f(y) = y
2
+ y
2
is not a continuous function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
25 Graph for f(x) = x
2
+ 16 and f(x) = 2x 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
x
Chapter 1
The Real Number System
1.1 Types of Real Numbers
Natural numbers
Natural numbers are also known as counting numbers.
The numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .
The set of all natural numbers is denoted as N.
Natural numbers together with zero are called whole numbers (i.e 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, )
Integers
Integers are the positive and negative whole numbers.
The numbers are , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .
The set of all integers is denoted as Z
Rational numbers
Rational numbers are quotients of integers (i.e All numbers of the form
a
b
with
a and b are integers and b ,= 0).
1
1.1. TYPES OF REAL NUMBERS
The set of all rational numbers is denoted as Q.
All integers are rational numbers because for any integer i Z, i can be
written as
i
1
.
Real numbers with terminating decimal or non-terminating decimals that re-
peat are also rational number.
Real numbers with non-terminating decimals that do not repeat are irra-
tional numbers. = 3.14159265 and
2 = 1.41421356 are irrational

numbers.
Real numbers
Real numbers are the set of all decimals, both terminating and non-terminating.
The set of all real numbers is denoted as R.
The above mentioned set of numbers (i.e Natural numbers, Integers, Rational
and Irrational numbers) are subsets of real numbers.
The relationships of the sets consist in real numbers can be illustrated in Figure
1
2
THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Figure 1: Subsets representing real number system
Exercises 1.1
1 Tick the correct type for the following numbers. Each number may fall into
more than one type.
Number Natural Whole Integer Rational Irrational Real
2

0
0.25
-5
2
8
1.342234223422...
1.234567
4
5
2 Tick the correct type of the following decimal number. Then, determined
whether the number is a rational or irrational number. If it is a rational
number, rewrite the decimal number in the form of integer fraction,
a
b
.
3
1.2. PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS
Number Terminating Nonterminating decimal Rational Fraction
decimal Repeat Not Repeat Irrational form
3.16792
10.121212...
4.275191919191...
3.14159265...
3.41287548754875...
1.2 Properties of Real Numbers
If a and b are real numbers and a < b, then
i For any real number c, a + c 0, a c b c
1.3 Mathematical problems involving inequality
1.3.1 Solving a Linear Inequality
Problem: Solve the linear inequality 5x + 1 < 6.
Solution: Substract 1 from both sides. Thus we have
(5x + 1) 1 < 6 1
5x < 5
Then divide the resulting inequality by 5
5x
5
<
5
5
4
Finally we have x < 1 or also can be written as an interval (, 1)
Figure 2: An open interval (, 1)
1.3.2 Solving a Twosided Inequality
Problem: Solve the twosided inequality 2 < 8 4x < 16.
Solution: We work with both inequalities simultaneously. First, substract 8 from
each term. Thus we have
2 8 < (8 4x) 8 < 16 8
6 < 4x < 8
Then divide the resulting inequalities by -4. Note that, since 4 < 0, our inequali-
ties are reversed.
6
4
>
4x
4
>
8
4
3
2
> x > 2
Rearrange the inequalities, nally we have 2 < x <
3
2
or also can be written as an
interval (2,
3
2
)
1.3.3 Solving an Inequality Involving a Fraction
Problem: Solve the inequality
x1
x+2
0
Solution: In order to visualize the function of the fraction, we draw separate number
5
1.3. MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING INEQUALITY
Figure 3: An open interval (2,
3
2
)
lines for the numerator and the denominator
Figure 4: Number lines to represent each term in the fraction
From the above number lines, we may conclude that the fraction is satisfying the
inequality (i.e nonnegative in this case) whenever x < 2 or x 0. The solution
also can be written in interval notation as (, 2) [1, )
1.3.4 Solving a Quadratic Inequality
Problem: Solve the quadratic inequality x
2
+ x 6 > 0
Solution: By factorising the quadratic term, we have the following equivalent in-
equality to the original problem:
6
Figure 5: An open interval (, 2) [1, )
(x + 3)(x 2) > 0 (1)
From here, we may draw the number lines to represent the two terms: (x + 3) and
(x 2), and nally the combination of both.
Figure 6: Number lines to represent each term of the quadratic expression
The number lines show that the product of the two terms is positive whenever
x < 3 or x > 2. In interval notation, this can be written as (, 3) (2, ).
Figure 7: An open interval (, 3) (2, )
7
1.3. MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING INEQUALITY
Alternatively, you may sketch the quadratic graph and nd the interval
whenever the quadratic graph is positive. Try this method for the same
problem above!
1.3.5 Solving an Inequality Containing an Absolute Value
Denition of Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number x is [x[ =
_
_
x, if x 0
x if x < 0
.
For any real numbers a and b,
1. [a b[ = [a[ [b[.
2. [a + b[ , = [a[ +[b[ in general.
3. [a + b[ [a[ +[b[ (the triangle inequality).
4. [a b[ is referred as the distance between a and b (Figure 8)
Figure 8: The distance between a and b
Problem: Solve the inequality [x 3[ < 5
Solution: The LHS of the inequality refers to the distance between 3 and point x.
Considering the value 5 on the RHS, the inequality shows that the distance between
x and 3 must be less than 5. We may visualise this inequality using the following
gure: Obviously, the solution for x is 2 < x < 8 or in interval notation:(2, 8).
8
Figure 9: [x 3[ < 5
Problem: Solve the inequality [x + 4[ 7
Solution:
(Hint: [x + 4[ = [x (4)[)
There is an alternative method for solving inequalities involv-
ing absolute values.
[x a[ < d
also can be written as the two-sided inequality
d < x a < d
. Try this method to solve the previous problems!
1.4 Number in Plane
Our previous discussions only considered real numbers as laid out on a single
line (1 dimension coordinate). Now, we extend our discussion to coordinate in
2-dimensions. We locate points in the plane by using two coordinate lines: the hor-
izontal real line is usually called the x axis and the vertical real line is usually
called the y axis. Instead of just one real number, the point now is represent
9
1.4. NUMBER IN PLANE
by an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers, called coordinates of the point. See the
following example to understand how to locate a point based on the given coordinate.
Example: Plotting points
Plot the points A = (3, 2), B = (3, 6), C = (2, 4) and D = (1, 2).
Ans:Figure 10
Figure 10: Points A, B, C and D plotted on a cartesian coordinate
Example: Drawing lines
Sketch the following lines:
i x = 1
ii y = 4
iii 4x + 3y = 24
10
Ans:Figure 11
Line x = 1 and y = 4 are easy to skecth.
The third line, 4x + 3y = 24 can be skecthed by nding 2 points on the line and
connecting those 2 points to have a straight line. The easiest 2 points that can be
considered are points when x = 0 and when y = 0.
Point 1: When x = 0,
4(0) + 3y = 24
3y = 24
y = 8
Hence, the rst point is (0, 8).
Point 2: When y = 0,
4x + 3(0) = 24
4x = 24
x = 6
Hence, the second point is (6, 0)
11
Figure 11: Sketching lines on a cartesian coordinate
Example: Graphing Inequalities
Shade the region which contains the points that satisfy the following inequalities:
i y 4
ii 4x + 3y > 24
Ans:Figure 12. In order to graph the region for an inequality, we have to determine
the edge of the region rst. This can be done by sketching a line representing the
given equation (replace the inequality sign (<, >, or ) to an equal sign (=)). In
this example, both lines y = 4 and 4x + 3y > 24 are already sketched in Figure
11. We use solid line to represent edge for the rst inequality because of the sign
. However, dashed line is used for the second inequality because of the sign > (i.e
does not include equal sign). The reqion for the rst inequality is obvious. However,
for the second inequality, we have to choose which side to be shaded by testing one
point at each side.
Side 1: Point to test is (0,0):
12
4(0) + 3(0) = 0 < 24does not satises the inequality.
Side 2: Point to test is (5,5):
4(5) + 3(5) = 35 > 24satises the inequality. So we choose this side to be
shaded.
Figure 12: Shading the region for inequalities
Your Tasks
Find the formulae and examples for the following topics:
1. The distance and midpoint between 2 points.
2. Equation of a line.
3. Equation of a circle
13
14
Chapter 2
Matrix and Determinant
2.1 Matrices
(Adams, 1999, pg 636)
An m n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn numbers arranged in m rows
and n columns. If a
ij
is the element in the ith row and the jthe column, then we
may write matrix A as follows:
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
.
In short, we may also write A = (a
ij
) where i = 1, 2, , m and j = 1, 2, , n.
What is the transpose of matrix A i.e A
T
?
What is square matrix?
What is symmetric matrix?
How to multiply matrices?
15
2.2. SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
2.2 System of Linear Equations
A linear equation can be dened as
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= b (2)
where
x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
is the variables (unknowns) (3)
(4)
A system of linear equations may consists a number of linear equations. As an
example:
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ . . . + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ . . . + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ . . . + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
is a system of linear equations consists of m equations and n unknown variables.
Our aim is to determine the value of the unknown variables x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
when
a
11
, , a
mn
and b
1
, b
2
, b
m
are given.
Consider a set of n linear equations:
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ . . . + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ . . . + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ . . . + a
nn
x
n
= b
n
(5)
16
MATRIX AND DETERMINANT
We then could represent (5) with the following matrix equation:
Ax = b (6)
where
b =
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
x =
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
(7)
2.3 Row Echelon Form
A matrix is in row echelon form if it satises:
i All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeroes.
ii Each leading entry (i.e. left most nonzero entry ) of a row is in a column to
the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
iii All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
Example
Reduce the following matrix to its row echelon form:
_
_
0 3 6 4 9
1 2 1 3 1
2 3 0 3 1
1 4 5 9 7
_
_
Solution:
17
2.4. AUGMENTED MATRICES
ans:
_
_
1 4 5 9 7
0 2 4 6 6
0 0 0 5 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
2.4 Augmented Matrices
If given matrices A and B, the augmented matrix of the two matrices can be written
as (A
.
.
.B).
Example
Given
A =
_
_
2 2 1
4 1 2
1 2 3
_
_
B =
_
_
1
2
4
_
_
show the augmented matrix (A
.
.
.B)
Solution:
(A
.
.
.B) =
_
_
2 2 1
.
.
. 1
4 1 2
.
.
. 2
1 2 3
.
.
. 4
_
_
Example: Solving system of linear equations using augmented
matrix and Gauss Jordan Elimination
Solve the following system:
18
3x 2y = 14
x + 3y = 1
Solution:
The augmented matrix of the system is:
_
_
3 2
.
.
. 14
1 3
.
.
. 1
_
_
In Gauss-Jordan Elimination, our aim is to reduce the LHS matrix
_
_
3 2
1 3
_
_
to be
_
_
1 0
0 1
_
_
So, rst we want to make the leading entry in the rst row as 1
_
_
3 2
.
.
. 14
1 3
.
.
. 1
_
_
In order to achieve that, we may simply interchange the the rst and the second
row
_
_
1 3
.
.
. 1
3 2
.
.
. 14
_
_
Then, our aim is to make the element below the rst leading entry as 0. The second
row minus 3 times the rst row
R2 3R1 >
_
_
1 3
.
.
. 1
0 11
.
.
. 11
_
_
Now, we can make the leading entry of the second row as 1 by multiplying the
19
2.5. MATRIX DETERMINANTS
second row by
1
11
. Now we have
1
11
R2 >
_
_
1 3
.
.
. 1
0 1
.
.
. 1
_
_
Our nal task is to make 3 in the rst row to become 0:
R1 3R2 >
_
_
1 0
.
.
. 4
0 1
.
.
. 1
_
_
We have reached to the augmented matrix that we required. The solution is
x = 4 and y = 1
Exercise
Using the method explained above, solve the following system:
2x + y = 3
x 4y = 2
2.5 Matrix Determinants
2.5.1 Properties of Determinants
Theorem 2.5.1. Let A be an n n matrix and c be a scalar, then,
det(cA) = c
n
det(A)
Theorem 2.5.2. Suppose that A, B and C are all n n matrices and that they
dier by only a row, say the k
th
row. Lets further suppose that the k
th
row of C can
be found by adding the corresponding entries from the k
th
rows of A and B. Then
20
in this case we will have that
det(C) = det(A) + det(B)
The same result will hold if we replace the word row with column above.
Theorem 2.5.3. If A and B are matrices of the same size, then
det(AB) = det(A)det(B)
Theorem 2.5.4. Suppose that A is an invertible matrix, then
det(A
1
) =
1
det(A)
Theorem 2.5.5. A suare matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) ,= 0. A matrix
that is invertible is oftern called non-singular and a matrix that is not invertible is
oftern called singular
Theorem 2.5.6. If A is a square matrix, then
det(A) = det(A
T
)
Theorem 2.5.7. If A is a square matrix with a row or column of all zeroes, then
det(A) = 0
and so A will be singular.
Theorem 2.5.8. Suppose that A is an n n triangular matrix, then,
det(A) = a
11
a
22
a
nn
21
2.5.2 Finding Determinants: The Method of Cofactors
For a matrix with only one entry, the determinant of the matrix is the value of the
entry. (i.e. If A = (a), then det(A) = a).
For a 2 2 matrix,
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
_
the determinant can be calculated as follows:
det(A) = a
11
a
22
a
21
a
12
Try this:
Find the determinant of the following matrix:
A =
_
_
2 1
1 4
_
_
Solution:
ans=7
This method in nding determinant can be generalise (known as the method of
cofactors) to solve larger size matrices. Before we proceed in utilising this method,
let rst get to know 2 important terms in this method: minor and cofactor.
Denition 2.5.9. (Minor) If A is a square matrix, then the minor of a
ij
, denoted
by M
ij
, is the determinant of the submatrix that results from removing the i
th
row
and the j
th
column of A
Denition 2.5.10. (Cofactor) If A is a square matrix, then the cofactor of a
ij
,
denoted by S
ij
, is the number (1)
i+j
M
ij
Note: Basically cofactor is just M
ij
22
Exercise
For the following matrix, compute the cofactors C
11
and C
12
A =
_
_
4 2 1
2 6 3
7 5 0
_
_
Solution:
(ans=C
11
= 15 and C
12
= 21)
Now, we can use cofactors to nd determinant as in the following theorem:
Theorem 2.5.11. If A is an n n matrix,
(a) Choose any row, say row i, then
det(A) = a
i1
C
i1
+ a
i2
C
i2
+ + a
in
C
in
(b) Choose any column, say column j,then
det(A) = a
1j
C
1j
+ a
2j
C
2j
+ + a
nj
C
nj
Exercises
1 Recall the matrix:
A =
_
_
4 2 1
2 6 3
7 5 0
_
_
Reconsider the previous matrix, compute the determinant using:
(i) Row 1
(ii) Column 3
23
Solution:
(ans det(A) = 154)
2 Find the determinant for the following matrix:
B =
_
_
4 0 10 4
1 2 3 9
5 5 1 6
3 7 1 2
_
_
2.5.3 Cramers Rule
In this section we will looking back to the system of linear equations. Now, having
understand the calculation of the determinant, we may use Cramers rule in order
to nd the solution of the system.
Theorem 2.5.12. Suppose that A is an nn invertible matrix. Then the solution
to the system Ax = b is given by,
x
1
=
det(A
1
)
det(A)
, x
2
=
det(A
2
)
det(A)
, , x
n
=
det(A
n
)
det(A)
where A
j
is the matrix found by replacing the j
th
column A with b
Try this: Use Cramers rule to determine the solution to the following system
of equations:
2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
= 4
2x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 3
24
Chapter 3
Vector Algebra
3.0.4 Introduction to vector
Denition 3.0.13. (Scalar) Scalar is a quantity that only has the magnitude.
Examples: Volume, distance, mass.
Denition 3.0.14. (Vector) Vector is a quantity that has the magnitude as well
as the direction.
Examples: Velocity, force, acceleration.
What about weight? Is it a scalar or a vector?
Weight is a force F = ma W = mg. The direction is downward .
Therefore, weight is a vector.
A vector V in the plane or in the space is represented by a directed line segment
where the direction is shown by the arrow and the magnitude is determined by the
length of the line, [V [.
In Figure 13, there are 2 ways to denote the vector:

