Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
EXC
EXCIMAP
1 Introduction 5
2 Flood mapping 7
EXC I M AP
EXC
EXCIMAP
November 2007
Contents
1 Introduction 5
2 Flood mapping 7
Aware of the growing need for flood mapping development in the future in Europe, early 2006 the European
Water Directors decided to establish a European exchange circle on flood mapping (EXCIMAP).
Today EXCIMAP is an informal circle consisting of nearly 40 representatives from 24 European countries or
organizations. It has been set up for encouraging and facilitating exchanges between European experts in view of
developing flood mapping. The main objective of EXCIMAP is to produce a Handbook presenting the good
practices (available in Europe) to mobilize when executing flood mapping.
In the mean time, the European Union has adopted a European Directive on the Assessment and Management of
Flood Risks. This Directive sets out the requirement for the Member States to develop three kinds of products:
• a preliminary flood risk assessment: the aim of this step is to evaluate the level of flood risk in all regions and to
select those regions on which to undertake flood mapping and flood risk management plans (see below)
• flood mapping, with a distinction between flood hazard maps and flood risk maps:
− the flood hazard maps should cover the geographical areas which could be flooded according to different
scenarios. These maps are also indicated by flood extension maps;
− the flood risk maps shall show the potential adverse consequences associated with floods under those
scenarios.
• flood risk management plans: on the basis of the previous maps, the flood risk management plans shall indicate
the objectives of the flood risk management in the concerned areas, and the measures that aim to achieve
these objectives. Examples are evacuation maps.
The focus in this Atlas is on river flooding, but some examples of coastal flooding are also included.
According to this directive Member states shall produce flood mapping according to some minimum
recommendations. To be consistent with this proposed European document, EXCIMAP has decided to focus its
work on the minimum requirements of the Directive concerning flood mapping.
As part of the work to be done for this Handbook an inventory was made of examples of maps and mapping
programmes in the participating countries. The result of this inventory is this “Atlas of Flood Maps”. It contains
examples from 19 European countries, not counting the subdivisions that are made in some instances (Belgium,
Great Britain and Germany) and from the USA and Japan. In addition special chapters are dedicated to
transboundary flood mapping, flood maps for insurance purpose and evacuation maps.
In each chapter the authors of this Atlas have made remarks on content and layout of the maps, based on general
cartographic principles.
The Atlas is compiled by the Netherlands Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. The
material is submitted by the EXCIMAP members. WL|Delft Hydraulics assisted to collect and organize the material
and has made both the descriptions and the analysis of the maps. After the publication of a draft edition, the
material was reviewed by representatives of the various countries.
We hope that this valuable collection of examples will stimulate flood mapping efforts in countries that have to
start with it, and discussion to improve these practices in countries that have experiences with it already.
The editors:
Jos van Alphen and Ron Passchier
• Flood: is a temporary covering by water of land normally not covered by water. This shall include floods from
rivers, mountain torrents, Mediterranean ephemeral water courses, and floods from the sea in coastal areas,
and may exclude floods from sewerage systems
• Flood risk: is the combination of the probability of a flood event and of the potential adverse consequences to
human health, the environment and economic activity associated with a flood event
• Flood plain maps indicate the geographical areas which could be covered by a flood (from all sources except
sewerage systems – see above definition of flood) according to one or several probabilities: floods with a very
low probability or extreme events scenarios; floods with a medium probability (likely return period >=100y);
floods with a high probability, where appropriate
• Flood hazard maps shows areas which could be flooded according to three probabilities (low, medium, high)
complemented with: type of flood, the flood extent; water depths or water level where appropriate; where
appropriate, flow velocity or the relevant water flow direction
• Flood risk maps indicate potential adverse consequences associated with floods under several probabilities,
expressed in terms of: the indicative number of inhabitants potentially affected; type of economic activity of the
area potentially affected; installation which might cause accidental pollution in case of flooding […] potentially
affected ; other information which the Member State considers useful
• Damage is the negative effect of an event or process
• Residual risk is the portion of the risk remaining after the flood risk management actions have been
implemented and taken into consideration
The scope and detail of the explanatory information should be appropriate to the intended audience.
• Maps intended for public use should be simple and self-explanatory and include a clear legend, such that as
little supporting or explanatory information as possible is required for correct interpretation.
• Maps intended for organisational users (governments, local authorities, etc.) will generally be used by
professionals to inform decision makers that may potentially have significant impacts, and will often contain
more information than public maps. They are therefore likely to require more detailed explanatory information
to help the user to fully understand the development and limitations of the maps, particularly in relation to
methods of development, limitations and uncertainty.
3.1.2 Meta-data
Appropriate meta-data should be provided where maps are issued / downloadable in GIS format. Such data
should include standard meta-data (dates, responsible organisation, etc.) as well as information necessary for use
of the GIS data, including the map projection and any datum levels used. Consideration should also be given to
any relevant meta-data protocols or requirements.
An indication of orientation (direction of North bearing) and map scale are also required for correct interpretation.
Scale information may be provided by:
• A written scale (e.g., 1:10 000) in the title box or legend
• A scale bar provided on the map; this allows easy change in paper size
• Grid squares provided on the map (with the grid square size defined in legend)
• Accessibility: The accessibility of maps for the partially-sighted or colour-blind should be considered in choosing
colour-schemes, particularly within the context of any national, regional or organisational regulations, policies
or guidelines.
• Clarity: Strong colours may be used to provide clarity over a coloured background map, although it might be
noted that an excessive number of strong colours can make a map difficult to interpret
Hatching may be used as an alternative to different shades or colours in representing different parameters or, as is
more often the case, parameter variants. Examples might include hatching of flood extent areas that are defended
by protection measures or form flood storage areas / washlands, to differentiate these types of area from those
that are undefended or naturally flooded respectively.
The use of different line types that bound a polygon or flood extent provides another opportunity for
differentiation. This approach is generally more suitable to visualise variants of a parameter or meta-data
associated with the primary mapped parameters, such as differentiation between observed historic and predictive
flood extents, or an indication of uncertainty associated with a flood extent.
Line types variations that might be used include ranges of line:
• Thickness
• Colour
• Continuity (e.g., solid, chain, dashed, dotted)
• Definition (e.g., clearly defined line of set thickness as opposed to fuzzy boundary)
Flood extent should be presented for a specified frequency, e.g. 1/10, 1/100 or 1/1000. In addition the protecting
effect of defence works may be shown.
When many computations from different locations are available (scenario simulations), the resulting information
can be combined into probability of flooding of a gridcell and maximum inundation depth per gridcell. However,
since this requires many computations, these maps are relatively scarce. These probability maps can also be
produced as flood likelihood maps for reassurance purposes.
Potential (maximum) inundation depth maps exist on national, regional and local scales (1:2.500.000 – 1:10.000).
In the legend it is possible to present the important relationship between inundation depth and “what to do”,
depending on inundation depths of e.g.: 50 cm, 1 m, 2 m, 5 m and > 5m, (see Japan). Other related information
may be evacuation routes, shelter areas.
When more sophisticated models and information is available potential damage can be computed per gridcell as a
result of different flooding scenarios and damage functions that relate water depth to damage to structures and
land use as well as to numbers of casualties. Since this is very sensitive information the data, models and
assumptions have to be explained in detail in accompanying reports.
Relevant information related to this theme has to do with the objects/services that may increase flood damage
substantially: storage of chemicals, vital networks and services (highways, railways, airport, lifeline services like
electricity, sewerage and drinking water, hospitals, etc). This information is expressed as line or point symbols, and
may be combined with inundation-class maps.
Current velocity may be presented as (magnitude) classes or vector (magnitude and direction). However, it should
be kept in mind that current velocity depends very much on local topography and may be of limited accuracy.
Vector maps may be difficult to read when flow direction and vector locations coincide.
In general for river flooding there are too many options for evacuation maps, as the best evacuation route
depends on the flood characteristics e.g. It is therefore suggested that such information is used as background
data for decision makers instead of published information to the general public for taking decisions on evacuation
routes themselves.
3.3 Conclusions
Establishing guidelines to the cartographic aspects of flood risk maps should be given priority, not only to avoid
problems of the public not understanding flood risk maps, but also to assure for instance that specialists dealing
with floods actually use the same basis for information, in particular where river systems are concerned that cross
national boundaries. Maps and GIS products should be tested on the public to see if they are as effective as
scientists like to believe. However, it is unlikely that flood maps in the EU countries will become completely
comparable as not only the underlying methodology is different, but also the data collection and method of
measurement are different. It is possible, though, to arrive at a more generalized layout of the maps. This is
particularly interesting now that most countries are in the process of producing interactive Internet sites where any
user can access the map layers.
Another example of a transboundary approach to flood mapping is the CatNET, which aims at providing flood
information for insurance purpose. For this reason it is further discussed, with examples, in Chapter 6.1.
European flood risk mapping is one of the components of the work carried out in the WDNH (weather-driven
natural hazards ) action by the JRC (Joint Research Centre) of the EU. Three components of flood risk have been
addressed, i.e. flood hazard, flood vulnerability and flood exposure. The assessment is based on a database of map
layers with information on GDP, population density, land use, flood hazard, etc. The flood hazard is derived using a
1 km digital elevation model and the 1 km grid European flow network developed by JRC. The outcomes from this
work are:
• Flood risk assessment for the EU + Romania and Bulgaria;
• Flood risk layer: Standardised index map for flood risk (spatial resolution 1 km);
• Flood risk layer: Risk assessment for NUTS3 areas.
NUTS areas (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) are administrative divisions for all European member
countries that were introduced in 1998 and for which four different levels of detail exist. A detailed description of
29 http://www.iu-info.de/fileadmin/user_upload/news_Inhalte/Flapp_report.pdf
In Figure 5.3 the result is shown of a combination of a land use map (Corine 2000) and the European flood hazard
map of Figure 5.2. Evidently the trend of increasing urbanisation in many parts of Europe has let to a major
increase in flood hazard in those highly populated areas.
30 http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/fileadmin/Documentation/Reports/Land_Management/EUR_2006-2007/EUR_22116_EN.pdf
An example of cooperation between neighbouring countries on coastal flooding can be found in the related
Comrisk and Safecoast projects, both under the auspices of the EU.
Comrisk (Common strategies to reduce the risk of storm floods in coastal lowlands) was started in 2002 and has
already been finalized31. It was carried out by eight coastal risk management authorities from Belgium, Denmark,
The Netherlands and Germany. Various studies were carried out as part of the project and the project was finalized
with an international conference in April 2005.
The Safecoast project32 forms the follow-up action to Comrisk and started in July 2005.
The interesting aspects of these projects in view of this Atlas is the opportunity to bring more unity in the technical
background for the production of flood maps, as well as the layout of the maps themselves. The projects deal with
about 40,000 km2 of floodprone coastal area and focuses strongly on the safety of the North Sea coast taking into
account the expected increase of flooding danger due to climate change, with a planning horizon to the year
2050. Figure 5.4 shows the floodprone area along the North Sea, covered by the Safecoast project.
Also in this project, the most important aim in view of transboundary issues in flood mapping is the comparison of
different flood risk assessment methods and the goal to arrive at a common ground for the planning of the coastal
defence.