OA or a. O is called the
initial point and A is called the terminal point. The magnitude of the vector is
the length of the line from O to A, denoted as [

OA[ or [a[.
Two directed line segments represent the same vector if they have the same
length and are parallel. In Figure 14, three vectors that are all considered to be
25
Figure 13: A vector represented by a directed line segment
equivalent are shown, even though their initial points are dierent. We may write
for this case, a = b = c.
Figure 14: Equivalent vectors, a = b = c
Vectors can appear in the plane or in the space. A vector in the plane consists
two components, whereas a vector in the space consists three components. We will
begin our discussion for vectors in the plane rst, follow by vectors in the space.
Most of the discussion for vectors in the plane are applicable to vectors in the space.
3.0.5 Vectors in the Plane (2D vector)
Vectors are movable and not tied to any particular system, but for vectors in plane
it might be easier for us to imagine the coordinate system of x and yaxes. The
vector in the plane consists 2 components a =< a
1
, a
2
> as shown in Figure 15.
26
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Figure 15: Vector in the plane
Position Vector
Since the location of the initial point is irrelevent, we usually draw vectors with
the initial point located at the origin, O. This vector is called a position vector.
Vector a in Figure 15 is an example of a position vector.
Example: Finding a Position Vector
(Refer Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 700-Example 1.3).
Exercices
In Exercises 15-18 (Refer Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 703-Exercises 10.1), nd the
position vector with initial point A and terminal point B. Then, sketch the vector
in a Cartesian coordinate
(Hint:

AB =)
27
Unit Vector
Any vector with the magnitude 1 is called a unit vector. In 2D, the magnitude of
a vector, a =< a
1
, a
2
> can be calculated as follows:
[a[ =
_
a
2
1
+ a
2
2
We may nd a unit vector that having the same direction as any vector a using the
following theorem.
Theorem 3.0.15. (Unit Vector ) For any nonzero position vector a =< a
1
, a
2
>,
a unit vector having the same direction as a is given by
u =
1
[a[
a
Standard basis vectors i and j are dened by
i =< 1, 0 > and j =< 0, 1 >
Notice that [i[ = [j[ = 1, so both vectors are unit vectors. These vectors form a
basis for vector in 2D. Therefore, we may write any 2D vector a in the following
form:
a =< a
1
, a
2
>= a
1
i + a
2
j
Example: Finding a Unit Vector
Exercises
(Refer Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 703-Exercises 10.1).
In Exercises 19-24, Find a unit vector in the same direction as the given vector.
28
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Vector Arithmetic
The following theorem conclude the arithmetic operations in vector
Theorem 3.0.16. For any 2D vectors a, b and c and any scalars d and e in R,
the following hold:
i (Commutativity)
a +b = b +a
ii (Associativity)
a + (b +c) = (a +b) +c
iii (Zero Vector)
a + 0 = a
iv (Additive Inverse)
a + (a) = 0
v (Distributive Law)
d(a +b) = da + db
vi (Distributive Law)
(d + e)a = da + ea
vii (Multiplication by 1)
(1)a = a
viii (Multiplication by 0)
(0)a = 0
Example: Vector Arithmetic
29
Exercises
In Exercises 3-6, compute a +b, a 2b, 3a and [5b 2a[
Additional Task: For the given vectors in the above exercises, sketch the
vectors a, b and the resulting vectors a +b and a b
Parallel Vector
Denition 3.0.17. Two vectors having the same or opposite direction are called
parallel. The zero vector is considered parallel to every vector
Mathematically we may write
a and b are parallel b = ca for some scalar c
Example: Determining When 2 Vectors are Parallel
Exercises
In exercises 9-14, determine whether the vectors a and b are parallel.
3.0.6 Vectors in the Space (3D vector)
We now extend the ideas in the 2D vector to the 3D vector. Coordinate axes in
R
3
is now used (3 coordinate axes: x, y, zaxes). Similar to the vector in 2D, we
may draw the position vector a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> by connecting the origin to a point
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) in the space. Figure 16 shows how to sketch a vector in the space.
Basically, the idea extensions from vector in 2D to vector in 3D are straight
forward. Theorem 3.0.5 that was introduced while discussing vector in the plane is
also satised for vector in the space. In what follows, we will consider a few examples
to see the manipulations of vector in the space.
30
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Figure 16: Vector in the plane
Example: Finding a Unit Vector
(Refer to Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 709-Example 2.3)
Find a unit vector in the same direction as < 1, 2, 3 > and write < 1, 2, 3 > as
the product of its magnitude and a unit vector.
Solution:
Let a =< 1, 2, 3 >. Recall the formula for unit vector u that has the same
direction as vector a
u =
1
[a[
a
In order to calculate this unit vector, we need the magnitude of the vector a i.e [a[:
[a[ =
_
a
2
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
2
3
=
_
1
2
+ (2)
2
+ 3
2
=
14
Therefore, the unit vector for vector a =< 1, 2, 3 > is:
u =
1
14
< 1, 2, 3 >=<
1
14
,
2
14
,
3
14
>
31
The vector a is now can be written in the following form:
a = [a[u
< 1, 2, 3 > =
14
1
14
,
2
14
,
3
14
Example: Arithmetic Operations

(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 711-Exercises 10.2 (7))
Compute a +b, a 3b and [4a + 2b[ for a =< 2, 1, 2 > and b =< 1, 3, 0 >
Solution:
a +b =< 2, 1, 2 > + < 1, 3, 0 >
=< 2 + 1, 1 + 3, 2 + 0 >
=< 3, 4, 2 >
a 3b =< 2, 1, 2 > 3 < 1, 3, 0 >
=< 2, 1, 2 > < 3 1, 3 3, 3 0 >
=< 2, 1, 2 > < 3, 9, 0 >
=< 2 3, 1 9, 2 0 >
=< 1, 8, 2 >
32
VECTOR ALGEBRA
4a + 2b = 4 < 2, 1, 2 > +2 < 1, 3, 0 >
=< 4 2, 4 1, 4 (2) > + < 2 1, 2 3, 2 0 >
=< 8, 4, 8 > + < 2, 6, 0 >
=< 8 + 2, 4 + 6, 8 + 0 >
=< 10, 10, 8 >
Then, the magnitude:
[4a + 2b[ = [ < 10, 10, 8 > [
=
_
10
2
+ 10
2
+ (8)
2
=
264
=
_
4(66)
=
66
= 2
66
Exercises
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 711-Exercises 10.2 (8-20))
3.0.7 The Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors is a scalar. Hence this product is also known as
scalar product.
Denition 3.0.18. The dot product of two vectors of dimension n, a =< a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
>
33
and b = is dened by
a b =< a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
> = a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
Examples: Computing a Dot Product in R
3
and R
2
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 713-Example 3.1 and 3.2)
Theorem 3.0.19. For vectors a, b and c and any scalar d, the following hold:
i a b = b a
ii a (b +c) = a b +a c
iii (da) b = d(a b) = a (db)
iv 0 a = 0 and
v a.a = |a|
2
Theorem 3.0.20. Let be the angle between nonzero vectors a and b. Then,
a b = [a[[b[ cos .
Example: Finding the Angle between Two Vectors
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 714-Example 3.3)
Note that cos(
2
) = 0.
Therefore, if angle between vector a and b is