31 http://comrisk.hosted-by-kfki.baw.de/
32 http://www.safecoast.org/
A similar EU-funded project is FRAME (Flood Risk Management in Estuaries: Sustainable New Land Use in Flood
Control Areas), which does have some mapping issues as well (such as a ‘Best Practice Manual’), but it is
considered outside the scope of this Atlas. Information on the FRAME project can be found on the internet33. It is
part of a number of projects that deal with the North Sea Programme and details on related projects are found on
the internet page of this Programme34.
5.3 ELLA
The ELLA (Elbe-Labe Preventive flood management measures by transnational spatial planning) project is another
example of an EU-financed flood-related project which deals with transboundary issues35. One of the aims is the
preparation of flood maps with a number of examples on transboundary rivers, especially the Rhine and the Elbe
rivers. The project is carried out with partners from Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Poland and Hungary. The
results of the transboundary flood mapping are available on a special internet site36, with access to maps for the
Rhein, Weser and Elbe (Labe) river basins, the latter being in fact the result of the ELLA project. By clicking on the
Rhine river, a next interactive internet site is opened37, which gives access to series of flood maps for this river
(Figure 5.5). This is in fact part of the Flood Information System, which has been set up within the framework of
the ESA project GSE RISKEOS38. Additional technological developments are being done within the project EC IP
PREVIEW39. An important objective is the standardized delineation of flood hazard and flood risk maps. To the
extent of their availability, the map service shows the outline and/or inundation depths of a 100 year flood and an
extreme flood. Also shown are the damage potentials of at least one of these events. Additional information
33 http://www.frameproject.org/
34 http://www.interregnorthsea.org/default.asp
35 http://www.ella-interreg.org/
36 http://www.floodmaps.de/FloodServer/
37 http://www.floodmaps.de/FloodServer/go?FrameLoaderActionSprache=en
38 www.risk-eos.com
39 www.previewrisk.com
includes the outlined areas of recent flood events, which were derived from satellite imagery. Also available are
historical flood maps. The service is completed by landuse data.
As an example, flood extension and damage potential maps are shown for the transboundary region along the
Dutch – German border in Figure 5.6 and Figure 5.7. The legend to these two maps is shown in Figure 5.8. The
two maps show the location where the Rhine river, after passing the Dutch border, splits into various branches. In
green the region is shown that would be flooded in an extreme event, with water flowing along a different
Northern route from the Rhine in Germany directly overland towards one of the Rhine branches (“IJssel”) in the
Netherlands.
Other combinations of flood map items and land use are possible, but the combination of land use map and
damage map is not easy to distinguish (too many items on the map and mixed colours not included in the legend),
although this would be the most interesting combination.
Figure 5.8 Legend to the flood extension and damage potential map
The flood mapping of the Elbe (Labe) river of the ELLA project is a good example of a transboundary effort for
Germany and the Czech Republic. However, this is less interesting as an example in this Atlas as the boundary
region between the two countries, being a mountainous area, does not exhibit any major flood threat. It does use
the same type of layout, though, for the two countries involved as was the case for the maps of the Rhine river.
This is evident from the map example shown in Figure 5.9, which shows the flood extent for an extreme flood and
a flood with a return period of 1/100 year, in combination with a land use map.
5.4 FLAPP
Another interesting EU-funded project is the 'Flood Awareness & Prevention Policy in border areas' (FLAPP). The
project started in 2005 and is now in its final stage. One aspect of the project is the production of a ‘good practice
book’, which in itself has various components. For the transboundary flood mapping issue, an important
component is the production of the cross-border flood maps for the cities of Görlitz and Zgorzelec on the Nyssa
river between Germany and Poland. Information on the project is provided on the internet site of FLAPP40.
The Nyssa river forms the border between the towns of Görlitz and Zgorzelec, which were separated in 1945
through a redrawing of the borders after the Second World War. The aim of the project was to create a common
hazard zone and flood information map on a scale of 1:5,000 in 3 languages (English/German/Polish). The map
contains the flood plains of different events (return periods of 1/20, 1/50, 1/100, 1/200 and 1/500 years) which
have been taken form the Saxon flood control plan for the Nyssa elaborated in 2004. Furthermore additional
information with regard to endangered infrastructure, municipal planning and calamity defence are displayed on
the map. In this map flood risk in a certain area is displayed via hazard zones (high, medium, low and residual
risk). These zones are determined through overlapping intensity and frequency of a flood event. The map can be
used to communicate flood risk to the public and to integrate information on flood risk into spatial planning of the
municipalities. An example of part of this map is shown in Figure 5.10, showing the flood extension for the various
return periods. It is not clear whether the ‘Hqextrem’ refers to the 1/500 year return period. There is also
information on evacuation problems on this map (indication of a bridge in red that is flooded for an event with a
return period of more than 1/200 year).
40 http://www.flapp.org/cmsEN/cms/index.asp?itemId=328
5.5 IKRS
Regarding transboundary flood mapping the most important product from the International Commission for the
Protection of the Rhine is the Rheinatlas (2001). The maps of this Atlas are available on the internet41. The maps
themselves are accessible through a clickable PDF file42. As an example, both a flood extension and a damage
potential map are shown for the transboundary region of the Rhine river at the Dutch – German border (Figure
5.11 and Figure 5.12). The legends to the two types of maps are given in Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14.
Although these maps are similar to those produced by the Flood Information System (see Figure 5.6 and Figure
5.7), the maps of the IKRS give the damage potential in quantative terms (Euro / m2), while the Flood Information
System gives only a relative (qualitative) scale (see legend in Figure 5.8). As such the maps of the IKRS are far
more detailed and provide the user with a better level of information.
41 http://www.rheinatlas.de/
42 http://www.iksr.org/index.php?id=302&type=0#
The SAFER ((Strategies and Actions for Flood Emergency Risk Management) project aims to develop innovative
strategies and prevent and mitigate fluvial and coastal flood damage by working with organisations and agencies
at different levels. The five partner regions involved in the project work are adopting a common approach in
implementing these strategies. The project is approved under the INTERREG IIIB NWE Programme and part-
funded by the European Union (ERDF). A component that is related to transboundary flood mapping is the
Workpackage ‘Hazard Mapping’, which aims at producing a common methodology to produce and provide flood
hazard information to all the partners. Examples of the results of this work package can be found already
elsewhere in this Atlas, e.g. for the German region of Baden-Württemberg (see Chapter 4.8.1), who is the lead
partner in this project. An example of a map that is drawn according to the SAFER hazard mapping methodology
is shown in Figure 4.43 for the Neckar river.
5.7 TIMIS
Transnational Internet Map Information System (TIMIS) Flood is a contribution to a uniform EU policy for flood
protection and is meant to become a model for other regions with transnational flood issues. TIMIS focuses on
both flood hazard mapping and flood forecasting for the border region of Luxembourg, Germany and France.
In Figure 5.15 the extent is shown of the TIMIS project for both flood hazard mapping (approx. 22,500 km2 >90
rivers and >3000 km length of river) and flood forecasting (about 55,000 km2). The project will produce by the
year 2008 transnational hazard maps on a scale of 1:25,000, showing four hazard stages and a transnational GIS
on flood for hazard, forecasting and warning. The maps are accessible through an interactive internet site43 (Figure
5.16). An image of the future GIS environment for flood-hazard related information is shown in Figure 5.17.
43 http://www.timisflood.net/en/
Figure 5.17 Example of the GIS environment of TIMIS for accessing the flood-related information
The four hazard levels are determined by specific combinations of intensity, velocity and frequency of the events.
The legend of the hazard levels is shown in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.18 Flood hazard map for a tributary of the Mosel river in Luxembourg
CatNet is an interactive map tool from the insurance company Swiss RE44. It contains information on a number of
natural hazards, including tornados, earthquakes, ‘European winterstorm peak gust’, hail, volcanoes, etc., but also
flood risk and is regarded as a first attempt at a Worldwide Natural Hazard Atlas45. The CatNet flood zones are
based on a wide variety of heterogeneous sources. Therefore, depending on the country, either storm surge
and/or fresh water flood zones are displayed. The main page of the interactive hazard atlas of CatNet is shown in
Figure 6.1 and the selection menu in Figure 6.2. The CatNet is accessible for external users who do have to
register before they can use the information, but only for a trial period of 8 weeks, after which it is a commercial
service.
44 http://www.swissre.com/
45 http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0402/swissre.html
CatNet covers a number of European countries. The flood risk information is included for the following countries
(with short description of their content):
• Belgium
Freshwater flood zones are calculated by Swiss Re’s proprietary multiple regression approach. Zones describe
naturally flooded areas affected every 100 years. The effect of flood protection measures was not taken into
account and flood zones along canals are not depicted.
• Czech Republic
Fresh water flood zones are calculated by Swiss Re’s proprietary multiple regression approach. Zones describe
naturally flooded areas affected every 50, 100, 250 and 500 years. The effect of flood protection measures was
not taken into account and flood zones along canals are not depicted.
• Germany
Fresh water flood zones for 10, 50 and 200 year water levels are available. Original data for 10 and 50 year
flood zones have been calculated by Institut für Angewandte Wasserwirtschaft und Geoinformatik (IAWG),
Ottobrunn; Germany. Orginal data for 200 year flood zones have been calculated by Institut für Angewandte
Wasserwirtschaft, Munich, Germany.
The zones for Germany are the result of hydraulic calculations carried out for a river network with a total length
of around 50,000 kilometres. The calculations were conducted using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a
horizontal resolution of 50*50 metres. They do not take flood protection measures into account, i.e. the 10 and
50 year zones are rather too conservative. The flood zones depicted may vary from those in the ZÜRS software
(see Chapter 6.5) provided by the German Insurance Association (GDV).
There is also information available on the Elbe flood event of August 2002.
• Italy
Freshwater flood zones are calculated by Swiss Re’s proprietary multiple regression approach. Zones describe
naturally flooded areas affected every 100 years.
• Hungary
The 100 year and 1000 year zones are based on the 1977 series of ‘Magyarország árvízvédelmi terképei,
VITUKI, 1977’ maps at 1:100,000 scale, which were transferred by VITUKI to a digital format. Areas inundated
There are also maps and data for Argentina, Israel and the USA.
If we look at the geographical coverage of the CatNET it is evident that this is another example of a transboundary
flood mapping as the combination of the Czech Rebublic, Slovakia and Hungary form one continuous region for
which the flood maps are available. An example is shown in Figure 6.2.
Examples of flood maps available in the CatNET system are shown in Figure 6.3 for Slowakia (which shows the
transboundary coverage with Hungary south of Slovakia) and in Figure 6.4 for Germany (Sachsen-Anhalt).
In general the cartographic layout of the maps is attractive and easy to read, but the level of detail does not allow
the user to acquire a very precise level of detail in the information. The use of the colours, starting from dark blue
for low return period (1/20 yr) to grey for high return periods (500 yr and larger) is unusual and does not provide
the user with an intuitive idea of increased danger level. However, in practice this grey colour represents those
regions that are not threatened by river flooding, or at least not by any major river.
6.2 Austria
HORA is an example of a successful public private partnership (PPP) on flood risk zoning and mapping in Austria.