2
(i.e a and b are orthogonal),
the dot product of the two vectors will become 0, a b = 0
because a b = [a[[b[ cos(
2
) = [a[[b[(0) = 0
Exercises
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 719-Exercises 10.3, 1-18)
34
VECTOR ALGEBRA
15 Find a 3D vector perpendicular to vector < 2, 1, 0 >
Solution:
We are looking for vector a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> that perpendicular/ orthogonal to
vector < 2, 1, 0 >. We have the dot product of the two vectors as follows
< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> < 2, 1, 0 > = a
1
2 + a
2
(1) + a
3
0
= 2a
1
a
2
Then, using the fact that a b = 0 if a and b are orthogonal, we now have
2a
1
a
2
= 0
Since we only have 1 equation despite three unknowns, we may choose any
value for 2 of the unknown (a
3
and a
1
or a
2
). Let a
3
= 3, a
2
= 2, then nd
a
1
using the above equation:
2a
1
a
2
= 0
2a
1
2 = 0
2a
1
= 2
a
1
= 1
Our suggested vector a that perpendicular to the given vector < 2, 1, 0 > is
< 1, 2, 3 >.
Verify this answer!
3.0.8 The Cross Product (or Vector Product)
The cross product is also known as vector product since it produces a vector. The
cross product is not dened for vectors in 2D. So our remainder discussion will only
consider vectors in the plane (3D vector).
35
Denition 3.0.21. (The Cross Product) For two vectors a =< a
1
, a
2
, a
3
> and
b = in space, we dene the cross product of a and b to be
a b =
i j k
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
a
2
a
3
b
2
b
3
a
1
a
3
b
1
b
3
j +
a
1
a
2
b
1
b
2
k
Example: Computing a Cross Product
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 724-Example 4.3)
Exercises: Computing a Cross Product
(Smith and Minton, 2012, pg 731-732-Exercises 10.4 (5-10))
Theorem 3.0.22. For any 3D vector a, a a = 0 and a 0 = 0
Theorem 3.0.23. For any 3D vectors a and b, ab is orthogonal to both a and b
Theorem 3.0.24. For any 3D vectors a, b and c, and any scalar d, the following
hold:
i a b = (b a) (anticommutativity)
ii (da) b = d(a b) = a (db)
iii a (b +c) = a b +a c (distributive law)
iv (a +b) c = a c +b c (distributive law)
v a (b c) = (a b) c (scalar triple product)
vi a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c (vector triple product)
Theorem 3.0.25. For any nonzero 3D vectors a and b, if is the angle between a
and b (0 ), then
[a b[ = [a[[b[ sin().
36
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Note that from Theorem 3.0.25, when = 0 we have
[a b[ = [a[[b[ sin(0)
= [a[[b[(0) = 0.
Thus, we can conclude two nonzero 3D vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
a b = 0.
You may refer to Example 4.4 until 4.8 (Smith & Minton,2012) page 728731 to
see the uses of cross product.
37
38
Chapter 4
One Variable Function
4.1 Introduction
Denition 4.1.1. (Function) A function f is a rule that assigns exactly one
element y in a set called Range to each element x in a set called Domain. In this
case we write y = f(x).
We refer to x as the independent variable and y as the dependent variable.
Figure 17(a) and 17(b) show 2 types of relations that considered as functions.
The relation shown in Figure 17(c) however is not a functions because one element
in the domain has more than one value in the range.
39
4.1. INTRODUCTION
(a)Relation one to one: f is a function
(b)Relation many to one: f is a function
(c)Relation one to many: f is not a function
Figure 17: Types of relations
40
ONE VARIABLE FUNCTION
4.1.1 Vertical Line Test
We may determine whether or not a curve is the graph of a function by using the
Vertical Line Test. In this test, if any vertical line intersects the graph in more
than one point, the curve is not the graph of a function. Figure 18 shows a few
examples of vertical line tests on curves. In Figure 18 (a) and (c), the vertical line
intersects on two points on the curve. This means that both curves in Figure 18 (a)
and (c) are not the graph of a function. However, in 18 (b) and (d), the vertical line
only intersescts on one point on each curve. So, the curves in Figure 18 (b) and (d)
are the graph of a function.
41
4.1. INTRODUCTION
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 18: Vertical line tests on various curves
Exercises
1 Answer question (34) until (38) in (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 17.
2 Determine if each of the following are functions:
a) y = x
2
+ 1
42
b) y
2
= x + 1
43
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.1.2 Polynomial and Rational Functions
There are many types of functions. In this early section (Section 4.1), we will discuss
about polynomial and rational functions. Later, in Section 4.2 we will discuss
about trigonometric function and nally we will discuss about hyperbolic function
in Section 4.3
Polynomial Function
Denition 4.1.2. (Polynomial) A polynomial is any function that can be written
in the form
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
,
where a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
are real numbers (the coecients of the polynomial) with
a
n
,= 0 and n 0 is an integer (the degree of the polynomial).
(For examples, refer to Smith & Minton, 2012 page 12)
(Rational Function)
Denition 4.1.3. Rational Function Any function that can be written in the form
f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
where p and q are polynomials, is called a rational function.
(For example, refer to Smith & Minton, 2012 page 13)
4.1.3 Function Evaluation
Example(Pauls note)
Given f(x) = x
2
+ 6x 11, nd each of the following:
a) f(2)
b) f(10)
44
c) f(t)
d) f(t 3)
e) f(x 3)
f) f(4x 1)
Solution:
(ans:(a)3, (b)171, (c)t
2
+6t11, (d)t
2
+12t38, (e)x
2
+12x38 ,(f)16x
2
+
32x 18 )
4.1.4 Finding Roots of a Function
A solution of the equation f(x) = 0 is called a zero of the function f or a root of the
equation f(x) = 0. The zero/root of the function f corresponds to an xintercept
of the graph of y = f(x).
Example(Smith & Minton, 2012)
Find all x and y intercept of f(x) = x
2
4x + 3
Solution:
Example(Smith & Minton, 2012)
Find the zeroes of f(x) = x
2
5x 12
Solution:
Example(Pauls note)
Determine all the roots of f(t) = 9t
3
18t
2
+ 6t = 0
Solution:
(ans: t = 0, t =
3 +
_
(3)
3
, t =
3
3
3
)
You have learned about the method of Long Division in order to nd
roots of polynomial during your secondary school. You may revise this
45
4.1. INTRODUCTION
method so it much easier for you to nd roots of polynomial with order
higher than 2
4.1.5 Finding Domain and Range of a Function
It is important to nd the domain of a function where the function is dened. In
the early section we have been introduced to the denition of the domain and range
of a function. In this section we will go through a few examples how to nd them
when a function is given. Finding the range can be dicult, thus we only discuss a
few simple examples on this and more examples that involve nding the domain.
Examples (Finding the domain and range)
Find the domain and range of the following functions:
a) f(x) = 5x 3
b) g(t) =
4 7t
c) h(x) = 2x
2
+ 12x + 5
d) f(z) = [z 6[ 3
e) g(x) = 8
Solution:
(ans: (a)Domain:(, ), Range:(, ),(b)Domain:(,
4
7
], Range:[0, ), (c)Domain:(, ),
Range:(, 23], (d)Domain:(, ), Range:[3, ), (e)Domain:(, ), Range:8,
)
Examples (Finding the domain)
Find the domain of the following functions:
a) f(x) =
x 4
x
2
2x 15
b) g(t) =
6 + t t
2
46
c) h(x) =
x
x
2
9
Solution:
a) The given function f(x) =
x 4
x
2
2x 15
is not dened when the denominator
is zero. So now, we have to nd the value of x when x
2
2x 15 = 0.
x
2
2x 15 = 0
(x 5)(x + 3) = 0
x = 5 or x = 3
Therefore, the function is undened at point x = 5 and x = 3. The domain
for this function is all the real numbers except 5 and -3.
(ans: (a)Domain:All real numbers except x = 3 & x = 5 , (b)Domain:2
t 3 , (c)Domain:x < 3orx > 3)
4.1.6 Inverse Function
Figure 19 illustrates the basic idea of inverse function. Given a value in the range of
f, we may nd the respected value in the domain of f by using function g. Function
f and g reverse the action of each other.
The formal denition of inverse function is stated as follows:
Denition 4.1.4. (Inverse Function) Assume that f has domain A and g has do-
main B. Assume further that f (g(x)) is dened for all x B and g (f(x)) is dened
for all x A. If
f (g(x)) = x, for all x B, and
g (f(x)) = x, for all x A,
we say that g is the inverse of f, written g = f
1
. Equivalently, f is the inverse of
g, f = g
1
.
47
4.1. INTRODUCTION
(
Figure 19: Inverse function, g = f
1
Example (Smith & Minton, 2012-pg 26, Example 3.1)
Exercises
1 Given f(x) = 3x 2 nd f
1
(x)
Solution:
Let y = f(x) and g = f
1
(x)
We want to nd g such that g(f(x)) = x
y = 3x 2
y + 2 = 3x
x =
y + 2
3
48
Therefore, g(f(x)) = x =
f(x) + 2
3
, or g(x) = f
1
(x) =
x + 2
3
Check the answer:
We may check whether g(x) =
x + 2
3
is the inverse function for f(x) = 3x 2
using the denition of the inverse function (f(g(x)) = x).
f(g(x)) = f(
x + 2
3
)
= 3
_
x + 2
3
_
2
= (x + 2) 2
= x
We have proven that f(g(x)) = x, therefore our g(x) is the inverse function
for f(x).
2 Given g(x) =
x 3, nd g
1
(x)
Solution:
4.2 Trigonometric Function
4.2.1 Trigonometric Function as a Periodic Function
Denition 4.2.1. (Periodic Function) A function f is periodic of period T if
f(x + T) = f(x)
for all x such that x and x + T are in the domain of f. The smallest such number
T > 0 is called the fundamental period.
Table 1 shows the values of sin(x) and cos(x) functions at a few points x. x
49
4.2. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
x (in degree) -360 -180 0 30 45 60 90 180 270 360
x (in radian) 2 0

6
2

3
2
2
f(x) = sin(x) 0 0 0
1
2
2
2
3
2
1 0 -1 0
f(x) = cos(x) 1 -1 1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0 -1 0 1
Table 1: Values of sin and cos functions at a few angles in both degrees and radians
is an angle that can be measured in degree or radians. The given table also show
the measurement in both units. Most of the time later in this lecture note, we will
consider the angle in radians. From the table, we have:
sin(2) = 0 = sin(0) = sin(2 + 2)
sin(0) = 0 = sin(2) = sin(0 + 2)
sin() = 0 = sin() = sin( + 2)
and so on. We can see that sin(x) = sin(x + 2). Therefore we may conclude that
sin(x) is a periodic function with period T = 2.
for the cos function, we have
cos(2) = 1 = cos(0) = cos(2 + 2)
cos(0) = 1 = cos(2) = cos(0 + 2)
cos() = 1 = cos() = cos( + 2)
and so on. This shows that cos(x) = cos(x + 2). Thus, cos(x) is also a periodic
function with period T = 2. We can see the repetition of function sin(x) and cos(x)
for every 2 more clearly in Figure 20.
50
(a) (b)
Figure 20: Graphs for sin and cos functions
4.2.2 Denitions of Trigonometric Function
We have been introduced to sin and cos functions. The following denitions are for
the other four trigonometric functions:
Denition 4.2.2. (Tangent, Cotangent, Secant and Cosecant)
The tangent function is dened by tan(x) =
sin(x)
cos(x)
The cotangent function is dened by cot(x) =
cos(x)
sin(x)
=
1
tan(x)
The secant function is dened by sec(x) =
1
cos(x)
The cosecant function is dened by csc(x) =
1
sin(x)
Trigonometric Function in terms of a Right Triangle
Figure 21: Right triangle to dene trigonometric functions
51
From the right triangle as illustrated in Figure 21, we have the following denition
for the six trigonometric functions:
cos(x) =
adjacent
hypotenuse
sin(x) =
opposite
hypotenuse
tan(x) =
opposite
adjacent
cot(x) =
adjacent
opposite
sec(x) =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cot(x) =
hypotenuse
opposite
Trigonometric Function in terms of a Unit Circle
Imagine a circle with radius 1. For every given angle, we may draw a line from
the center towards the point on the circle. The point where the line and the circle
intersect has coordinate (cos(x), sin(x)) where x is the counterclockwise angle be-
tween the positive xaxis to the drawn line. Based on Figure 22, we can see that
cos(
4
) =
2
2
and cos(
4
) =
2
2
.
Your Task: Draw lines for another angles (
6
,

3
etc) in the unit circle
with the appropriate coordinates for the point of intersection
Exercises
1) Without using calculator, evaluate each of the following:
a) sin(
2
3
) and sin(
2
3
) (Given cos(
3
) =
1
2
)
b) cos(
7
6
) and cos(
7
6
) (Given sin(
6
) =
1
2
)
c) tan(
4
) and tan(
7
4
) (Given sin(
4
) =
2
2
)
52
Figure 22: Denition of cos(x) and sin(x) on a unit circle
4.2.3 Trigonometric Identities
Theorem 4.2.3. For any real numbers and , the following identities hold:
sin( + ) = sin() cos() + sin() cos()
cos( + ) = cos() cos() sin() sin()
sin
2
() =
1
2
(1 cos(2))
cos
2
() =
1
2
(1 + cos(2))
53
Exercises(Smith & Minton) page 40
Prove that the following trigonometric identities are true:
a) sin(2) = 2 sin() cos()
b) sin( ) = sin() cos() sin() cos()
c) cos( ) = cos() cos() + sin() sin()
Solution:
4.2.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations
Example(Smith & Minton, 2012) page 33
Find all solutions of the equations:
a) 2 sin(x) 1 = 0
b) cos
2
(x) 3 cos(x) + 2 = 0
Solution:
a) 2 sin(x) 1 = 0
2 sin(x) 1 = 0 (8)
2 sin(x) = 1 (9)
sin(x) =
1
2
(10)
From the unit circle, we know that sin(x) =
1
2
when x =

6
or x =

6
. Since
sin(x) has period 2, other possible solutions are x =

6
+2n or x =

6
+2n
for any interger n.
54
b) cos
2
(x) 3 cos(x) + 2 = 0
4.2.5 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Originally the trigonometric functions is not one to one functions. For example, if
we refer to f = sin(t) graph, keep repeating the same value after a certain period.
Thus,this function does not has an inverse function. However we can retrict our
domain to certain interval so the function will become one to one function. For
example, for the sine function, we can choose interval (
2
,