Following massive damages after heavy rainfalls and flooding in summer 2002 in Austria, insurance industry and
public authorities in Austria under guidance of the Ministry of Agriculture (Lebensministerium) and the Austrian
Insurance Association signed a PPP-contract (available in German and English) stating a common project for the
development of a public, common and admission-free risk zoning tool (internet access via Lebensministerium).
Common goal was to create an open risk zoning platform for flood and earthquake. Public authorities were
delivering GIS basis data, modelling and development was done by insurance and reinsurance industry. No direct
exchange of any sort took place, the common result is open to the public since June 1st 2006.
Local risk zoning and mapping is for several regions already available on the HORA system as well.. One can
choose the option under "Legende", if more detailed public information (than probabilistic zoning for 25000 km
river length in HORA) is already existing and HORA has got public access to this local or regional zoning-
information (e.g. for the region of Carinthia). There one can see the risk zones in different colours (yellow and red
instead of blue).
From the point of view of the insurance industry, at a later stage, HORA is expected to develop into a PML
(Probable Maximum Loss)-assessment system for underwriters and risk managers. The fully working public system
will be dedicated for individual information (and work for insurance industry as a second source of risk
information).
The information from the HORA project is available on the internet46. An impression of the interactive internet site
is shown in Figure 6.5. After starting up the map server for the HORA site, a disclaimer is shown in red font with
the text (in German): “I have read the copyright statements and accept them as legal disclaimer”. This statement
need to be accepted by the user before the maps can be accessed. The maps give a delineation of flooding areas
on river catchment level for about 25.000 km of river length on scales varying from 1:10.000 to 1:50.000. The
return periods shown on these maps are 1/30 yr (zone 1), 1/100 yr (zone 2) and 1/200 yr (zone 3). The
information is not yet available for the entire country.
46 http://geoinfo.lfrz.at/website/egisroot/services/ehora2/viewer.htm
Figure 6.6 HORA window for location of airport of Innsbruck with legend
Users can enter their address information and find out the potential flood risk of their property. Examples of the
maps are shown in Figure 6.7 (with topographic map) and Figure 6.8 (with satellite image) for the area of the
airport of Innsbruck.
Figure 6.8 Example of flood extension map for airport of Innsbruck (with satellite image background)
In the Czech Republic an exceptionally well-developed tool has been made available which allows the user to
assess the flood risk at any location in the country using a map-based user-interface (Figure 6.9). This system,
called FRAT (Flood Risk Assessment Tool), is now used by almost all property insurances in the Czech Republic,
allowing them to identify high exposed risks and more accurately price flood risks.
The tool was developed by Swiss Re, as the leading reinsurer and developer of catastrophe models, and MMC, the
leading provider of GIS (Geographic Information System) technology47. It can now price selected properties
according to their flood risk exposure and can also be used as a basis for improved flood accumulation reporting
and control. The tool is designed as a stand-alone software solution (CD-ROM) and offers two basic functional
modes:
• The user, for instance, a risk manager or insurance agent, enters data on the property location using the full
address (street, house number, and city). The address, or part thereof, is located and transformed into
geographic coordinates, which are used for zoning analysis.
• The system generates information on the flood risk exposure of the selected location and displays it on-screen.
The tool distinguishes six different flood risk zones (zones 1 to 6, ranging from very low to very high risk), and
the historically observed maximum flood boundary. The result is also translated into the CAP (Czech Insurance
Association) format for designating tariff zones.
During the past few years, a Swiss Re team of hydraulic engineers, hydrologists, GIS specialists and statisticians
developed statistical methodology to derive flood risk zones based on detailed digital terrain models (DTM). The
prediction success of the methodology prompted Swiss Re to apply for a patent.
• FRAT 1.0 flood risk zoning is based on the best DTM available in the Czech Republic. The DTM features a
horizontal resolution of 10m, i.e. a reading is generated for every 10m of elevation.
• Due to the high impact of local factors, such as river defences or roads which are not reflected in the high
resolution DTM, the high frequency flood risk (zone 6) is not derived by the statistical methodology but by
detailed processing on the part of MMC.
47 http://www.swissre.com/INTERNET/pwswpspr.nsf/alldocbyidkeylu/ULUR-5QBJKQ
An example of the outcome of FRAT, in the form of a risk map, is shown in Figure 6.11, with a distinction into four
(out of maximum six) hazard zones with increasing severity of flooding.
In August 2006 the FRAT 2.0 has been released. The new version of Flood Risk Assessment Tool, which focuses on
property insurance risk assessment is distributed on DVD ROM media and contains address database for whole
territory of the Czech Republic. The Address database is used for address verification and for geocoding of the
property location. The product offers extended set of detailed city plans, covering in total over 160 cities of the
Czech Republic.
The FRAT system is not freely available as it is a commercial product. Swiss Re and MMC have decided to offer
FRAT 1.0 CD-ROMs for a nominal fee to Czech clients of Swiss Re, the Czech Insurance Association (CAP) and to
all companies within CAP. Other insurance companies with insured interests in the Czech Republic can gain access
to the application by written request to Swiss Re or MMC.
Figure 6.11 FRAT results with flood map showing hazard zones with four steps of severity
An interesting development is the application of this technology to China. Flooding is one of the major threats to
life and property in China, but to date, the insurance industry has had to depend on experience-based ratings,
which have been unreliable especially for very large and infrequent events. Further information is provided on the
internet site of Swiss-RE.
In Figure 6.12 and Figure 6.13 images of typical screens of an intranet website48 are displayed developed for
dissemination and use by insurance companies of public natural zoning data, by a organization dedicated to
natural risk knowledge and prevention, for the whole French insurance market.
The information is available for consultation with GPS coordinates or downloading of datasets with relevant
metadata (as available from public authorities). Further treatment of the data for more industry specific use of the
public zoning is under development at the level of the organization and/or at the level of each company.
Depending to the existing public data on each location, the flood extension reflects either the highest historical
one or classified in terms of floods being ‘exceptional’, ‘frequent’ or ‘very frequent’ without details on actual
return periods, if not delivered by public authorities.
So far, the indication of urbanization is provided from the relevant themes of the CORINE Landcover land use data
base.
Figure 6.12 Screenshot of flood extension data sets made available to insurance companies in France (large area of Avignon, mainly on the
Rhone river, indicating the urban areas affected)
48 http://www.mrn-gpsa.org/accueil.php
In Germany a numeric tool for classification of flood zones developed by German insurance association (GDV) is
available (Figure 6.14) under the name ZÜRS Zonierungssystem für Überschwemmung, Hochwasser und
Rückstau.
Figure 6.14 Classification of flood zones update ZÜRS 2006 – area of flood hazard (Regensburg)
In Italy the insurance association (ANIA) provides flood hazard maps for insurance purposes via CEA, the
European insurance and reinsurance federation. The maps show the flood extension according to different return
periods. They are produced under the responsibility of the Public Basin Authorities or ANIA itself under a special
(SIGRA) project50 . The official internal release is planned for June 2007 and no public release has yet been
established. The maps are produced on a scale of 1:25,000 to 1:5,000 for the SIGRA project maps. In Figure 6.15
an example of a screenshot of a flood hazard map is shown. In general the layout of the maps is straightforward,
although the use of green is unusual as it is normally associated with safety. Nevertheless it is used here for the
floods with the lowest return period (50 years), i.e. the highest threat of inundation.
50 http://www.ania.it/sist_inf/prog/sigra/index.asp
Although this Atlas is restricted to examples of flood mapping in the EU countries, as a reference the extensive
mapping program in the USA is very interesting to include in this chapter on flood mapping for insurance purposes
since this program started already in 1969. The program, called National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), is a
Federal program enabling property owners in participating communities to purchase insurance protection against
losses from flooding51. This insurance is designed to provide an insurance alternative to disaster assistance to meet
the escalating costs of repairing damage to buildings and their contents caused by floods. Participation in the NFIP
is based on an agreement between local communities and the Federal Government that states if a community will
adopt and enforce a floodplain management ordinance to reduce future flood risks to new construction in Special
Flood Hazard Areas (SFHA), the Federal Government will make flood insurance available within the community as
a financial protection against flood losses.
The program is administrated by FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) which identifies flood hazard
areas throughout the U.S. and it's territories by producing Flood Hazard Boundary Maps (FHBMs), Flood Insurance
Rate Maps (FIRMs), and Flood Boundary & Floodway Maps (FBFMs). Several areas of flood hazards are commonly
identified on these maps. One of these areas is the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) or high risk area defined as
any land that would be inundated by a flood having a 1-percent chance of occurring in any given year (also
referred to as the base flood). The high-risk area standard constitutes a reasonable compromise between the need
for building restrictions to minimize potential loss of life and property and the economic benefits to be derived
from floodplain development. Development may take place within the SFHA, provided that development complies
with local floodplain management ordinances, which must meet the minimum Federal requirements. Flood
insurance is required for insurable structures within high-risk areas to protect Federal financial investments and
assistance used for acquisition and/or construction purposes within communities participating in the NFIP.
An important distinction is made between FHBMs and FIRMs. A Flood Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM) is based on
approximate data and identifies, in general, the SFHAs within a community. It is used in the NFIP's Emergency
Program for floodplain management and insurance purposes. A Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) usually is issued
following a flood risk assessment conducted in connection with the community's conversion to the NFIP's Regular
Program. If a detailed assessment, termed a Flood Insurance Study (FIS), has been performed, the FIRM will show
Base Flood Elevations (BFEs) and insurance risk zones in addition to floodplain boundaries. The FIRM may also
show a delineation of the regulatory floodway. After the effective date of the FIRM, the community's floodplain
management ordinance must be in compliance with appropriate Regular Program requirements. Actuarial rates,
based on the risk zone designations shown on the FIRM, are then applied for newly constructed, substantially
improved, and substantially damaged buildings.
The FIRM is the basis for floodplain management, mitigation, and insurance activities for the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP). Insurance applications include enforcement of the mandatory purchase requirement of
the Flood Disaster Protection Act, which "... requires the purchase of flood insurance by property owners who are
being assisted by Federal programs or by Federally supervised, regulated or insured agencies or institutions in the
acquisition or improvement of land facilities located or to be located in identified areas having special flood
hazards" (Section 2 (b) (4) of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973). In addition to the identification of
SFHAs, the risk zones shown on the FIRMs are the basis for the establishment of premium rates for flood coverage
offered through the NFIP.
The Standard DFIRM Database presents the flood risk information depicted on the FIRM in a digital format
suitable for use in electronic mapping applications. The Standard DFIRM database is a subset of the Enhanced
DFIRM Database that serves to archive the information collected during the flood insurance study.
In the maps a number of types of areas are distinguished using a coding. The most important codes used are:
Zones AE: Areas subject to inundation by the 1-percent-annual-chance flood event determined by detailed
methods. BFEs are shown within these zones. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply.
Zone AH: Areas subject to inundation by 1-percent-annual-chance shallow flooding (usually areas of ponding)
where average depths are between 1 and 3 feet. BFEs derived from detailed hydraulic analyses are shown in
this zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply.
Zone AO: Areas subject to inundation by 1-percent-annual-chance shallow flooding (usually sheet flow on
51 http://msc.fema.gov/
The flood maps can be used by a graphical user interface (Figure 6.16). In Figure 6.17 an example is given of the
flood maps that are produced by FEMA as part of NFIP.
An overview of all flood information and links to maps in the USA is available on the internet52.
52 http://www.floodsmart.gov/floodsmart/pages/index.jsp
For the city of Hamburg, detailed information is available on the internet on the activities that are being
implemented for the purpose of flood protection. Maps are available for several parts of the city on flood hazard
and the evacuation routes. On Figure 7.1 a detailed map is shown of part of the city (Wilhelmsburg) with an
indication of the evacuation zones corresponding to different water levels (6.5m and 7.5m), the location of
evacuation locations (‘Fluchtburgen’, indicated with ‘F1….8’), emergency residences (‘Notunterkünfte’, indicated
with ‘N1…4’) and busstops (‘H’) from where evacuation busses will depart. The maps are accompanied by an
extensive description of the expected situation in case of flooding and detailed advice to the general public how to
act in such circumstances.
This is a good example of a well-planned information package for urban population in a very large city. The
information is well-presented and easily accessible, although the files themselves may prove large for slow-speed
internet connections.
Figure 7.1 Part of the map with flood protection and evacuation zones of the city of Hamburg with (German) legend
53 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/stadtentwicklung-umwelt/bauen-wohnen/hochwasserschutz/start.html
54 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/inneres/katastrophenschutz/service/merkblaetter/start.html
In Japan municipalities are obliged to inform their inhabitants on the flood risk conform the Flood Fighting Act,
established in 2001. Since 2005 the municipalities are also obliged to take a pro-active attitude by distributing
flood risk and inundation maps freely among the inhabitants in order to increase the flood-preparedness and, as a
secondary goal, to contribute to the spatial planning within the municipality. The flood maps are prepared in two
steps:
1. the Ministery of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and the prefecture (for resp. nationwide and regionally
adminstred river basins) determine the flood-prone areas;
2. the municipalities produce the Flood Hazard Maps.
The flood maps are produced following a nationwide standard that is determined by the Ministry, which e.g.
establishes the inundation depth classes (0 – 50, 50 – 100, 100 – 200, 200 – 500 & > 500 cm) and the
corresponding colour codes. The choice of those depth classes is based on ‘human characteristics’:
• 0 – 50 cm: most houses will stay dry and it is still possible to walk through the water;
• 50 – 100 cm: there will be at least 50 cm of water on the ground floor and electricity will have failed by now;
• 100 – 200 cm: the ground floor of the houses will be flooded and the inhabitants have either to move to the
first floor or evacuate;
• 200 – 500 cm: both the first floor and often also the roof will be covered by water. Consequently evacuation is
the logic choice of action now. The same applies, evidently, for the depth class > 500 cm.
Similar to the situation in e.g. the Netherlands, the flood inundation maps are based on hydrodynamic calculations
for several scenarios of possible locations of dike failure. The final map is based on the scenario that would cause
the maximum number of victims, i.e. a worst case approach. The return period of the flood that is shown on the
maps depends on the region as a function of potential damage.
Once such maps have been made on municipal level, the municipality adds local information that is relevant for
evacuation, such as the location of shelters, important buildings, evacuation routes, etc., as well as information on
the items that should be taken along during an evacuation. On some maps space is left for the user to draw a
personal evacuation route map based on the particular situation of the person or family.
All the maps are distributed free of charge to the public on scales of 1:5.000 to 1:10.000, and in some cases they
can be downloaded from the internet. It is the task of the municipality to keep the maps up to date.
Examples of flood maps that are available to the public are shown in Figure 7.2 for the city of Toshima, using the
depth inundation classes mentioned above. As in most cases the legend is only given in Japanese, although in
some cases an English legend is provided. Further information on the preparation of the map is given on the
internet55. On this site all relevant information is given necessary for evacuation in case of flooding, including the
addresses of the shelters.
Other examples are shown in Figure 7.3 and Figure 7.4. Especially the latter gives indications of shelters,
temporary shelters (which probably have fewer resources for a long duration stay), boundaries of evacuation
areas, the location of flood warning speakers and, contrary to general custom, an indication of roads that should
NOT be used for evacuation. The map also provides expected flood depths, although no indication is given to
which return period this applies, and the limits of a recent historical flood. Although this map has some interesting
features that are hardly ever found in other evacuation-type maps (like the earlier mentioned location of ‘flood
warning speakers’), the topographical layout on the scale presented is not sufficiently clear to be used in practical
situations. It may be used, though, for preparation purposes as a training for flood situations. Further information
can be found on the internet56.
55 http://www.city.toshima.tokyo.jp/english/bousai/hazardmap/index.html
56 http://www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/html/docu/jan_20_22_2004_ws/pdf_output/hiroki.pdf
Figure 7.4 Example of a flood hazard map with indications of evacuation roads
An example of an evacuation map in the Netherlands is shown in Figure 7.5 for polders along the Rhine river near
Germany. This maps shows clearly the mandatory evacuation routes, including indication of one-way converted
roads, closed entrances and exits, and are a easy to interpret by the general public.
In Figure 7.6 the simulation of the expected flood extension for the region of “Land van Maas en Waal” (see also
Chapter 4.14) is translated into a decision-support map that shows the areas that will either remain dry, reach a
water level that leaves the first flood of dwellings dry and those areas that will reach such water depths that
evacuation will be required. In order to take decisions on the best evacuation routes, a map is produced that
shows the time of arrival of the inundation front with a depth of 50 cm at the various types of infrastructure
(especially roads, see Figure 7.7). Depending on the decision up till which depth roads or other escape routes are
still safe to use, maps with the arrival time of dfferent inundation depths can be produced.
Figure 7.5 Example of an evacuation map for the Netherlands with indication of obstructions and lane direction and closed entrances and
exits
Figure 7.7 Time of arrival of the inundation front of 50 cm depth at infrastructure (roads/elevated areas)
7.4.1 Mississippi
Similar to the comments made on insurance maps, there are a number of very interesting examples of evacuation
maps that can be used as examples for the development of evacuation maps in Europe. In the USA the evacuation
routes are published both by state and central on a clickable map of the entire country57.
In the maps from the USA reference is often made to the ‘contraflow’ principle, i.e. the reversing of the normal
traffic flow direction to change an ordinary two-direction road into a one-direction (evacuation) road to increase
its capacity. Special maps are prepared for such occasions that are referred to as ‘contraflow maps’. An example is
given in Figure 7.8 for a part of the State of Mississippi58 and a detailed map of a road crossing prepared by the
Mississippi Department of Transport is shown in Figure 7.959.
Figure 7.8 Hurricane evacuation routes in Mississippi state with indication of ‘contraflow’ roads
57 http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/evacuationroutes.html#sbs
58 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
59 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
7.4.2 Florida
The State of Florida produces a number of very clear and attractive evacuation maps. An example is shown in
Figure 7.10. This evacuation map is accompanied by a text with an indication of the ‘best’ evacuation route for
each of the villages in the region. The colours refer to expected hurricane / storm surge force (category 1 – 5)
60 http://www.firstcoastnews.com/weather/stormtrack/evacuation_map.aspx
61 http://www.dotd.state.la.us/maps/
Another example of an evacuation map for the city of New Orleans, including a phased evacuation plan, is given
in Figure 7.13. Very detailed instructions are available in case of a hurricane threat, with emergency shelter
information points, agency contact information, radio frequencies, a guide on how to make a ‘family
communication plan’ and even a chapter on ‘preparing your pets’.
Figure 7.13 Part of evacuation map of area of New Orleans with phased evacuation plan
A total of 18 sets of maps are available. Examples of both types of maps, with the corresponding legends, for the
American – River Arden region, are shown in Figure 7.14 and Figure 7.15.
Detailed maps are also available for some of the other States in the USA, especially New Jersey63 and South
Caroline64, but provide no extra information compared to the maps already shown in this Chapter.
62 http://www.msa.saccounty.net/waterresources/floodready/?page=maps
63 http://www.nj.gov/njoem/plan/evacuation-routes.html
64 http://www.dot.state.sc.us/getting/evacuation.shtml
Although in Chapter 1 a number of different types of flood maps are mentioned, not all these types are equally
well presented.
Most countries have flood extent maps. This flood extent should be related to a specified flood frequency.
Frequencies used in the maps vary from 1/30 to 1/10.000. Most countries use only 2 or 3 different frequencies
(e.g. 1/100 and 1/1000, or the less accurate “frequent” and “exceptional”), Flanders seventeen (2, 5, 10, 15, 20,
25, 30, 40, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 500 and 1000 years). England & Wales distinguish between floods
originating from the sea (1/200) and flood from rivers (1/100), while Ireland gives an indication of the uncertainty
of the flood extent. Maps become difficult to read when flood extent is presented in iso-lines (instead of coloured
surfaces) or when current velocities are presented is arrows (that may merge together with parallel current lines).
Often flood extent for different frequencies is presented in one map. Increasing intensities of blue, suggesting
increasing flood depth, represent the most frequent flooded (deeper) areas (like England & Wales, Finland,
Germany). Flood depth maps may be presented for one representative flood frequency, e.g. 1/100. An interesting
example is from Japan, in which the flood depth intervals are such that it contains “danger/how to act”
information for individuals. In France maps exist that also present flood duration.
Information on historic floods is shown on maps from France, Finland and Ireland. With this type of information
one should be aware that since this flood event floodwave characteristics and floodplain topography may have
changed considerably and that therefore this historic flood may not representative for present conditions.
However, this information is valuable to increase flood awareness.
Flood hazard maps, indicating where the combination of current velocity and waterdepth may be dangerous, are
published in England& Wales. Austria uses the more or less comparable dragforce parameter. In Rheinland-Pfalz
(Germany) and Switzerland this velocity-depth information is related to frequency, expressing this hazard
information in a more sophisticated way for professional users. The dominant colours for this type of hazard
information are red, orange and yellow.
In terms of flood risk maps, official maps indicating potential damage are rare. The only examples are from
Germany (Rheinland-Pfalz, Sachsen). Italy, Spain and Switzerland have official risk zone maps. These maps are
based on the probability of flooding in combination with the land use sensitivity /vulnerability to flooding. In Italy
and Switzerland this risk zonation relates to spatial planning regulations and construction requirements. Specific
vulnerability maps are available in England & Wales (social vulnerability of the population) and Sachsen (Germany)
(vulnerable services, like hospitals).
A special group of flood maps comprise the insurance maps, which are used as a basis for both the general user, to
check on the liability of his/her property to flooding, and the insurance companies to assess the actual risk of
flooding. These maps contain information on flood risk, represented as flood extent probability on damage
potential.
Evacuation maps are slowly becoming more usual, although most of them are still produced outside the EU. USA
and Japan have a large tradition on this and may be valuable when European countries start to prepare these
maps. Examples are found in Germany and also the Netherlands. These maps concentrate on how to act when a
flooding threat becomes evident (evacuation routes, location of refuge/shelters, etc.), often combined with
Apart form flood information (the core of the map of course) some additional information is essential for a proper
use of the map: adequate title, date of publishing, responsible authority, orientation of the map, scale (preferably
with a scale rod, to avoid confusion when printing or copying maps on other scales), relevant topographic
information (roads, railways, buildings, cadastral information (e.g. in Austria)). Interesting opportunities arise when
combining flood maps with Google Earth, however care should be taken to avoid an overload of topographic
information in this way.