2
). The denitions of
the inverse trigonometric functions are then as follow:
Denition 4.2.4. (Inverse sine)
y = sin
1
(x) if and only if sin(y) = x and
2
y

2
Denition 4.2.5. (Inverse cosine)
y = cos
1
(x) if and only if cos(y) = x and 0 y
Denition 4.2.6. (Inverse tangent)
y = tan
1
(x) if and only if tan(y) = x and
2
< y <

2
Denition 4.2.7. (Inverse secant)
y = sec
1
(x) if and only if sec(y) = x and y [0,

2
) (
2
, ]
Please go through examples in (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 36-39
4.3 Hyperbolic Function
Hiperbolic functions are special combination of exponential function. There are 2
types of hyperbolic functions which are the hyperbolic sine (denoted as sinh(x) )
and hyperbolic cosine(denoted as cosh(x)) functions:
sinh(x) =
e
x
e
x
2
and cosh =
e
x
+ e
x
2
55
4.3. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION
Examples (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 49
Compute f(0), f(1) and f(1), and determine how f(x) and f(x) compare for
each of the following functions:
a) f(x) = sinh(x)
b) f(x) = cosh(x)
Exercises (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 52
Find all the solutions of the following:
a) sinh(x
2
1) = 0
b) cosh(3x + 2) = 0
Solution:
a) sinh(x
2
1) = 0
sinh(x
2
1) = 0
e
(x
2
1)
e
(x
2
1)
2
= 0
e
(x
2
1)
e
(x
2
1)
= 0
e
(x
2
1)
= e
(x
2
1)
ln(e
(x
2
1)
) = ln(e
(x
2
1)
)
x
2
1 = (x
2
1)
2x
2
= 2
x = 1 or x = 1
b) cosh(3x + 2) = 0
56
Chapter 5
Function Derivative
5.1 Denition of Derivative
Denition 5.1.1. Derivative at a Point
The derivative of the function f at the point x = a is dened as
f
(a) = lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say that f is dierentiable at x = a.
Alternatively, we may write
f
(a) = lim
ba
f(b) f(a)
b a
Example (Smith & Minton) pg 136
Compute the derivative of f(x) = 3x
3
+ 2x 1 at x = 1.
Solution:
Denition 5.1.2. Derivative at an Unspecied Point
57
5.1. DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE
The derivative of the function f is the function f
given by
f
(x) = lim
h0
f(x + h) f(x)
h
.
The domain of f
is the set of all x
s for which this limit exists. The process of

computing a derivative is called dierentiation. Further, f is dierentiable on an
open interval I if it is dierentiable at every point in I.
Example (Smith & Minton) pg 137
Compute the derivative of f(x) = 3x
3
+ 2x 1 at an unspecied value of x. Then,
evaluate the derivative at x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
Solution:
Example (Smith & Minton) pg 137: Derivative of a Simple Rational
Function
If f(x) =
1
x
(x ,= 0), nd f
(x)
Solution:
Example Smith & Minton) pg 138: Derivative of the Square Root
Function
If f(x) =
x (for x 0), nd f
(x)
Solution:
Alternative Derivative Notations If we have y = f(x), we may denote the
derivative of the functions as follows:
f
(x) = y
=
dy
dx
=
df
dx
=
d
dx
f(x).
58
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Exercises
(Smith & Minton, 2012 pg 143 and Pauls note)
1) Using the denition of derivative provided in this section, compute f
(a) for the

following functions:
a) f(x) = 3x + 1, a = 1
b) f(x) =
3x + 1, a = 1
Solution:
a) f(x) = 3x + 1, a = 1
(ans:f
(1) = 3)
b) f(x) =
3x + 1, a = 1
(ans:f
(1) =
3
4
)
2) Using the denition of derivative provided in this section, compute f
(x) for
the following functions:
a) f(x) = 3x
2
+ 1
b) f(x) = x
3
+ 2x 1
c) f(x) =
3
x + 1
d) f(x) =
3x + 1
e) f(x) = 2x
2
16x + 35
f) f(x) =
t
t + 1
g) f(x) =
5z 8
Solution:
59
5.1. DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE
a) f(x) = 3x
2
+ 1
(ans: f
(x) = 6x)
b) f(x) = x
3
+ 2x 1
(ans: f
(x) = 3x
2
+ 2)
c) f(x) =
3
x + 1
(ans: f
(x) =
3
(x+1)
2
)
d) f(x) =
3x + 1
(ans: f
(x) =
3
2
3x+1
)
e) f(x) = 2x
2
16x + 35
(ans: f
(x) = 4x 16)
f) f(x) =
t
t + 1
(ans:
1
(t + 1)
2
)
g) f(x) =
5z 8
(ans:
5
2
5z 8
)
5.1.1 Derivative as Slope of Tangent Line
The slope of the tangent line to f(x) at x = a is f
(a). The tangent line then is

given by:
y = f(a) + f
(a)(x a)
Example (Pauls Note)
Find the tangent line to the following function at z = 3
R(z) =
5z 8
60
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Solution:
Using the denition of derivative, we have
R
(z) = lim
h0
_
5(z + h) 8
5z 8
h
= lim
h0
_
5(z + h) 8
5z 8
h

_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
= lim
h0
(5(z + h) 8) (5z 8)
h
_
_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
_
= lim
h0
5z + 5h 8 5z + 8
h
_
_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
_
= lim
h0
5h
h
_
_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
_
= lim
h0
5
_
_
5(z + h) 8 +
5z 8
_
=
5
_
5z 8 +
5z 8
_
=
5
2
_
5z 8
_
Then, we have at z = 3
R
(3) =
5
2
_
_
5(3) 8
_
=
5
2
_
15 8
_
=
5
2
_
7
_
61
5.2. DERIVATIVE RULES
The tangent line is then
y = R(3) + R
(3)(z 3)
=
_
5(3) 8 +
5
2
_
7
_(z 3)
=
7 +
5
2
_
7
_(z 3)
Exercises: see (Smith & Minton,2012) pg 134, no 1-8
5.2 Derivative Rules
5.2.1 The Power Rule
In power rule, we have the following:
For any constant c,
d
dx
c = 0.
For any integer n > 0,
d
dx
x
n
= nx
n1
.
(General) For any real number r ,= 0,
d
dx
x
r
= rx
r1
.
Example (See Example 3.2 (Smith & Minton,2012) pg 148)
5.2.2 General Derivative Rules
If f(x) and g(x) are dierentiable at x and c is any constant, then
d
dx
[f(x) g(x)] = f
(x) g
(x),
62
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
d
dx
[cf(x)] = cf
(x)
Example (See Examples (Smith & Minton,2012) pg 149)
Exercises (Pauls Note)
1 Dierentiate each of the following functions:
a) f(x) = 15x
100
3x
12
+ 5x 46
b) g(t) = 2t
6
+ 7t
6
c) y = 8z
3
1
3z
5
+ z 23
2 Rewrite each of the following functions before computing the derivatives:
a) y =
3
x
2
(2x x
2
)
b) h(t) =
2t
5
+ t
2
5
t
2
5.2.3 The Product Rule
If the two functions f(x) and g(x) are dierentiable (i.e the derivative exist) then
the product is also dierentiable and,
d
dx
(f(x)g(x)) = f
(x)g(x) + f(x)g
(x)
Dierentiate each of the following functions using product rule:
a) y =
3
x
2
(2x x
2
)
63
5.2. DERIVATIVE RULES
b) f(x) = (6x
3
x) (10 20x)
Solution:
a) y =
3
x
2
(2x x
2
)
Let f =
3
x
2
and g = (2x x
2
).
The problem now can be written as y = fg
Thus, using the product rule, we have:
y
= f
g + fg
=
_
d
dx
3
x
2
_
(2x x
2
) +
3
x
2
_
d
dx
(2x x
2
)
_
=
_
d
dx
x
2
3
_
(2x x
2
) +
3
x
2
_
d
dx
(2x x
2
)
_
=
_
2
3
x
2
3
1
_
(2x x
2
) +
3
x
2
(2 2x
21
)
=
_
2
3
x
1
3
_
(2x x
2
) +
3
x
2
(2 2x)
=
_
2
3
x
1
3
_
(2x x
2
) + x
2
3
(2 2x)
=
4
3
x
2
3

2
3
x
5
3
+ 2x
2
3
2x
5
3
=
_
4
3
+ 2
_
x
2
3

_
2
3
+ 2
_
x
5
3
=
10
3
x
2
3
8
3
x
5
3
b) f(x) = (6x
3
x) (10 20x)
5.2.4 The Quotient Rule
If the two functions f(x) and g(x) are dierentiable (i.e the derivative exist) then
the quotient is also dierentiable and,
d
dx
_
f(x)
g(x)
_
=
f
(x)g(x) f(x)g
(x)
g
2
(x)
64
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
a) W(z) =
3z + 9
2 z
b) h(x) =
4
x
x
2
2
c) f(x) =
4
x
6
d) y =
w
6
5
5.2.5 The Chain Rule
If g is dierentiable at x and f is dierentiable at g(x), then
d
dx
[f (g(x))] = f
(g(x)) g
(x)
Example (See Example 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 (Smith & Minton,2012) pg 162)
Dierentiate f(x) =
5z 8 using the chain rule.

5.3 Derivative of Special Functions
5.3.1 Derivative of the Trigonometric Function
We can nd the derivatives of trigonometric functions using the denition of deriva-
tive discussed in the early section and the following lemmas:
65
5.3. DERIVATIVE OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
lim
0
sin = 0
lim
0
cos = 1
lim
0
sin
= 1
lim
0
1 cos
= 0
From the lemmas stated above, we may prove that the following Theorems hold
for derivative of trigonometric functions:
d
dx
sin x = cos x
d
dx
cos x = sin x
d
dx
tanx = sec
2
x
d
dx
cot x = csc
2
x
d
dx
sec x = sec xtanx
d
dx
csc x = csc xcot x
You may refer to (Smith & minton, 2012) page 170 for proofs of a few trigonometric
functions stated above.
5.3.2 Derivative of the Exponential and Logarithmic Func-
tions
d
dx
a
x
= a
x
lna, a > 0
d
dx
e
x
= e
x
d
dx
log
b
x =
1
xlnb
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
5.3.3 Derivative of the Hyperbolic Function
d
dx
sinh x = cosh x
d
dx
cosh x = sinh x
d
dx
tanh x = sech
2
x
d
dx
coth x = csch
2
x
d
dx
sechx = sechxtanhx
d
dx
cschx = cschxcoth x
66
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Figure 23: Derivative Rules (Source: math.arizona.edu/ calc/Rules.pdf)
Exercises
1) Use chain rule to dierentiate the following special functions problems
(www.math.ucdavis.edu/kouba):
a) y = sin(5x)
b) y = e
5x
2
+7x13
c) y = 2
cot x
d) y = 3 tan
x
e) y = ln(17 x)
f) y = log(4 + cos x)
67
Solutions:
a) y = sin(5x)
Let f(g(x)) = sin(g(x)) and g(x) = 5x
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
= cos(g(x))g
(x)
= cos(5x)(5)
= 5 cos(5x)
b) y = e
5x
2
+7x13
Let f(g(x)) = e
g(x)
and g(x) = 5x
2
+ 7x 13
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
= e
g(x)
g
(x)
= e
5x
2
+7x13
(10x + 7)
= (10x + 7)e
5x
2
+7x13
c) y = 2
cot x
Let f(g(x)) = 2
g(x)
and g(x) = cot x
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
= ln 22
g(x)
g
(x)
= ln 22
cot x
(csc
2
x)
= 2
cot x
(ln 2)(csc
2
x)
d) y = 3 tan
x
68
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Let f(g(x)) = 3 tan(g(x)) and g(x) =
x
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
= 3 sec
2
(g(x))g
(x)
= 3 sec
2
(
x)(x
1
2
)
= 3 sec
2
(
x)(
1
2
x
1
2
1)
= 3 sec
2
(
x)(
1
2
x
1
2
)
= 3 sec
2
(
x)(
1
2
1
x
1
2
)
= 3 sec
2
(
x)(
1
2
x
= (
3
2
x
sec
2
(
x)
e) y = ln(17 x)
Let f(g(x)) = ln(g(x)) and g(x) = (17 x)
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
=
1
g(x)
g
(x)
=
1
(17 x)
(1)
=
1
(17 x)
=
1
x 17
f) y = log(4 + cos x)
69
Let f(g(x)) = log(g(x)) and g(x) = 4 + cos x
y
= f
(g(x))g
(x) =
df
dg
dg
gx
=
1
g(x) ln10
g
(x)
=
1
(4 + cos x) ln 10
(sin(x))
=
sin(x)
(4 + cos x) ln 10
2) Dierentiate each of the following functions. You will need to apply
the chain rule more than once. (www.math.ucdavis.edu/kouba):
a) y = cos
2
(x
3
)
b) y =
1
5
sec
4
(4 + x
3
)
c) y =
_
sin(7x + ln(5x))
d) y = 10(1 + (2 (6 + 7x
4
)
9
)
3
)
5
e) y = 4 ln(ln(ln(sec x)))
f) y = tan
3
_
cot(7x)
Solutions:
a) y = cos
2
(x
3
) = (cos(x
3
))
2
70
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Let f(g) = g
2
, g(h) = cos(h) and h(x) = x
3
y
=
d
dx
f (g((h(x))))
=
df
dg
dg
dh
dh
dx
= 2g(x)(sin(h(x)))3x
2
= 2(cos(x
3
))(sin(x
3
))3x
2
= 6x
2
cos(x
3
) sin(x
3
)
b) y =
1
5
sec
4
(4 + x
3
)
Let f(g) =
1
5
g, g(h) = h
4
, h(i) = sec(i), and i(x) = 4 + x
3
y
=
d
dx
f (g((h(i(x)))))
=
df
dg
dg
dh
dh
di
di
dx
=
1
5
(4h)
5
(sec(i) tan(i))3x
2
=
12x
2
5
(sec(4 + x
3
))
5
sec(4 + x
3
) tan(4 + x
3
)
=
12
5
x
2
sec
4
(4 + x
3
) tan(4 + x
3
)
c) y =
_
sin(7x + ln(5x))
71
Let f(g) =
g = g
1
2
, g(h) = sin(h) and h(x) = 7x + ln(5x)
y
=
d
dx
f (g ((h(x))))
=
df
dg
dg
dh
dh
dx
=
1
2
g
1
2
(cos(h))h
(x)
Evaluate h
(x) :
dh
dx
=
d
dx
(7x) +
d
dx
(ln(5x)) = 7 +
1
5x
(5) =
7x + 1
x
Therefore
y
=
1
2
g
1
2
(cos(h))
7x + 1
x
=
1
2
g
(cos(h))
7x + 1
x
=
1
2
_
sin(7x + ln(5x))
(cos(7x + ln(5x)))
7x + 1
x
=
(7x + 1) cos(7x + ln(5x))
2x
_
sin(7x + ln(5x))
d) y = 10(1 + (2 (6 + 7x
4
)
9
)
3
)
5
y
= 37800x
3
(1 + (2 (6 + 7x
4
)
9
)
3
)
4
(2 (6 + 7x
4
)
9
)
2
(6 + 7x
4
)
8
e) y = 4 ln(ln(ln(sec x)))
y
=
4 tanx
ln(ln(sec x)) ln(sec x)
f) y = tan
3
_
cot(7x)
y
=
21csc
2
(7x)(tan
2
_
cot(7x))(sec
2
_
cot(7x))
2
_
cot(7x)
72
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
5.4 Higher Order Derivatives
In the previous sections, we have learned how to dierentiate various functions to
obtain the functions derivatives of order one only. We are able to nd the sec-
ond derivatives of the functions by simply dierentiate the rst derivatives of the
functions. Then, the third derivatives can be obtained by dierentiating the second
derivatives. Consider the following simple example to have a clear idea about higher
order derivatives:
Example
Find the rst, second, third and fourth derivative of y = 5x
6
Solution:
The function is y = 5x
6
Dierentiate once to get the rst derivative: y
= y
(1)
=
dy
dx
= 30x
5
Dierentiate the rst derivative to get the second derivative: y
= y
(2)
=
d
2
y
dx
2
= 150x
4
Dierentiate the second derivative to get the third derivative: y
= y
(3)
=
d
3
y
dx
3
= 600x
3
Dierentiate the third derivative to get the fourth derivative: y
= y
(4)
=
d
4
y
dx
4
= 1800x
2
Exercises
1) Find the rst four derivatives for each of the following (Pauls Note)
a) R(t) = 3t
2
+ 8t
1
2
+ e
t
b) y = cos x
c) f(y) = sin(3y) + e
2y
+ ln(7y)
Solution:
73
5.4. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES
a) R(t) = 3t
2
+ 8t
1
2
+ e
t
R
(t) = 6t + 4t
1
2
+ e
t
R
(t) = 6 2t
3
2
+ e
t
R
(t) = 3t
5
2
+ e
t
R
(t) =
15
2
t
7
2
+ e
t
b) y = cos x
y
= sin(x)
y
= cos(x)
y
= sin(x)
y
= cos(x)
c) f(y) = sin(3y) + e
2y
+ ln(7y)
f
= 3 cos(3y) 2e
2y
+ y
1
f
=
f
=
f
= 81 sin(3y) + 16e
2y
6y
4
2) Find the second derivative for each of the following functions (Pauls Note):
a) Q(t) = sec(5t)
b) e
12w
3
c) f(t) = ln(1 + t
2
)
Solution:
74
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
a) Q(t) = sec(5t)
Q
(t) = 25 sec(5t) tan

2
(5t) + 25 sec
3
(5t)
b) e
12w
3
g
(w) = 12we
12w
3
+ 36w
4
e
12w
3
c) f(t) = ln(1 + t
2
)
f
(t) =
2 2t
2
(1 + t
2
)
2
5.5 Implicit Derivative
Usually we have been asking to nd the derivative, i.e y
=
df
dx
when given an equa-
tion in the form of y = f(x). However, sometimes we cannot write a function in the
form of y = f(x). In this case, implicit dierentiation might be needed. Consider
the following example, discussed in (Smith & Minton):
Example (Smith & Minton) page 186
Find y
(x) implicitly for y

2
+ 2e
xy
= 6
Solution:
Dierentiate both sides of the equations with respect to x:
d
dx
_
y(x)
2
+ 2e
xy(x)
_
=
d
dx
(6)
2y(x)y
(x) + 2
d
dx
(e
x
yx) = 0
Solving
d
dx
(e
x
y(x)) using chain rule:
75
5.5. IMPLICIT DERIVATIVE
Let f(g) = e
g
and g(x) = xy(x)
d
dx
(e
x
y(x)) =
df
dg
dg
dx
= e
g
(xy
(x) y(x)) Using product rule

= e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x))
Substitute back this derivatives to the original problem,
2y(x)y
(x) 2e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)) = 0
Simplify the equation by dividing both sides by 2, we have
y(x)y
(x) e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)) = 0
Dierentiate once more
d
dx
_
y(x)y
(x) e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x))
_
= 0
y(x)y
(x) + y
(x)y
(x)
d
dx
e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)) = 0
76
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Solve
d
dx
e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)):
d
dx
e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x))
= e
xy(x)
d
dx
(xy
(x) + y(x)) +
_
d
dx
e
xy(x)
_
(xy
(x) + y(x))
= e
xy(x)
((xy
(x) + y
(x)) + y
(x)) e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)) (xy
(x) + y(x))
Then, by substituting this expression to the solution, now we have
y(x)y
(x) + y
(x)y
(x)
_
e
xy(x)
((xy
(x) + y
(x)) + y
(x))
e
xy(x)
(xy
(x) + y(x)) (xy
(x) + y(x))
_
= 0
Grouping all the terms involving y
(x) on one side of the equation gives us:

yy
(x) xe
xy
y
(x) = [y
(x)]
2
e
xy
[y + xy
(x)]
2
+ 2e
xy
y
(x)
(y xe
xy
)y
(x) = [y
(x)]
2
e
xy
[y + xy
(x)]
2
+ 2e
xy
y
(x)
y
(x) =
[y
(x)]
2
e
xy
[y + xy
(x)]
2
+ 2e
xy
y
(x)
(y xe
xy
)
Exercises
1) Do Exercise 2.8 (Smith & Minton) page 191, no 5-19.
2) Find y
(x) for y = x
x
.
Solution:
We cant dierentiate y = x
x
using the power rule for y = x
a
because our a is not
a constant in this case. Similarly we cannot use the formula for y = a
x
. Therefore,
we apply ln to both sides of the equation:
ln(y) = ln(x
x
)
= xln(x)
77
5.6. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
Now, in order to nd y
, we have to use implicit dierentiation. (Please continue

until you get y
= x
x
(1 + ln x))
5.6 Applications of Derivatives
In this section we will go through a few examples on applications of derivatives. You
have been given a task to nd another applications so you will have a broader view
about this topic.
Rate of Changes
Example: Pumping a Sphere Ballooon (Pauls Note)
Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at a rate of 5cm
3
/min. Determine
the rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing when the diameter of the
balloon is 20cm.
Solution:
Let V (t) represent the volume of the balloon and r(t) is the radius of the balloon.
Since the balloon is spherical, we have
V (t) =
4
3
[r(t)]
3
(11)
The question ask us to nd
dr
dt
when r =
20cm
2
= 10cm. The given information
is, the rate of the volume is
dV
dt
= 5cm
3
/min. Therefore, we need to implicitly
dierentiate Equation 11:
V
(t) =
d
dt
4
3
[r(t)]
3
= 4[r(t)]
2
r
(t)
78
FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
Subtitute V

(t) = 5cm
3
min and r(t) = 10cm to the above equation, we have
5cm
3
min
1
= 4(10cm)
2
r
(t)
r
(t) =
5cm
3
min
1
4(10cm)
2
=
5cm
3
min
1
400cm
2
=
1
80
cm/min
Maximum and minimum
79
5.6. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
80
Chapter 6
Integration
6.1 Introduction to Integration
In the previous chapter, we have been asking to nd the derivative of a given func-
tion. In this section we will work the other way around. When a function is given,
we need to nd what is the function that we need to dierentiate in order to obtain
the given function. In other words, we will try to nd the anti-derivative of the
given function. You may refer to the following simple example to understand this
idea.
Example
Given that f(x) = 3x
2
. Find the anti-derivative of this function.
Solution:
We want to nd F(x) such that F
(x) = f(x). So, what is the function that we

need to dierentiate in order to get 3x
2
.
Let F(x) = x
n
d
dx
x
n
= (n)x
n1
= 3x
2
(12)
81
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATION
Therefore we have n = 3. Thus, the answer is F(x) = x
3
.
We may check this answer by dierentiating this function.
F
(x) =
d
dx
x
3
= 3x
2
Note that, the dierentiation of any constant will lead to zero (
d
dx
c = 0). There-
fore, we can write a more general answer as:
The antiderivative of 3x
2
is
F(x) = x
3
+ c
where c is a constant.
Denition 6.1.1. Given a function, f(x), an anti-derivative of f(x) is any function
F(x) such that
F
(x) = f(x)
If F(x) is any anti-derivative of f(x) then the most general anti-derivative of f(x)
is called an indenite integral and denoted as,
_
f(x)dx = F(x) + c, c is any constant (13)
In this denition, the
_
is called the integral symbol, f(x) is called the inte-
grand, x is called the integration variable and the c is called the constant of
integration.
Basically there are 2 types of integral, called the Indenite Integral and the
Denite Integral. We will rst discuss the indenite integral because most of the
theory is applicable to the denite integral. However, we will also specically discuss
the denite integral afterwards.
82
INTEGRATION
6.2 Indenite Integral
Properties of the Indenite Integral
(Pauls Note)
1)
_
kf(x)dx = k
_
f(x)dx where k is any number. So we can factor multiplica-
tive constants out of indenite integrals.
2)
_
f(x) g(x)dx =
_
f(x)dx
_
g(x)dx. In other words, the integral of a sum
of dierence of functions is the sum or dierence of the individual integrals.
This rule can be extended to as many functions as we need.
In the next section we will show how to evaluate the indenite integral.
6.2.1 The Power Rule
The integral of a power of x can be evaluated as follows:
_
x
n
dx =
x
n+1
n + 1
+ c n ,= 1
Example
Evaluate
_
4x
7
+ 2x + 1dx.
Solution:
_
4x
7
+ 2x + 1dx = 4
_
x
7
dx + 2
_
xdx +
_
x
0
dx
= 4
x
7+1
7 + 1
+ 2
x
1+1
1 + 1
+
x
0+1
0 + 1
+ c = 4
x
8
8
+ 2
x
2
2
+
x
1
1
+ c
=
x
8
2
+ x
2
+ x + c
83
6.2. INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
Exercises
Evaluate each of the following indenite integrals.
a)
_
3t
5
4t
2
+ 5dt
b)
_
x
7
+ x
7
dx
c)
_
2
x
3
x
7
+
2
8
dx
d)
_
dx
e)
_
x(x
2
+ 2x + 1)dx
f)
_
t
2
dx
Solution:
a)
_
3t
5
4t
2
+ 5dt
_
3t
5
4t
2
+ 5dt =
3t
6
6