Other desirable information is a small set-in map to locate the mapped area. Some Finnish maps indicate the area
covered by the model calculation. In addition the map from Finland has a nice example of a Disclaimer.
Another issue is language: in some instances English is used instead of the local language, but it is recognized that
the use of English, especially on the publicly accessible internet sites, may limit the access to the information for
those people with limited knowledge of English and the local language is preferred. The use of two languages may
make the legend too large or difficult to read. An option is evidently to provide a translation of the map labels in
English, especially on the internet sites.
With maps presented digitally on a computer care should be taken that the legend remains readable, especially
with (scanned) files of original hardcopies. Still many maps will be printed as well (A3 as most frequent maximum
size), which requires that map and legend are printed on the same page.
The Atlas shows for some of the maps a wide variety of layouts. When accompanied by a clear legend this may
not be a problem, however for transboundary catchments / maps it is advisable that a certain level of uniformity is
accomplished. Nice examples of such an approach are shown in the Chapter 5 on transboundary flood mapping.
Apart from the large number of different types of layout, that will be evident when browsing through this
document, it is important to realize that the differences in layout are only the outside of the discrepancies between
the various maps that according to their titles might assume to show the same information (e.g. flood extension
for a certain return period). More important than the differences in layout are the different methodologies that are
used for the production of the flood maps. Although the return period used is the same, the actual calculation
method may be very different and is often not apparent from the map. However, even in cases where background
documents do explain the technical details of the calculations, there are too many differences in the approaches
followed by the various agencies that the maps would possibly become comparable or, at border locations where
they present a continuous line of information, show the same results. And although in theory it would be possible
to use one and the same methodology, it is unlikely that the same results would be generated for e.g. border
stations as the underlying data are often contrasting and/or the length of the measurement series are different for
stations in neighbouring countries.
This demand for uniform approaches not only holds for border areas, but also for maps prepared for different
purposes within a country, e.g. national programmes, EU demonstration projects and reinsurance purposes.
Because of these initiatives for one area different maps may exist, all presenting some type c.q. aspect of flood risk
information.
EXCIMAP was organized by Frederique Martini (France) and Roberto Loat (Switzerland).
The work on this Atlas has lasted from January 2006 till October 2007 finishing with the publication of the document at
hand.
The present document contains examples of a non-exhaustive inventory of the current, existing and accessible good practices
for flood mapping in Europe. It is based on experiences and knowledge available in the countries represented in EXCIMAP.
The work of EXCIMAP started before the "Directive on the assessment and management of flood risks" endorsement (18
September 2007). The Atlas doesn’t intend to present any guidelines on how to implement the Directive despite the work
done to produce it having remained as close as possible to the Directive’s principles. Neither does the Atlas address all
requirements of the Directive.
It has not been verified if the maps and examples presented in this Atlas is compliant with the requirements of the Directive.
General information
The flood maps of Austria are produced by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water
Management. Two types of maps are being produced:
• Flood plain maps
• Flood hazard maps
Flood plain maps are provided for about 5000 km of river stretches on a scale between 1:5.000 and 1:10.000.
A second group of flood plain maps are called Hochwasser Risikozonierung Austria (HORA). These maps are an
example of insurance maps and as such are further discussed in Chapter 6.2.
Flood hazard maps are produced for limited areas on scales between 1:1.000 and 1:5.000 with an accompanying
text. They show expected flood extension for a return period of 1/100 years. For both types of maps, information
is provided on methodology, accuracy, etc. Hazard is expressed in two classes: yellow and red, which is determined
by a combination of flood depth and flow velocity (Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1 Criteria that determine medium and high risk using depth and velocity
A further distinction is made between flood control for major rives and torrents (flash floods). Flood hazard maps
for the latter are produced for ‘catastrophic events’ with a return period of 1/150 years. Hazard zones are in fact
given for torrents, avalanches and erosion events. Maps normally cover only a certain village or community.
More detailed information can be found on the internet1.
1 http://www.wassernet.at/
In Figure 4.2 both flood extension and expected water depth are given. In fact both water depth and water level
(absolute value) are given. The latter might give an indication of the flow direction, although a flood extension
map is normally a representation of a static situation, not of the inundation process. For the flood extension, three
standard return periods of 1/30, 1/100 and 1/300 yr are used that are the norm in Austria, but the water depth is
given for the 1/100 yr flood event. The differences between the extensions corresponding to the three return
periods are shown by symbols on lines instead of a system of coloured surfaces. As an alternative use can be made
of an indication of altitude similar to topographic maps, either with colours and/or putting the actual value (30 –
100 – 300) within the lines.
The water depths are given in an interval of 0.25 m, which is probably in line with the accuracy of the information,
but the combination of colours is less common. The smallest depth (0 - 0.25 m) is shown in light blue and darker
hues of blue are used for larger depths up to 1.25 m, but then a shift is made to green with increasing depth
indicated by lighter hues (up to 3.00 m). Green is normally used as an indication of safety and as was explained in
Chapter 3.1. Water depth is preferably indicated by hues of blue. In case there are many intervals the differences
between the various shades of blue may become obliterate and it might be an option to change to a larger interval
(e.g. 0.5 m) instead of using a combination of colours.
Although it can be deduced from the legend that the flood extension and water depth in numbers refer to the
event with a return period of 1/100 yr, this is not indicated in the subtitle of the map.
In Figure 4.3 flood hazard zones are indicated using four levels of hazard (blue, orange, yellow and red). Although
red is normally the highest hazard, it is not immediately clear from the map what the order of the hazards is. The
colour blue is already being used for inundation depth and may be left out of the colour palette here. It is very
useful in this map that the hazard zones are combined with land-use information, although the overall use of the
same colour for this purpose (green) does not allow for an easy distinction between various types of landuse.
There is however also another map available showing these hazard zones on top of an aerial photograph.
In the map showing flow velocities (Figure 4.4) both expected flood extension and flow velocities are shown. The
flow velocities are shown as light blue lines with the value of the velocity indicated by the length of the vector.
There is no indication to which return period the velocity field belongs and the user might assume that the velocity
field is independent of the return period, which is probably not the case. Based on the extension of the velocity
field it can be deduced that it belongs to inundation with the highest (1/300 yr) return period. As a general remark
it should be mentioned that the use of vectors for flow velocities, although in general very clear, might lead to
problems in case of parallel flow lines, because the length of the vectors becomes obliterate.
An interesting and very rare type of map is shown in Figure 4.5 which gives the shear stress / drag force of the
flowing water (in N/m2). There is no indication to which return period the information belongs. In general the
information provided can be used to assess e.g. the probable locations of highest force on buildings and/or where
major erosion can be expected. These locations are also the most dangerous and should evidently be avoided in
case of evacuation.
4.2.1 Flanders
For the Province of Flanders in Belgium, three types of flood plain maps are developed:
• The NOG-maps (Naturally flooded area map) contain the areas that are known as being flooded through soil-
mapping. These maps show the river sediments (alluvium) and slope (gravity-caused) sediments (colluvium)
zones in the soilmap that has been constructed on a scale 1:20.000
• The ROG-maps (Recently flooded area map) show the recently flooded areas in the period 1988-2006 based
upon manual cartography, local terrain knowledge, photographs, (areal) movies, water authorities, Provinces,
municipalities, consultants and others on topographical maps with scale 1:10.000. An automatic correction of
the ROG-map has been performed using the DTM-Flanders (5*5 m) and GIS-techniques. This side-product is
called the ROG-DHM map
• The MOG-maps (Modelled flooded area maps) shows the flooded areas for about 2000 km of rivers that have
been modelled hydrological and hydrodynamical. The maps show flood extent, flood depth, flood time, flood
frequency (2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 500 and 1000 years). The MOG-map
can be used till a scale of 1:2500.
The flood extension maps are available from an interactive internet site2 called the “Geo-loket
Overstromingskaarten” and “Geo-loket Watertoets”; the same site is also used for other map purposes, e.g. soil
maps, colour orthophotos, satellite images, water quality, etc. The dark blue in the “Overstromingskaarten” can
be chosen for the ROG or NOG maps or for a combination of the surveyed ROG together with the MOG with a
return period of 25 years. In the “watertoets” the dark blue zones are the combination of the ROG and a MOG
with a return period of 100 years. The light blue zones are the NOG without the built-up areas. Explanation on the
interactive information, and how the flood extensions have been calculated, are given in an accompanying digital
document (“Risicozones overstroming – Begeleidende Nota”). Examples of a map produced with this internet site
are shown in Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9. There is a legend to the maps, but this is written in Dutch.
An example of a ROG maps is shown in Figure 4.6 (overview) and Figure 4.7 (example of detailed map).
2 http://geo-vlaanderen.gisvlaanderen.be/geo-vlaanderen/overstromingskaarten/
In general the possibilities to find information on the interactive site are very good and it is easy to use also for
non-experts. A drawback is that once a certain area is selected and the user has zoomed into a detail of the map,
there is no overview anymore where in Flanders the location is, e.g. there is no accompanying window that gives
the overall view of the province as is often shown on other internet sites. The amount of information is limited,
but this is evidently also the reason why the maps are easy to interpret. The colour light blue for inundated area is
well-chosen, especially given the low return period. However, both the floodable areas from any water course and
Figure 4.8 First example of a flood extension map from the Geo-loket of Flanders (Belgium)
Figure 4.9 Second example of flood extension map from Geo-Loket of Flanders (Belgium)
Every hydraulic scenario for the navigable waterways leads to a risk calculation with detailed maps of the present
situation and the alternatives and a generalized overview map has to be made 2-3 times a decade.
Examples of flood risk maps are shown in Figure 4.10, Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12.
4.2.2 Wallonia
In view of the repeated floods in recent years and the extent of the damage they produce, the Walloon
Government decided on 9 January 2003 to implement an overall plan for preventing and fighting against floods
and their effects on victims, called the « Plan PLUIES3 ».
One of the objectives of the “Plan PLUIES” is to determine the flooding areas for the whole territory of the
Walloon Region, taking advantage of the preparatory work already done (topographic measurements of minor
and major beds of rivers, inventory (survey) of areas flooded by overflowing rivers in the past, soil numerical
map,…). Concretely speaking, it consists of establishing two types of maps:
− the flood hazard map, showing the territories that are likely to be flooded by overflow of rivers, which is the
main subject of this memo;
− the flood risk map, showing potential damage to vulnerable, flood-sensitive elements located in zones where
there is a flood hazard.
The principles of the methodology developed by the GTI (Groupe Transversal Inondations – Cross-sector Flood
Group of the Walloon Region) were inspired by the « floodability » method developed by Cemagref, the French
Institute for agricultural and environmental engineering research, duly adapted to the specificity of the Walloon
topography and territory. While taking account of basic data available or being collected, it provides a coherent set
of various tried-and-true scientific methods and can be applied to the entire Walloon territory. This methodology
was approved by the Walloon Government on 21 November 2002.
3
• Plan
Recurrence
PLUIES : plan de Prévention et de LUtte contre les Inondations et leurs Effets sur les Sinistrés (plan for preventing and combating floods
and their effects on the victims
• Submersion
The submersion of a flood is characterised mainly by its extent and depth. Hydraulic (2D or 1D) models that
digitally reproduce minor and major beds of rivers are needed to determine this. When data needed to use
hydraulic methods are not available, submersion is characterised by its extent, by applying the "hydropedological"
method, based on information taken from digital topographic map and pedological maps, among others.
• Hazard of flooding
The flood hazard (low, medium, high) is computed from combining the values of recurrence and submersion (see
Figure 4.13). In the event of frequent flooding with a high submersion, the flood hazard will be high and,
conversely, rare flooding with a low submersion will result in a low flood hazard. Note that corrective factors can
be inserted for specific conditions of the speed of the current or the duration of submersion, or when protective
works are present.
The combination of the methods for determining recurrence and submersion produce data which show the value
of hazard, after being integrated, cross-referenced and processed using the hazard determination grid, as
illustrated on Figure 4.14.
Examples maps
The flood hazard maps for Wallonia are produced as the outcome of the combination of maps showing field
surveys (occurrence of historical floods), extension of the floodplain and the results of a hydraulic modelling. An
example of the resulting flood hazard map is shown in Figure 4.15.
The general layout of the map forms an attractive combination based on transparent colours overlaying a
topographic background map in grey scale. The choice of the colours on the example flood hazard map for
Wallonia are logic and intuitive, but it would be interesting to mention both a qualitative (‘low / medium / high’)
and quantitative value (’25 / 50 / > 100 years’) for the hazard in the legend. The information provided on the
map is also rather limited compared to other example maps in this Atlas.
In Croatia a pilot project has been carried out for the preparation of flood risk maps for river basin management
purposes in 2004. The maps are produced on a scale of 1:100.000. In the Figure 4.16 to Figure 4.21 the results
are shown for the river Krapina subbasin.
Figure 4.18 Extent of expected flooding for events with a return period of 1000 years
Figure 4.19 Landcover flooded for events with a return period of 1000 years
Figure 4.20 Damage map for events with a return period of 1000 years
Croatia is one of the few countries that provides flood damage maps and in Figure 4.19 and Figure 4.20 a land
cover map and flood damage map are shown for the same river basin. In general the areas that are expected to
witness damage during an event with a return period of 1/1000 years correspond with the flood extension map in
Figure 4.18. In addition to that, although the flood damage map lacks a legend, it is evident that the darker red
colours correspond to higher expected damage as these areas coincide with the settlements (Naselja in Croatian)
on the landcover map.
In Denmark the Danish Coastal Authority has only published a few flood maps for specific study areas, such as the
areas along the Danish West coast and the Ribe polder area (Wadden Sea region). Flood maps on the internet are
not available yet. Two examples of flood maps in Denmark are shown in Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.22 A very extreme flood disaster event with a return period of 1/4000 yr in the Ribe polder area
The map in Figure 4.23 is difficult to interpret for an outsider as it is not immediately clear on which side the sea is
located. The fact that the buildings on the right side of the map are inundated suggests that this is the land side
and the left side the coastal area which also becomes partly flooded during the event. This map would benefit
from more background information on the map and in the legend and both maps lack a North indication and a
scale rod.
In Finland many types of flood maps are produced which are summarized in the following table with an example
of the layout of each of them.
There are also many historical flood maps, i.e. maps showing the extent of historical floods. They can be used in
combination with flood extension maps, but their use may be limited when referring to floods that occurred many
years ago, especially in urban areas, as major changes may have occurred in the geometry of the river bed.
For the flood hazard map that is shown in Figure 4.31 for the city of Pori the expected water depths are given for
an event with a return period of 250 year. The map shows both the flooding of unprotected areas and, with
shading, the areas that will be flooded in case of failure of dikes. It is assumed that all dikes will fail, i.e. it is a
worse-case scenario. Also here the maximum extent of the modelled area is indicated by a green line.
As with the flood extension map, at the bottom of the map, additional information is given, among which the
basis for the calculation of the corresponding discharge: frequency analysis with the Gumbel distribution. The
corresponding water levels are calculated with a 1-D hydrodynamic model. Such information is rarely given with
flood maps and it is often even difficult to find this type of technical background information in accompanying
documents.
It is also interesting that these maps show in a very prominent position a disclaimer in red: “The purpose of the
map is to give a general view of the extent and depth of a 250-year flood. It is not reasonable to use the map for
a building-specific analysing. More information: http://www.ymparisto.fi/.”. This is a very clear statement and it
can be assumed that this message will not easily be overlooked as might happen with disclaimers in separate
internet pages and/or accompanying documents. On the specified internet site, more detailed information is
indeed provided (albeit evidently in Finnish) and more examples of flood maps can be downloaded.
France has interactive flood maps for various regions on the internet. A few examples are given below.
General information
In the following figures first examples are given of four interactive internet sites that are available in France to
obtain flood extension maps for different regions.
In Example 1 a nationwide system is shown that allows the user to access flood-related risk information for a
number of regions in France.
The other three examples are administered by different agencies and as such the layout of these sites is completely
different. The three examples are produced by different methods:
• Example 2 – Carte Rhône river – region of Avignon: based on hydrogeomorphology;
• Example 3 – Nord Pas-de-Calais: based on modelisation
• Example 4 – Ile-de-France region: based on historical flood maps.
A fifth example of flood maps from France is produced by the insurance sector and therefore discussed separately
in the corresponding Chapter 6.4.
7 http://cartorisque.prim.net/index.html
On Figure 4.32 an overview is given of the regions in France for which risk maps are available (shown in dark
blue, light blue means “not yet available”). Risks refer to a number of natural risks, including avalanches, etc., but
for this purpose flooding is only relevant. After choosing a certain region, a new map becomes available within
which by zooming the flood hazard along a river can be shown (e.g. Thionville along the Mosel river in Figure
4.33). Depending on the choice of the region, the extent of a number of historical floods can be shown. By
clicking anywhere within a flood-prone region, additional information becomes available which shows that the
flood extent refers to a flood with a return period of 1/100 years and it also makes a background document
available on the chosen location with an overview of historical natural disasters (in this case floods).
Figure 4.35 Example of flood extension internet site of the Rhone river region
Figure 4.36 Flood inundation maps for city of Avignon with both historical floods (1856 and 2003) and expected inundation areas
8 http://www.geomapguide.com/diren/Risques/Dynamap_risques.htm
Figure 4.39 Detail of the flood inundation map for the Ile-de-France
10 http://carto.ecologie.gouv.fr/HTML_PUBLIC/Site%20de%20consultation/site.php?map=essai_PHEC.map&service_idx=18W
For Germany there are many different maps as each of the “Länder” makes its own maps, but recently (2006)
recommendations have been published on national level for the production of flood maps11. Examples in this
document include maps from Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Nieder-Sachsen (including Bremen), Nordrhein-
Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt.
4.8.1 Baden-Württemberg
For Baden-Württemberg there are interactive maps available for both flood extension and flood depth on the
internet12. However, there is still very limited information available (only the Neckar river between Mosbach and
Heidelberg, see Figure 4.41). There is a clear corresponding document available in PDF-format directly from the
map page in which the procedure is explained of the production of the flood maps. Information is given for return
periods of 1/10, 1/50, 1/100 and an ‘extreme’ situation. The latter is explained in the text as a ‘statistically very
rare event. It can be defined as a historical event, which may be different for different locations, e.g. due to
obstruction by bridges’. It is not possible to give any return period to such an event.
In Figure 4.40 the various concepts are shown that are used for the elaboration of the flood maps of Baden-
Württemberg. Important are the possibilities to indicate whether a certain area is located behind a flood defence
and the return period for which this flood defence is still effective.
In Figure 4.41 the (restricted) river stretch is shown for which flood maps are made publicly available (Neckar
river). Examples of flood maps for this region are shown in Figure 4.42 and Figure 4.43. They can be accessed
from the internet13. As stated on the internet site of Baden-Württemberg all the maps are produced as part of the
EU-funded SAFER project (see Chapter 5.6). Baden-Württemberg has also produced an English-language
guidebook ‘Flood Risk Maps in Baden-Württemberg’, as part of the SAFER EU project, which forms the basis for
the production of the flood hazard maps. The map in Figure 4.43 is an example of a map that is produced
following these (SAFER) guidelines.
11 Deutsche Vereinigung für Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser und Abfall (DWA), Arbeitsgruppe Hochwassermanagement:
“Empfehlungen der Bund-/ Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft Wasser (LAWA) zur Aufstellung von Hochwasser-Gefahrenkarten”
12 http://rips-dienste.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/rips/hwgk/
13 http://www.hochwasser.baden-wuerttemberg.de/
For the flood depth map (Figure 4.43) the information is only provided for the ‘extreme’ flood, which has no clear
return period, although in the case of the maps shown above it corresponds with the extension of the 1/100 year
flood (possibly because no major historical flood information is available). The use of colours is unusual as normally
flood depth is only shown in shades of blue. The present succession from yellow to red is normally used in flood
risk maps to indicate increased level of danger. Step size of 0.5 m is logic and probably consistent with the level of
precision of the underlying data.
14 http://www.iug.bayern.de
15 http://www.mu1.niedersachsen.de/master/C7774004_N11348_L20_D0_I598
4.8.4 Nordrhein-Westfalen
For Nordrhein-Westfalen use is made of maps, which can be downloaded from the corresponding internet site16.
Information on flood extension is given for the Rhine river for a return period of 1/500 yr and the smaller streams
for 1/100 yr. The maps are available as PDF files and are very detailed. Interestingly the maps also show regions
that may be used as emergency inundation areas. In Figure 4.47 this is shown with the normal flood extension in
dark-blue and the emergency inundation areas in yellow and pink. The yellow areas are flooded in for floods with
a return period of 100 years in case no action is taken, while the pink areas are restricted region for inundation and
only used in special cases.
16 http://www.lua.nrw.de/wasser/hwberkarten.htm
In Figure 4.48 an example is given of the Rhine river in the region of Köln that shows the expected inundation
area for an event with a return period of 1/500 yr for the Rhine, with a distinction between inundated area along
the main river channel (light blue) and behind dikes (hatched yellow). For the tributary of the Sieg in the right
upper part of the map, both the expected inundated area for a return period of 1/100 yr is given as well as the
emergency inundation area (in yellow and pink).
The legend is rather small and not easy to read, even when printed on A3 format as in this case. This illustrates the
problem of reproducing scanned original topographic maps as background to flood maps.
The access link to an interactive map is already shown on the internet site where the maps of Nordrhein-Westfalen
are available, but has not yet been activated.
The hazard stages show the degree of danger to persons, animals and property and are differentiated into three
degrees of hazard, distinguishable by the colours red (substantial hazard), orange (moderate hazard) and yellow
(minor hazard). In order to be able to calculate the residual hazard, the hazard situation for very rare events
(extreme floodwater run-off) was examined. These areas are shown as yellow-white hatched.
A similar approach with a hazard matrix is adopted in Switzerland and Belgium (Wallonia).