4t
1
1
+ 5t + c
=
t
6
2
+
4
t
+ 5t + c
b)
_
x
7
+ x
7
dx
_
x
7
+ x
7
dx =
x
8
8
+
x
6
6
+ c
=
x
8
8

1
6x
6
+ c
84
INTEGRATION
c)
_
2
x
3
x
7
+
2
8x
dx
_
2
x
3
x
7
+
2
8x
dx =
_
2(x
3
)
1
2
(x
7
)
1
3
+
2
8x
1
2
dx
=
_
2x
3
2
x
7
3
+
2x
1
2
8
dx
=
2x
5
2
5
2
x
10
3
10
3
+
2x
1
2
1
2
8
+ c
=
4x
5
2
5

3x
10
3
10
+
4x
1
2
8
+ c
=
4x
5
2
5

3x
10
3
10
+
2 2x
1
2
2 2 2
+ c
=
4x
5
2
5

3x
10
3
10
+
2x
1
2
2
+ c
=
4x
5
2
5

3x
10
3
10
+
2x
1
2
+ c
=
4x
5
2
5

3x
10
3
10
+ 2
1
2
x
1
2
+ c
d)
_
dx
_
dx = x + c
e)
_
x(x
2
+ 2x + 1)dx
_
x(x
2
+ 2x + 1)dx =
_
x
3
+ 2x
2
+ xdx
=
x
4
4
+
2x
3
3
+
x
2
2
+ c
f)
_
t
2
dx
_
t
2
dx = t
2
x + c
85
6.2.2 The Trigonometric Functions
The indenite integrals of the trigonometric functions are listed as follow:
_
sin xdx = cos x + c
_
cos xdx = sin x + c
_
sec
2
xdx = tanx + c
_
sec xtanxdx = sec x + c
_
csc
2
xdx = cot x + c
_
csc xcot xdx = csc x + c
6.2.3 The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
The following list shows the integrals that involve exponential and logarithm func-
tions:
1)
_
e
x
dx = e
x
+ c
2)
_
a
x
dx =
a
x
ln a
+ c
3)
_
1
x
dx =
_
x
1
dx = ln [x[ + c
4)
_
f
(x)
f(x)
dx = ln [f(x)[ + c in any interval in which f(x) ,= 0
Try This
Prove the no. (4) rule in the above formula using the chain rule of derivative.
Solution:
86
INTEGRATION
Using chain rule, we may nd the derivative of ln [f(x)[
d
dx
ln [f(x)[ =
d
dx
ln
_
(f(x))
2
=
1
_
(f(x))
2
d
dx
((f(x))
2
)
1
2
=
1
_
(f(x))
2
1
2
((f(x))
2
)
1
2
2f(x)f
(x)
=
1
_
(f(x))
2
1
((f(x))
2
)
1
2
f(x)f
(x)
=
1
_
(f(x))
2
_
(f(x))
2
f(x)f
(x)
=
f(x)
(f(x))
2
f
(x)
=
f
(x)
(f(x))
It is now shown that derivative of ln [f(x)[ is equal to
f
(x)
(f(x))
. Therefore, the an-
tiderivative of
f
(x)
(f(x))
is as stated in rule no. (4).
Exercises
1) Find the general antiderivative (Exercises 4.1 page 307 (Smith & Minton, 2012))
a)
_
(2 sin x + cos x)dx
b)
_
(3 cos x sin x)dx
c)
_
2 sec xtanxdx
d)
_
5 sec
2
xdx
e)
_
(3e
x
2)dx
f)
_
(4x 2e
x
)dx
g)
_
(2x
1
+ sin x)dx
87
h)
_
_
2 cos x
e
2x
_
dx
i)
_
e
x
e
x
+ 3
Solution:
a)
_
(2 sinx + cos x)dx
b)
_
(3 cos x sin x)dx
_
(3 cos x sin x)dx = 3
_
cos xdx
_
sin xdx
= 3(sin x) (cos x) + c
= 3 sin x + cos x + c
c)
_
2 sec xtanxdx
d)
_
5 sec
2
xdx
e)
_
(3e
x
2)dx
f)
_
(4x 2e
x
)dx
_
(4x 2e
x
)dx =
4x
2
2
2e
x
+ c
= 2x
2
2e
x
+ c
g)
_
(2x
1
+ sin x)dx
_
(2x
1
+ sin x)dx = 2
_
1
x
dx +
_
sin xdx
= 2 lnx cos(x) + c
88
INTEGRATION
h)
_
_
2 cos x
e
2x
_
dx
_
_
2 cos x
e
2x
_
dx = 2
_
cos xdx
_
(e
2x
)
1
2
dx
= 2
_
cos xdx
_
(e
x
)dx
= 2 sinx e
x
+ c
i)
_
e
x
e
x
+ 3
dx
Let f(x) = e
x
+ 3. Hence, f
(x) = e
x
. Therefore, we may rewrite the above
integrand in the form of
f
(x)
f(x)
. It is known that
_
f
(x)
f(x)
dx = ln [f(x)[ + c
In what follows,
_
e
x
e
x
+ 3
dx = ln[e
x
+ 3[ + c
2) Given the following information, determine the function f(x) (Pauls Note)
a) f
(x) = 4x
3
9 + 2 sinx + 7e
x
, f(0) = 15
b) f
(x) = 15
x + 5x
3
+ 6, f(1) =
5
4
, f(4) = 404
Solution:
Recall that
f(x) =
_
f
(x)dx
Since the values of the function is given at specic points, we are able to nd the
constant of the integration.
a) f
(x) = 4x
3
9 + 2 sinx + 7e
x
, f(0) = 15
89
6.3. DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Integrate the derivative:
_
4x
3
9 + 2 sin x + 7e
x
dx =
4x
4
4
9x + 2(cos x) + 7e
x
+ c
= x
4
2 cos x + 7e
x
+ c
Substitute the value at the given point f(0) = 15:
f(x) = x
4
9x 2 cos x + 7e
x
+ c
f(0) = 0
4
9(0) 2 cos(0) + 7e
(
0) + c = 15
0 0 2(1) + 7(1) + c = 15
5 + c = 15
c = 15 5
c = 10
Therefore,
f(x) = x
4
9x 2 cos x + 7e
x
+ 10
b) f
(x) = 15
x + 5x
3
+ 6, f(1) =
5
4
, f(4) = 404
ans:
f(x) = 4x
5
2
+ 14x
5
+ 3x
2
13
2
x 2
6.3 Denite Integral
Denition 6.3.1. Given a function f(x) that is continuous on the interval [a, b] we
divide the interval into n subintervals of equal width, x, and from each interval
choose a point, x
i
. Then, the denite integral of f(x) from a to b is
_
b
a
f(x)dx = lim
n
n
i=1
f(x
i
)x
90
INTEGRATION
Using the denition of the denite integral, compute the following
_
2
0
x
2
+ 1dx
Solution:
_
2
0
x
2
+ 1dx = lim
n
n
i=1
f(x
i
)x
The interval [0, 2] is divided into n subinterval. Therefore, we may dene the width
x as follows:
x =
2 0
n
=
2
n
Our subintervals are then
[0,
2
n
], [
2
n
,
4
n
], [
4
n
,
6
n
], , [
2(i 1)
n
,
2i
n
], [
2(n 1)
n
, 2]
We may choose x
i
as the right endpoint, the left endpoint or the midpoint of the
i
th
subinterval. For simplicity, in this solution we choose x
i
as the right endpoint of
the i
th
subinterval:
x
i
=
2i
n
The summation in the denition of the denite integral is then
n
i=1
f(x
i
)x =
n
i=1
f(
2i
n
)
2
n
=
n
i=1
((
2i
n
)
2
+ 1)
2
n
=
n
i=1
_
8i
2
n
3
+
2
n
_
91
We can simplify the above summation as follows:
n
i=1
_
8i
2
n
3
+
2
n
_
=
n
i=1
_
8i
2
n
3
_
+
n
i=1
_
2
n
_
=
8
n
3
n
i=1
i
2
+
2
n
n
i=1
1
=
8
n
3
(1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ + n
2
) +
2
n
(1 + 1 + 1 + + 1)
=
8
n
3
_
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
_
+
2
n
n(1)
=
4
n
2
_
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3
_
+ 2
=
_
4(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3n
2
_
+ 2
=
14n
2
+ 12n + 4
3n
2
Finally, we may compute the denite integral:
_
2
0
x
2
+ 1dx = lim
n
n
i=1
f(x
i
)x = lim
n
14n
2
+ 12n + 4
3n
2
= lim
n
_
14n
2
3n
2
+
12n
3n
2
+
4
3n
2
_
= lim
n
_
14
3
+
4
n
+
4
3n
2
_
=
14
3
+ 0 + 0
=
14
3
6.3.1 Properties of the Denite Integral
(Pauls Note)
1)
_
b
a
f(x)dx =
_
a
b
f(x)dx
2)
_
a
a
f(x)dx = 0
92
INTEGRATION
3)
_
b
a
cf(x)dx = c
_
b
a
f(x)dx
4)
_
b
a
f(x) g(x)dx
_
b
a
f(x)dx
_
b
a
g(x)dx
5)
_
b
a
f(x)dx =
_
c
a
f(x)dx +
_
b
c
f(x)dx
6)
_
b
a
f(x)dx =
_
b
a
f(t)dt
7)
_
b
a
cdx = c(b a), c is any number.
8) If f(x) 0 for a x b then
_
b
a
f(x)dx 0.
9) If f(x) g(x) for a x b then
_
b
a
f(x)dx
_
b
a
g(x)dx
10) If m f(x) M for a x b then m(b a)
_
b
a
f(x)dx M(b a)
11) [
_
b
a
f(x)dx[
_
b
a
[f(x)[dx
Exercises
Using the given properties, answer the following questions (Pauls Note):
1) Given that the denite integral
_
2
0
x
2
+ 1dx =
14
3
. Find
a)
_
0
2
x
2
+ 1dx
b)
_
2
0
10x
2
+ 10dx
c)
_
2
0
t
2
+ 1dt
2)
_
178
178
4x
5
+ cos
2
x x
2
sin 2x
x
2
+ 1
dx
3) Given that
_
10
6
f(x)dx = 23 and
_
6
10
g(x)dx = 9, determine the value of
_
6
10
2f(x) 10g(x)dx
4) Given that
_
10
12
f(x)dx = 6,
_
10
100
f(x)dx = 2, and
_
5
100
f(x)dx = 4 determine
the value of
_
12
5
f(x)dx
93
6.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Part I
Theorem 6.3.2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I
If f is continuous on [a, b] and F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x), then
_
b
a
f(x)dx = F(x)[
b
a
= F(b) F(a)
Example (Smith & Minton, 2012 page 336)
Compute
_
4
1
_
x
1
x
2
_
dx
Evaluate
_
1
3
2
x
dx
Exercises
1) Use Part I of the Fundamental Theorem to Compute each integral exactly(Smith
& Minton page 341).
a)
_
2
0
(2x 3)dx
b)
_
1
0
(6e
3x
+ 4)dx
c)
_
2
(2 sinx cos x)dx
2) Evaluate each of the following (Pauls Note)
a)
_
y
2
+ y
2
dy
b)
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy
c)
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy
Solution:
1)
94
INTEGRATION
a)
_
2
0
(2x 3)dx
b)
_
1
0
(6e
3x
+ 4)dx
c)
_
2
(2 sin x cos x)dx
2)
a)
_
y
2
+ y
2
dy
_
y
2
+ y
2
dy =
y
3
3
+
y
1
1
+ c
=
y
3
3

1
y
+ c
b)
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy =
y
3
3

1
y
[
2
1
=
_
2
3
3

1
2
_
_
1
3
3

1
1
_
= (
8
3

1
2
) (
1
3
1)
=
16 3 2 + 6
6
=
17
6
c)
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy
_
2
1
y
2
+ y
2
dy =
y
3
3

1
y
[
2
1
=
_
2
3
3

1
2
_
_
1
3
3

1
1
_
= (
8
3

1
2
) (
1
3
+ 1)
=
16 3 + 2 6
6
=
9
6
=
3
2
This is a wrong answer!!! We cannot apply the fundamental theorem
95
of calculus to this integral because f(y) is not continuous in interval
[1, 2] (f(y) at y = 0 is undened) Refer to Figure 24
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
y
f
(
y
)

f(y)=y
2
+y
(2)
Figure 24: f(y) = y
2
+y
2
is not a continuous function
Part II
Theorem 6.3.3. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II
If f is continuous on [a, b] and F(x) =
_
x
a
f(t)dt, then F
(x) = f(x), on [a, b].