17 http://www.gefahrenatlas-mosel.de
Figure 4.50 Danger class map of the lower part of the Kyll river
The danger or hazard classes do not correspond with the flood extension classes and return periods. They are
defined based on the initiative of the international TIMIS-project (see Chapter 5.7) through which hazard maps for
more rivers in Rhineland-Palatinate are elaborated. The maps will be available in the internet in 2008 and will
provide a lot more information for the user. The four danger classes that are used on those maps are further
discussed in Chapter 5.7 on the TIMIS project. Figure 4.52 shows an example of an improved hazard map for
Rheinland-Pfalz.
4.8.6 Saarland
Also the maps for the Saarland region are based on an interactive map site18. An example is shown in Figure 4.53.
Figure 4.53 Example of a flood extension map for the Saarland region (1/200 yr event)
4.8.7 Sachsen
For Sachsen there is an interactive internet site19 where a choice is given between flood inundation maps
(Uberschwemmungskarte) and flood damage maps (Schaden¬potential¬karte). In Sachsen some major cities are
located, such as Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz. Dresden is particularly interesting as it has witnessed major flood
events in the recent past due to high water levels on the Elbe river (especially August 2002, for which a historical
flood extension map is also available). It should be remarked that the maps have been produced as part of the
transboundary ELLA project (see Chapter 5.3).
18 http://www.gis.saarland.de/website/usg1/viewer.htm?Title=%DCberschwemmungsgebiete
19 http://www.umwelt.sachsen.de/de/wu/umwelt/lfug/lfug-internet/interaktive_karten_10950.html
Figure 4.58 Flood extension map for the river Elbe at Magdeburg
20 http://www.ella-interreg.org/gefahrenkarten0.html
In Hungary flood maps have been produced for the major rivers, but most of the maps are rather old and have not
been updated since 1977. Only flood extension has been presented.
A map of a Danube flood area in 1:50,000 is shown in Figure 4.60. The same return periods are used at this
example and also the flood embankments are shown. Flood embankments are very important in Hungary: about
97% of the floodplains are protected by dikes.
Recently new flood maps are being prepared and will become available for the whole country in the near future
based on statistical analysis. In many cases hydraulic modelling is used to determine the flood extent, flood depth
and the propagation time of inundation. The processing of new flood maps for Hungary is still in progress. In the
future many other types of flood maps will be available, among which flood risk and flood damage maps.
Examples of new flood maps for Hungary are shown in Figure 4.61 (extension of inundation), Figure 4.62 (flood
depth) and Figure 4.63 (propagation of inundation).
Figure 4.62 Bereg flood area, River Tisza right bank, flood depth (m)
In the past flood mapping in Ireland has focused on mapping of flood extents for various event probabilities
(return periods) only in high-risk areas. This practice has recently been expanded to include the mapping of flood
velocities and depths (See Figure 4.64) based on 2-Dimensional hydraulic modelling and high-resolution digital
terrain models.
A national flood mapping programme has been initiated to provide greater spatial coverage of flood maps,
principally for planning and development management and flood risk management planning. Phase I of this
programme has recently been completed, with the development of a web-based information management
system, and its population with collated and verified historic flood data (www.floodmaps.ie, see Figure 4.65).
Before the user can enter the internet site, a disclaimer has to be acknowledged:
Introduction
The Office of Public Works (OPW) is the leading state agency in relation to flood-related matters in the
Republic of Ireland. The information in relation to past flood events that is displayed on this Web site is
collected by OPW from Local Authorities, other state bodies and members of the general public. The
information is then put through a rigorous verification process in order to provide the maximum degree of
confidence in its accuracy. However, due to the type and character of the information involved there are a
number of issues and considerations that users should take account of in relation to the Content and the Use
of the Web site.
The user can search on the name of a location or zoom in on the map and interactively choose a location. For each
location for which specific information is available a clickable indication in the form of yellow triangle is shown on
the map. As is shown in Figure 4.65 for each location the available information on historic floods is given, which
can be accessed directly on-line, also reports on the event. There is also a complete glossary on the technical
words and an extendable legend.
In addition to historic flood extent and incident locations, the website also makes available to the user information
such as photographs (see Figure 4.66), reports, hydrometric data and other supporting information.
Predictive flood maps currently under development through the flood mapping programme will also be made
available via the website. The foreseen format of the flood extent maps is provided in Figure 4.67. It might be
noted that the line type varies for different reaches of each of the flood envelopes to indicate a high, medium or
low level of confidence (indicator of uncertainty) associated with the flood extent. A table of flood levels (above
datum) is also provided for nodes along the river channel.
For Italy a number of flood-related maps have been made available. However, no information has been provided
on the mapping programme, mapping authorities or any other background information.
Figure 4.68 Flood extension and risk map in Italy (location Rieti)
On the flood extension map (Figure 4.68) both the flood extension is shown (for 3 return periods: 1/50, 1/200
and 1/500 yr) and three levels of risk (R2, R3 and R4). This risk factor R is defined on the basis of two parameters:
sensitivity and probability. One of these two factors (probability) is already shown on the same map (inverse of the
return period) and the risk factor is obtained by overlying this information with land use and urban planning. The
latter is remarkable, because it implies that future urban layout is taken into account. In total there are four levels
of risk (R1 – R4). Risk area R1 is characterized by a low sensitivity, because its specific use implies a low probability
of human loss or because it falls within areas characterized by high return periods. The level of risk increases from
R4 to R2:
• R4: Return period of 1/50 yr and high level of sensitivity
• R3: Return period of 1/50 – 1/200 yr and high level of sensitivity
• R2: Return period of 1/200 – 1/500 yr and high level of sensitivity
The process of derivation of risk areas is shown in Figure 4.69 - Figure 4.71 for the river Tevere with a total
population of about 4.3 million persons. The Tevere river passes through the city of Rome towards the
Mediterranean Sea and as such is a very relevant example of flood mapping in an urban area.
On Figure 4.69 the vulnerability / sensitivity is indicated of exposed assets (i.e. types of buildings, sport facilities,
waste dumping areas, power plants, etc.). In the vulnerability maps, red indicates the most vulnerable locations,
which is logical. However, green indicating the least vulnerable locations might suggest that these areas are safe,
which is misleading.
On Figure 4.71 the combination of the two former maps into a flood hazard map is shown. Use is made of the
colour red again for the highest flood hazard.
Figure 4.69 Vulnerability of exposed assets in the river valley of the Tevere
Figure 4.70 Flood extension map for 3 return periods (1/50, 1/200 and 1/ 500 years)
For the city of Hamburg, detailed information is available on the internet on the activities that are being
implemented for the purpose of flood protection. Maps are available for several parts of the city on flood hazard
and the evacuation routes. On Figure 7.1 a detailed map is shown of part of the city (Wilhelmsburg) with an
indication of the evacuation zones corresponding to different water levels (6.5m and 7.5m), the location of
evacuation locations (‘Fluchtburgen’, indicated with ‘F1….8’), emergency residences (‘Notunterkünfte’, indicated
with ‘N1…4’) and busstops (‘H’) from where evacuation busses will depart. The maps are accompanied by an
extensive description of the expected situation in case of flooding and detailed advice to the general public how to
act in such circumstances.
This is a good example of a well-planned information package for urban population in a very large city. The
information is well-presented and easily accessible, although the files themselves may prove large for slow-speed
internet connections.
Figure 7.1 Part of the map with flood protection and evacuation zones of the city of Hamburg with (German) legend
53 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/stadtentwicklung-umwelt/bauen-wohnen/hochwasserschutz/start.html
54 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/inneres/katastrophenschutz/service/merkblaetter/start.html
In Japan municipalities are obliged to inform their inhabitants on the flood risk conform the Flood Fighting Act,
established in 2001. Since 2005 the municipalities are also obliged to take a pro-active attitude by distributing
flood risk and inundation maps freely among the inhabitants in order to increase the flood-preparedness and, as a
secondary goal, to contribute to the spatial planning within the municipality. The flood maps are prepared in two
steps:
1. the Ministery of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and the prefecture (for resp. nationwide and regionally
adminstred river basins) determine the flood-prone areas;
2. the municipalities produce the Flood Hazard Maps.
The flood maps are produced following a nationwide standard that is determined by the Ministry, which e.g.
establishes the inundation depth classes (0 – 50, 50 – 100, 100 – 200, 200 – 500 & > 500 cm) and the
corresponding colour codes. The choice of those depth classes is based on ‘human characteristics’:
• 0 – 50 cm: most houses will stay dry and it is still possible to walk through the water;
• 50 – 100 cm: there will be at least 50 cm of water on the ground floor and electricity will have failed by now;
• 100 – 200 cm: the ground floor of the houses will be flooded and the inhabitants have either to move to the
first floor or evacuate;
• 200 – 500 cm: both the first floor and often also the roof will be covered by water. Consequently evacuation is
the logic choice of action now. The same applies, evidently, for the depth class > 500 cm.
Similar to the situation in e.g. the Netherlands, the flood inundation maps are based on hydrodynamic calculations
for several scenarios of possible locations of dike failure. The final map is based on the scenario that would cause
the maximum number of victims, i.e. a worst case approach. The return period of the flood that is shown on the
maps depends on the region as a function of potential damage.
Once such maps have been made on municipal level, the municipality adds local information that is relevant for
evacuation, such as the location of shelters, important buildings, evacuation routes, etc., as well as information on
the items that should be taken along during an evacuation. On some maps space is left for the user to draw a
personal evacuation route map based on the particular situation of the person or family.
All the maps are distributed free of charge to the public on scales of 1:5.000 to 1:10.000, and in some cases they
can be downloaded from the internet. It is the task of the municipality to keep the maps up to date.
Examples of flood maps that are available to the public are shown in Figure 7.2 for the city of Toshima, using the
depth inundation classes mentioned above. As in most cases the legend is only given in Japanese, although in
some cases an English legend is provided. Further information on the preparation of the map is given on the
internet55. On this site all relevant information is given necessary for evacuation in case of flooding, including the
addresses of the shelters.
Other examples are shown in Figure 7.3 and Figure 7.4. Especially the latter gives indications of shelters,
temporary shelters (which probably have fewer resources for a long duration stay), boundaries of evacuation
areas, the location of flood warning speakers and, contrary to general custom, an indication of roads that should
NOT be used for evacuation. The map also provides expected flood depths, although no indication is given to
which return period this applies, and the limits of a recent historical flood. Although this map has some interesting
features that are hardly ever found in other evacuation-type maps (like the earlier mentioned location of ‘flood
warning speakers’), the topographical layout on the scale presented is not sufficiently clear to be used in practical
situations. It may be used, though, for preparation purposes as a training for flood situations. Further information
can be found on the internet56.
55 http://www.city.toshima.tokyo.jp/english/bousai/hazardmap/index.html
56 http://www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/html/docu/jan_20_22_2004_ws/pdf_output/hiroki.pdf
Figure 7.4 Example of a flood hazard map with indications of evacuation roads
An example of an evacuation map in the Netherlands is shown in Figure 7.5 for polders along the Rhine river near
Germany. This maps shows clearly the mandatory evacuation routes, including indication of one-way converted
roads, closed entrances and exits, and are a easy to interpret by the general public.