For F(x) =
_
x
1
(t
2
2t + 3)dt, compute F
(x). Solution:
The integrand is f(t) = t
2
2t +3 which is continuous on [1,b] where b (, ]).
96
INTEGRATION
Using Theorem 6.3.2, the derivative is
F
(x) = f(x) = x
2
2x + 3.
If F(x) =
_
x
2
2
cos tdt, compute F
(x).
Solution:
In order to use Theorem 6.3.2, we have to rewrite the integral so the limit in the
integral match the theorem.
So, our rst step is to change
_
x
2
2
dt
_
u
2
dt.
Let u(x) = x
2
, then
F(x) =
_
u(x)
2
cos tdt
Using the theorem, we have F
(u(x)) = cos u(x)

Then, using the chain rule
F
(x) = F
(u)u
(x) = cos u(x)

d
dx
x
2
= cos u(x) (2x) = 2xcos x
2
Exercises (Pauls note)
1)Dierentiate each of the following
a) g(x) =
_
x
4
e
2t
cos
2
(1 5t)dt
b)
_
1
x
2
t
4
+ 1
t
2
+ 1
dt
2) Prove that
d
dx
_
u(x)
v(x)
f(t)dt = v
(x)f (v(x)) + u
(x)f (u(x))
(Hint: Rewrite the integral so the limit will involve a constant
_
u(x)
v(x)
f(t)dt =
_
a
v(x)
f(t)dt +
_
u(x)
a
f(t)dt)
97
6.4. INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES
6.4 Integration Techniques
Up to this stage we were only dealing with simple integral problems. Sometimes
we have to evaluate integral of a very complicated integrands. We need special
techniques in order to simplify such integral problems, thus solve them. In this
section, 2 techniques are presented: Integration by Substitution and Integration by
Parts.
6.4.1 Integration by Substitution
Substitution Rule:
For indenite integral:
_
f(u(x))u
(x)dx =
_
f(u)du
For denite integral:
_
b
a
f(u(x))u
(x)dx =
_
u(b)
u(a)
f(u)du
The basic idea is to change the variable x to a new variable u so the integration
is much simpler.
Evaluate
_
x
1 4x
2
dx
Solution:
Let u = 1 4x
2
, so we have
du
dx
= 8x
dx =
1
8x
du
98
INTEGRATION
Now, we can write
_
x
1 4x
2
dx =
_
x
u
_
1
8x
du
_
=
_
1
u
_
1
8
du
_
=
_
1
8
_
_
u
1
2
du
=
_
1
8
_
u
1
2
1
2
+ c
=
_
1
8
_
2u
1
2
+ c
=
_
1
4
_
u
1
2
+ c
=
_
1
4
_
(1 4x
2
)
1
2
+ c
Compute
_
15
0
te
t
2
2
dt
Solution:
Let u(t) =
t
2
2
, so we have
du
dt
=
d
dt
_
t
2
2
_
= t
dt =
1
t
du
Substitute u(t) and dt into the original integral,
_
15
0
te
t
2
2
dt =
_
15
2
2
0
2
2
te
u
_
1
t
du
_
=
_
225
2
0
e
u
du
= e
u
[
225
2
0
= e
225
2
+ e
0
= 1 e
112.5
99
Exercises
1) Evaluate each of the following integrals (Pauls Note):
a)
_
_
1
1
w
_
cos(w ln w)dw
b)
_
3(8y 1)e
4y
2
y
dy
c)
_
x
2
(3 10x
3
)
4
dx
d)
_
sin(1 x) (2 cos(1 x))
4
dx
e)
_
cos(3z) sin
10
(3z)dz
f)
_
sec
2
(4t)(3 tan(4t))
3
2) Evaluate the following denite integrals (Smith & Minton page 350)
a)
_
2
0
x
x
2
+ 1dx
b)
_
3
1
xsin(x
2
)dx
c)
_
2
0
e
x
1 + e
2x
dx
d)
_
2
0
e
x
1 + e
x
dx
e)
_
e
1
ln x
x
dx
3) In the following exercises, make the indicated substitution for an unspecied
function f(x) (Smith & Minton page 350)
a) u = x
2
for
_
2
0
xf(x
2
)dx
b) u = sin x for
_
/2
0
(cos x)f(sin x)dx
100
INTEGRATION
6.4.2 Integration by Parts
There are many integrals that cannot be evaluated using the basic formulae or
integration by substitution that we have learned so far. For example, we cannot
evaluate
_
xcos xdx using only integration of trigonometric function formulae or
using the substitution technique.
Recall that the product rule in derivative formula give us
d
dx
[f(x)g(x)] = f
(x)g(x) + f(x)g
(x)
By integrating both sides of the above equation, we have
_
d
dx
[f(x)g(x)]dx =
_
f
(x)g(x)dx +
_
f(x)g
(x)dx
Rearrange the above equation to have
_
f(x)g
(x)dx term on LHS:

_
f(x)g
(x)dx = [f(x)g(x)]
_
f
(x)g(x)dx (14)
Now, let u = f(x) and v = g(x), then
du
dx
= f
(x)du = f
(x)dx
and
dv
dx
= g
(x)dv = g
(x)dx
.
By substituting all these terms into 6.4.2, we have the following formula called
the integration by parts:
101
Integration By Parts:
_
udv = uv
_
vdu
An idea how to choose function u for integration by parts
This idea was proposed by Herbert Kasube of Bradley University. It is called the
LIATE rule. LIATE stands for:
L: Logarithmic functions
I: Inverse trigonometric functions
A: Algebraic functions: x squared, etc.
T: Trigonometric functions
E: Exponential functions
The above list rank the type of function that should be the chosen u. (e.g we will
choose trigonometric function over exponential function to be u if both functions
appear in an integral).
This idea is NOT always the best. You may be able to choose the
appropriate u and dv after a lot of exercises
Example
Evaluate
_
xcos xdx
Solution:
_
xcos xdx =
_
udv
where
u = x and dv = cos xdx
du
dx
= 1 and v =
_
cos xdx = sin x
102
INTEGRATION
Using the integration by parts formula:
_
xcos xdx =
_
udv
= uv
_
vdu
= x(sin x)
_
sin xdx
= xsin x + cos x + c
Exercises
1) Evaluate the integrals (Smith & Minton page 457):
a)
_
xe
2x
dx
b)
_
x
2
ln xdx
c)
_
cos xcos 2xdx
d)
_
x
3
e
x
2
dx
1) Evaluate the integrals (Smith & Minton page 457):
a)
_
1
0
xsin 2xdx
b)
_
10
1
ln 2xdx
c)
_
2
1
xln xdx
(ans: ln4
3
4
)
103
6.5. APPLICATIONS
6.5 Applications
Evaluating Area Between Two Curve
Area Between Two Curves:
A = lim
n
n
i=1
[f(c
i
) g(c
i
)]x
=
_
b
a
[f(x) g(x)]dx
Example
Find the area bounded by the graph of y = x
2
+ 16 and y = 2x 8.
Solution:
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
x
f
(
x
)

f(x)=x
2
+16
f(x)=2x8
Figure 25: Graph for f(x) = x
2
+ 16 and f(x) = 2x 8
104
INTEGRATION
A =
_
4
6
(x
2
+ 16) (2x 8) dx
=
_
4
6
x
2
2x + 24dx
=
x
3
3
x
2
+ 24x[
4
6
=
_
(6)
3
3
(6)
2
+ 24(6)
_
4
3
3
4
2
+ 24(4)
_
=
500
3
Please go through other examples in Chapter 5 (Smith & Minton 2012) for more
applications.
105
6.5. APPLICATIONS
106
Chapter 7
Dierential Equations
7.1 Introduction to Dierential Equations
A dierential equation is an equation for a function that relates the values of the
function to the values of its derivatives (Jerey). Basically there are 2 types of
dierential equations:
1) Ordinary Dierential Equation (ODE) is a dierential equation for a
function of a single variable.
Examples:
Function : f(x)
1st order ODE:
df
dx
2x = 0
2nd order ODE:
d
2
f
dx
2

df
dx
= 2 2x
2) Partial Dierential Equation (PDE) is a dierential equation for a func-
tion of several variables.
Examples:
Function : f(x, y, z)
1st order PDE:
1
2
f
y
+
f
z
x = 1
107
7.2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF FIRST ORDER ODE
2nd order PDE:

2
f
x
2

f
y
+
f
z
= 3 2x
In this chapter, we will only discuss the rst order ODE. The solutions for
dierential equations could be found analytically or numerically.
7.2 Analytical Solution of First Order ODE
The analytical solutions for dierential equations are available for certain forms of
the equations. In this section we will study four types of rst order ODE which can
be solved analytically. The ODEs are the linear DE, the separable DE, the
exact DE and Bernoulli DE.
7.2.1 Linear Dierential Equations
In this subsection, we will show how to nd the solution for linear dierential equa-
tions.
The linear dierential equation is in the following form:
df
dx
+ p(x)f = q(x) (15)
where p(x) and q(x) are continuous functions.
First, let assume there exist a function (x) called the integrating factor. By
multiplying [15] with (x), now we have
(x)
df
dx
+ (x)p(x)f = (x)q(x). (16)
By choosing (x) that satises
(x)p(x) =
(x), (17)
[16] now become
108
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(x)
df
dx
+
(x)f = (x)q(x). (18)

Note that the LHS of [18] is the product rule formula:
(x)
df
dx
+
(x)f = ((x)f(x))
. (19)
Substitute the above [19] back into [18] will give us
((x)f(x))
= (x)q(x). (20)
Integrating both sides of [20] with respect to x gives us:
_
((x)f(x))
dx =
_
(x)q(x)dx
(x)f(x) + c =
_
(x)q(x)dx (21)
Therefore, the general solution for f(x) can be written as follows
f(x) =
_
(x)q(x)dx c
(x)
or by absorbing the minus sign into the constant c, we can write the solution as
f(x) =
_
(x)q(x)dx + c
(x)
. (22)
The problem to implement the above formula is to determine what is the function
(x). From [17], we know that the integrating factor must satises
(x)p(x) =
(x).
109
By dividing both sides of this equation, we have
p(x) =

(x)
(x)
.
Recall that

(x)
(x)
in the RHS of the above equation is the derivative for ln((x))
(i.e (ln((x)))
(x)
(x)
). Therefore, the above equation can be written as
p(x) = (ln((x)))
.
Now we can nd (x) by integrating the new equation
_
p(x)dx =
_
(ln((x)))
dx
_
p(x)dx = ln((x)) + k
_
p(x)dx k = ln((x))
ln((x)) =
_
p(x)dx k
ln((x)) =
_
p(x)dx + k constant k absorb the minus sign
e
ln((x))
= e
p(x)dx+k
(x) = e
p(x)dx
e
k
(x) = ke
p(x)dx
e
k
is a constant, so reset the constant as k to simplify the equation
Now we have the formula to nd (x)
(x) = ke
p(x)dx
(23)
We can use this to solve dierential equation in [15] using formula in [22].
However based on the formula so far, we will have 2 unknown constants (c and
k). Perhaps we may combine both constants to be only one constant instead by
110
substituting [23] into [22]:
f(x) =
_
ke
p(x)dx
q(x)dx + c
ke
p(x)dx
=
k
_
e
p(x)dx
q(x)dx + c
ke
p(x)dx
=
_
e
p(x)dx
q(x)dx +
c
k
e
p(x)dx
.
From above, we may now dene the ratio of the constant (i.e
c
k
) as another constant,
renamed as c. In that way, our solution for the linear dierential equation is now
written as:
f(x) =
_
(x)q(x)dx + c
(x)
(24)
where
(x) = e
p(x)dx
. (25)
Having all the formulae above, we may conclude the procedure to solve a linear
dierential equation as follows:
1) Determine that the dierential equation can be written in the form [15].
2) Find the integrating factor, (x) using [25].
3) Solve for the solution f(x) using [24].
Find the solution to the following dierential equation:
dv
dt
= 9.8 0.196v
111
Solution:
First, rewrite the DE in the same form as [15]
dv
dt
+ 0.196v = 9.8
where p(t) = 0.196 and q(t) = 9.8. Then, using [25],
(t) = e
p(t)dt
= e
0.196dt
e
0.196t
The solution for v(t) can be found using [24]
v(t) =
_
(t)q(t)dt + c
(t)
=
_
e
0.196t
(9.8)dt + c
e
0.196t
=
9.8
_
e
u
du
0.196
+ c
e
0.196t
u = 0.196t, du = 0.196dt
=
9.8
0.196
e
0.196t
+ c
e
0.196t
= 50 +
c
e
0.196t
= 50 + ce
0.196t
Solve the following IVP
dv
dt
= 9.8 0.196v v(0) = 48
Solution:
We already have the solution for the given DE from the previous example (i.e v(t) =
50+ce
0.196t
). Hence, now we only have to nd the constant c using the given initial
112
value (i.e v(0) = 48)
v(0) = 50 + ce
0.196(0)
= 48
50 + c(1) = 48
c = 48 50 = 2
Therefore the actual solution for this IVP is
v(t) = 50 2e
0.196t
Example (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 503: Newtons Law of Cooling
for a Cup of Coee
A cup of fast-food coee is 180
o
F when freshly poured. After 2 minutes in a room
at 70
o
, the coee has cooled to 165
o
F. Find the temperature at any time t and nd
the time at which the coee has cooled to 120
o
F.
Solution:
Let y(t) represents the function of the coee temperature at time t. If we put an
object in a surrounding that have dierent temperature, the changing rate of the
object temperature is proportional to the temperature dierence between the object
and the surrounding. Therefore, in this case, we have
dy
dt
= k (y(t) 70)
Rewrite this function in the form of [15],
y
(t) ky(t) = 70k

113
with p(t) = k and q(t) = 70k. Therefore, we have
(t) = e
p(t)dt
= e
(k)dt
e
kt
and the solution for y(t)
y(t) =
_
(t)q(t)dt + c
(t)
=
_
e
kt
(70k)dt + c
e
kt
=
e
kt
(70) + c
e
kt
= 70 + ce
kt
The initial temperature of the coee is 180
o
(i.e Initial condition y(0) = 180)
y(0) = 70 + ce
k(0)
= 180
70 + c(1) = 180
c = 180 70 = 110
So our solution now is
y(t) = 70 + 110e
kt
114
It is mentioned that after 2 minutes, the coee has cooled to 165
o
(i.e y(2) = 165)
y(2) = 70 + 110e
k(2)
= 165
70 + 110e
2k
= 165
110e
2k
= 165 70 = 95
e
2k
=
95
110
ln(e
2k
) = ln
_
95
110
_
2k = ln
_
95
110
_
k =
1
2
ln
_
95
110
_
We now have the value for constant k, and the solution become
y(t) = 70 + 110e
(
1
2
ln
95
110
)t
Now we can nd the time t where the temperature of the coee is 120
o
70 + 110e
(
1
2
ln
95
110
)t
= 120
e
(
1
2
ln
95
110
)t
=
120 70
110
=
5
11
ln(e
(
1
2
ln
95
110
)t
) = ln(
5
11
)
(
1
2
ln
_
95
110
_
)t = ln(
5
11
)
t =
2 ln(
5
11
)
(ln
_
95
110
_
)
10.76minutes.
115
Exercises (Smith & Minton, 2012) page 506-507
1)Find the solution of the given dierential equation satisfying the indicated initial
condition
a) y
= 4y, y(0) = 2
b) y
= 3y, y(0) = 5
c) y
= 2y, y(1) = 2
d) y
= y 50, y(0) = 70
e) ty
+ 2y = t
2
t + 1, y(1) =
1
2
(Pauls note)
2) A bowl of porridge at 200
o
F is placed in a 70
o
F room. One minute later, the
porridge has cooled to 180
o
F. When will the temperature be 120
o
F?
7.2.2 Separable Dierential Equations
In this section, we will nd the solution for nonlinear dierential equation that can
be written in the following form
N(y)
dy
dx
= M(x). (26)
The dierential equation [26] is then can be written as
N(y)dy = M(x)dx
The solution for y is obtainable (implicitly or explicitly) simply by integrating both
sides of the above equation:
_
N(y)dy =
_
M(x)dx.
However we need to beware of the interval of validity of our solution gained from
the above equation. Usually our solution is not valid for all x.
116
Solve the following dierential equation and determine the interval of validity for
the solution.
dy
dx
= 6y
2
x, y(1) =
1
25
Solution:
Rewrite the given DE:
1
y
2
dy
dx
= 6x
Then, rearrange and integrate both sides
_
1
y
2
dy =
_
6xdx
_
y
2
dy =
_
6xdx
y
1
1
=
6x
2
2
+ c
1
y
= 3x
2
+ c
Substitute the given initial value into the solution,
1
1
25
= 3(1)
2
+ c
25 = 3 + c
c = 25 3 = 28
Therefore our solution is:
1
y
= 3x
2
28
or
y(x) =
1
28 3x
2
117
The above solution is dened when 28 3x
2
,= 0 or in other words when
28 3x
2
< 0 or 28 3x
2
> 0
From the 1st inequality,
28 3x
2
< 0
28 < 3x
2
x
2
>
28
3
x
2
28
3
> 0
(x
_
28
3
)(x +
_
28
3
) > 0
(< x <
_
28
3
)) or (
_
28
3
) < x < )
From the 2nd inequality,
28 3x
2
> 0
28 > 3x
2
28
3
> x
2
x
2
28
3
< 0
(x
_
28
3
)(x +
_
28
3
) < 0
(
_
28
3
) < x <
_
28
3
))
Therefore, the possible interval of validity are:
(< x <
_
28
3
)) or (
_
28
3
) < x <
_
28
3
)) or (
_
28
3
) < x < ) (27)
118
We will choose the interval that includes the point at the given initial value, (i.e
at x = 1). This means that our interval of validity is : (
_
28
3
) < x <
_
28
3
)).
Exercises
1) Solve the following IVPs and nd the interval of validity for the solutions (Pauls
Note)
a) y
=
3x
2
+ 4x 4
2y 4
y(1) = 3
b) y
=
xy
3
1 + x
2
y(0) = 1
c) y
= e
y
(2x 4) y(5) = 0
2) Money is invested at 8% interest compounded continuously. If deposits are
made continuously at the rate of $2000 per year, nd the size of initial investment
needed to reach $1 million in 20 years. (Smith & Minton, 2012 page 514)
Solutions:
a) y
=
3x
2
+ 4x 4
2y 4
y(1) = 3
dy
dx
=
3x
2
+ 4x 4
2y 4
(2y 4)
dy
dx
= 3x
2
+ 4x 4
(2y 4)dy = (3x
2
+ 4x 4)dx
_
(2y 4)dy =
_
(3x
2
+ 4x 4)dx
2y
2
2
4y =
3x
3
3
+
4x
2
2
4x + c
y
2
4y = x
3
+ 2x
2
4x + c
y
2
4y (x
3
+ 2x
2
4x + c) = 0
119
Substitute the I.C in order to get the unknown constant c
Use quadratic formula to solve for y.
b) y
=
xy
3
1 + x
2
y(0) = 1
c) y
= e
y
(2x 4) y(5) = 0
7.2.3 Exact Dierential Equations
Procedure to Solve Exact DE:
1. Identify M(x, y) and N(x, y) when the given DE is written in the following
form:
M(x, y) + N(x, y)
dy
dx
= 0
2. Test the equation for exactness:
2.1 Find M
y
2.2 Find N
x
2.3 If M
y
= N
x
, the DE is exact and can proceed to the next step.
Otherwise, the DE is nonexact and this method cant be used to solve it.
3. Find a function (x, y) that satises:
x
= M
y
= N
3.1a =
_
Mdx
3.2a Remember that the above integration may has a function of y, i.e h(y)
as the constant of the integration.
120
3.3a Dierentiate the resulted with respect to y to be compared with N
(Remember that
y
= N). We will then able to identify h(y) that appear
in the resulted .
3.4a Rewrite with the known h(y).
Alternatively, we may nd (x, y) as follows:
3.1b =
_
Ndy
3.2b Remember that the above integration may has a function of x, i.e g(x)
as the constant of the integration.
3.3b Dierentiate the resulted with respect to x to be compared with M
(Remember that
x
= M). We will then able to identify g(x) that
appear in the resulted .
3,4b Rewrite with the known g(x).
4. We may have the implicit solution for the DE by writing:
(x, y) = c
We may nd c if an initial value is given. Otherwise, we may let c represent
the unknown constant.
5. Rearrange the above equation so we can nd the explicit solution if possible.
Solve the following IVP:
2xy 9x
2
+
_
2y + x
2
+ 1
_
dy
dx
= 0, y(0) = 3
Solution:
121
Step 1 Identify M(x, y) and N(x, y):
2xy 9x
2
+
_
2y + x
2
+ 1
_
dy
dx
= 0 =M(x, y) + N(x, y)
dy
dx
= 0
M(x, y) = 2xy 9x
2
, N(x, y) = 2y + x
2
+ 1
Step 2 Exactness test:
M
y
=

y
(2xy 9x
2
) = 2x
N
x
=

x
(2y + x
2
+ 1) = 2x
Note that M
y
= N
x
, therefore the given DE is exact and we may proceed.
Step 3 Find (x, y) that satises
x
= M and
y
= N:
x
= M
=
_
Mdx
=
_
2xy 9x
2
dx
= x
2
y 3x
3
+ h(y)
y
=

y
(x
2
y 3x
3
+ h(y))
= x
2
+ h
(y) = N = 2y + x
2
+ 1
122
h
(y) = 2y + 1
h(y) =
_
(2y + 1)dy
= y
2
+ y + k
Therefore
(x, y) = x
2
y 3x
3
+ h(y)
= x
2
y 3x
3
+ y
2
+ y + k
step 4 The implicit solution for the given DE:
(x, y) = x
2
y 3x
3
+ y
2
+ y + k = c
x
2
y 3x
3
+ y
2
+ y = c absorb constant k into c
x
2
y + y
2
+ y = 3x
3
+ c
Given the I.C is y(0) = 3, hence
(0)
2
(3) + (3)
2
+ (3) = 3(0)
3
+ c
0 + 9 3 = 0 c
c = 6
Substitute the constant c, so we have a complete implicit solution as follows:
x
2
y + y
2
+ y = 3x
3
+ 6
y
2
+ (x
2
+ 1)y 3(x
3
+ 2) = 0
Step 5 The explicit form of the solution may be found using quadratic formula.
123
y(x) =
(x
2
+ 1)
_
(x
2
+ 1)
2
4(1)(3(x
3
+ 2))
2(1)
.
.
.
.
.
.
y(x) =
(x
2
+ 1)
x
4
+ 12x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 25
2
Exercises
Find the solution for the following IVP:
2xy
2
+ 4 = 2(3 x
2
y)y
y(1) = 8
7.2.4 Bernoulli Dierential Equations
Bernoulli DE is in the following form
y
+ p(x)y = q(x)y
n
In order to solve this equation, we will divide the DE with y
n
to get
y
n
y
+ p(x)y
1n
= q(x)
Then, we use the substitution v = y
1n
so we have a linear DE in term of v. Note
that if v = y
1n
, we have v
= (1 n)y
1n1
y
= (1 n)y
n
y
. By plugging these v
and v
, we have
1
1 n
v
+ p(x)v = q(x)
which can be solved using the method that we have learned ealier for a linear DE.
Once we had the solution for v, we can get the solution for the original DE by
plugging v back into our substitution and solving for y.
124
Exercise
y
+
4
x
y = x
3
y
2
y(2) = 1, x > 0
7.2.5 Homogeneous Dierential Equation
Homogeneous DE is a DE that can be written in the following form:
y
= F
_
y
x
_
Such equation can be solved by changing the variables v(x) =
y
x
. Then
y = xv(x)
y
= xv
+ v
y
= F
_
y
x
_
xv
+ v = F(v)
x
dv
dx
= F(v) v
dv
F(v) v
=
dx
x
The new form of DE now is a separable DE that can be solved using the method
of separation of variables that we have learned earlier.
125
Exercises
xyy
+ 4x
2
+ y
2
= 0 y(2) = 7, x > 0
126
Bibliography
127
BIBLIOGRAPHY
128

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MTK 3004: Introduction to Calculus

2 = 1.41421356 are irrational

Example: Arithmetic Operations

is the set of all x

s for which this limit exists. The process of

(a) for the

(a). The tangent line then is

5z 8 using the chain rule.

(t) = 25 sec(5t) tan

(x) implicitly for y

(x) y(x)) Using product rule

(x) + y(x)) (xy

(x) + y(x)) (xy

(x) on one side of the equation gives us:

, we have to use implicit dierentiation. (Please continue

(x) = f(x). So, what is the function that we

(x) = f(x), on [a, b].

(u(x)) = cos u(x)

(x) = cos u(x)

(x)dx term on LHS:

(x)f = (x)q(x). (18)

(t) ky(t) = 70k

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