In Figure 7.6 the simulation of the expected flood extension for the region of “Land van Maas en Waal” (see also
Chapter 4.14) is translated into a decision-support map that shows the areas that will either remain dry, reach a
water level that leaves the first flood of dwellings dry and those areas that will reach such water depths that
evacuation will be required. In order to take decisions on the best evacuation routes, a map is produced that
shows the time of arrival of the inundation front with a depth of 50 cm at the various types of infrastructure
(especially roads, see Figure 7.7). Depending on the decision up till which depth roads or other escape routes are
still safe to use, maps with the arrival time of dfferent inundation depths can be produced.
Figure 7.5 Example of an evacuation map for the Netherlands with indication of obstructions and lane direction and closed entrances and
exits
Figure 7.7 Time of arrival of the inundation front of 50 cm depth at infrastructure (roads/elevated areas)
7.4.1 Mississippi
Similar to the comments made on insurance maps, there are a number of very interesting examples of evacuation
maps that can be used as examples for the development of evacuation maps in Europe. In the USA the evacuation
routes are published both by state and central on a clickable map of the entire country57.
In the maps from the USA reference is often made to the ‘contraflow’ principle, i.e. the reversing of the normal
traffic flow direction to change an ordinary two-direction road into a one-direction (evacuation) road to increase
its capacity. Special maps are prepared for such occasions that are referred to as ‘contraflow maps’. An example is
given in Figure 7.8 for a part of the State of Mississippi58 and a detailed map of a road crossing prepared by the
Mississippi Department of Transport is shown in Figure 7.959.
Figure 7.8 Hurricane evacuation routes in Mississippi state with indication of ‘contraflow’ roads
57 http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/evacuationroutes.html#sbs
58 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
59 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
7.4.2 Florida
The State of Florida produces a number of very clear and attractive evacuation maps. An example is shown in
Figure 7.10. This evacuation map is accompanied by a text with an indication of the ‘best’ evacuation route for
each of the villages in the region. The colours refer to expected hurricane / storm surge force (category 1 – 5)
60 http://www.firstcoastnews.com/weather/stormtrack/evacuation_map.aspx
61 http://www.dotd.state.la.us/maps/
Another example of an evacuation map for the city of New Orleans, including a phased evacuation plan, is given
in Figure 7.13. Very detailed instructions are available in case of a hurricane threat, with emergency shelter
information points, agency contact information, radio frequencies, a guide on how to make a ‘family
communication plan’ and even a chapter on ‘preparing your pets’.
Figure 7.13 Part of evacuation map of area of New Orleans with phased evacuation plan
A total of 18 sets of maps are available. Examples of both types of maps, with the corresponding legends, for the
American – River Arden region, are shown in Figure 7.14 and Figure 7.15.
Detailed maps are also available for some of the other States in the USA, especially New Jersey63 and South
Caroline64, but provide no extra information compared to the maps already shown in this Chapter.
62 http://www.msa.saccounty.net/waterresources/floodready/?page=maps
63 http://www.nj.gov/njoem/plan/evacuation-routes.html
64 http://www.dot.state.sc.us/getting/evacuation.shtml
Latvia doesn’t yet have a well established flood mapping system, partly because there was no urgent need for
such mapping for the whole of Latvia or separate river basins. For historical events maps are available as hard
copies. Many maps are produced on special request e.g. for a municipality.
In Latvia there is no great flooding as in most of other European countries where larger rivers are present.
However, some flood mapping efforts are made mostly if there are requests from municipalities. Calculations are
made for some territories for 1/100 yr (1% probability) and sometimes other frequencies (5%, 10%, 20% or 50%
probability etc.), depending on request.
For the examples of flood maps in Latvia two maps are available. The map in Figure 4.72 shows the expected
flood extent for an event with a return period of 1/100 yr for the city of Jekabpils, which lies along the Daugava
river, which is the most important river in Latvia. Most floods in the city of Jekabpils occur in spring due to ice-
jams.
The map in Figure 4.73 shows the flood extension for the city of Lubana on the Aiviekste river, a tributary of the
Daugava river, also for a return period of 100 years. This is an example of a map that was especially produced for
a municipality, who requested also to have land use on the same map.
Both maps where made in Latvian Environment, Geology and Meteorology Agency (LEGMA) in year 2006. It
should be remarked that the layout of both maps map is rather clear and easy to read.
Figure 4.72 Flood extension map for the city of Jekabpils in Latvia on the Daugava river
The Netherlands is flood prone for about 60% of its surface. 95 so-called dike-rings protect the polders from being
flooded from the North Sea, rivers or lakes. The protection level has a legal status, expressed in the following
exceedance frequencies per year: 1/10.000 along the central section of the North Sea coast, 1/1250 along the
main rivers, 1/2000 and 1/4000 in the intermediate estuaries, lake IJssel and Wadden Sea. Flooding of these dike
rings may occur as a result of the failure (or overtopping) of embankments or other defence works (sluices, storm
surge barriers). Under these conditions a relatively large area may be flooded in a couple of days. The extent,
progress and final flooding depth (and hence potential damage and affected inhabitants) depend on the location
and process of the failure, hydraulic boundary conditions and terrain characteristics. This can be simulated by 2-D
model computations. Only relatively small, unprotected areas outside these dike-rings experience the natural
dynamics of rising waters due to the tide, storm-surges or river floods. Along the river Meuse isolated villages have
minor embankments with a protection level of 1/250.
Official flood (extent) maps in the Netherlands are available for public and official use on Internet
(www.risicokaart.nl, access on provincial level). These maps show flood prone areas, as defined by more than 1
meter flooding depth with a frequency larger than 1/4000 per year. Figure 4.76 shows an example for the
province of Gelderland. Many types of disasters are shown on this site, including accidents in tunnels, traffic, forest
fires, earthquakes etc. To show maps related to floods (the light blue horizontal hatching), the other options can
simply be turned off.
In addition to these official maps many types of flood maps exist for study and disaster management purposes. As
a result of these studies a new generation of flood maps will become available on the provincial Internet-sites the
coming years. Anticipating the EU Flood Risk Management Directive these maps will distinguish between flood
extent, depth and probability, flood progress (and rate of rise), dangerous current velocities, potential damage and
affected inhabitants, flood risk (probability x adverse effects) and finally information for evacuation.
Figure 4.76 Interactive flood risk map of a part of the province of Gelderland in the Netherlands
Figure 4.78 and Figure 4.79 show examples of depth and potential damage for a specific event: a flood caused by
failure of the coastal dunes between The Hague and Rotterdam by a specified North Sea storm surge. Increasing
flood depth (and damage) is visualized by increasing intensities of blue (and red). Maximum flood depth and
damage not necessarily coincide. Of course damage only occurs where flooding occurs, but the amount of
damage is much more determined by socio-economic value of a specific location than the expected depth of
inundation.
Figure 4.80 shows the travel time of the flooding process. This is important information for the preparation of
evacuation plans by disaster management organizations.
Figure 4.81 is an interesting example, as it shows flood depth classes related to the height of a human body (dark
blue: ankle-deep, light blue: knee-deep, light rose: hip-deep, orange: head-deep, red: submerged).
Another example of the information that can be obtained from series of simulations of the inundation process is
shown for the region of ‘Land of Maas en Waal’ in the Netherlands in Figure 4.82 (time of arrival of front of
inundation with a depth of 50 cm) and the rate of rise of the water (Figure 4.83). The rate of rise has a major
impact on the number of casualties, especially for inundation depths between 0 – 1.5 m. The highest values of the
rate of rise occur evidently close to the locations of dike failure (green dot). A combination of such a map with a
map of population density and expected inundation depth can be used to derive an image of the potential number
of casualties in an area vulnerable to floods.
Figure 4.83 Example of a map showing rate of rise of the water (m/hour)
The map shown in Figure 4.84 is part of a program that was started after Norway suffered from a major flood
event in 1995 which caused extensive damage (approx. 225 million Euro). An extensive flood zone mapping
project was governmentally launched after this event. After a pre-study a total number of 134 sites were selected
for detailed flood zone mapping. These are the most flood prone and most densely populated areas of Norway.
The program ends in 2007, and then all the 134 flood zone maps will be finalized. The maps are published on the
internet and paper copies are also available together with the report. These are handed over to the local
authorities. The maps are important premises to local land use planning. The local land use planners are bound by
the maps from a legal point of view. The project has awakened the local authorities and new sites will be mapped
in the years to come in a following up project. More information on the flood mapping procedures in Norway is
given in a document on the internet (“Procedures And Guidelines For Flood Inundation Maps In Norway”21).
21 http://wwf.pl/powodz/publikacje/hoydalflood.pdf
For Poland both ‘traditional’ flood maps are available as well as interactively produced maps using Google Earth as
background.
The flood extension map shown in Figure 4.87 is very detailed, but the aim to show expected flood extension for
seven return periods in the same map leads to an image in which it is not easy to distinguish the various lines that
show the borders of the flood extension for each return period. It may be interesting to use coloured surfaces
instead of lines, showing the increment in inundated area for each subsequent return period.
Powiaty – counties
Gminy – communities
Rzeki – rivers
Mosty – bridges
Advantages:
• Attractive image
• Easy to operate, similar to net browsing
• Large amount of information possible, especially when using www sites links
• Easy and fast to convert data from existing ArcGIS geodatabase
Disadvantages:
• A fast computer with Windows XP is required
• A fast internet connection is required
• Data presented in *.kmz file is given free of charge to the user, who can download the kmz.* file to the local
hard disk, so it not possible to use it for restricted data
• It is possible to edit *.kmz data, but there is no connection with the geodatabase and the changes will not
appear in it
• If many *.kmz files are placed in the ‘favourites locations’ map, Google Earth will operate slowly.
In addition it should be mentioned that there exists the risk that people will zoom in towards their own house /
property and consider the flood information provided at this level as reliable, which may not be the case (see
Chapter 3.2).
There is another possible disadvantage that might be less evident with Google Earth recently released and still in
development is the continuity of this service. This has been explained already in Chapter 3 on the cartographic
aspects of flood mapping.
Catalonia
In Spain, inundation studies are the responsibility of the respective Hydrographic Confederations of each river
basin (River Basin Authorities). The actual status of inundation studies varies from basin to basin with significant
differences in the level of achievement.
A good example of inundation studies is the one corresponding to river basins in Catalonia, where the
Government of Catalonia (Generalitat de Catalunya) through the Catalan water Agency has elaborated a
inundation management plan, Inuncat22, where all the inundation areas corresponding to rivers in Catalonia have
already been produced.
The Catalonian Water Agency (Government of Catalonia) has evaluated for the river basins of Catalonia
inundation maps for the main river courses (Delimitació de zones inundables a les conques internes de Catalunya)
as well as for the Ebro river (Delimitació de zones inundables a les conques de l'Ebro) which has a basin shared
with other regions. These studies define the inundation areas for return periods of 1/50, 1/100 and 1/500 yr23
and, also delineate potential flood areas from the geomorphological standpoint. In addition to this, the study also
includes a database with critical points, which are defined as locations where the experience acquired during many
years of river management has shown that they present repeating problems24.
The inundation maps for return periods of 1/50, 1/100 and 1/500 yr (Figure 4.90) are interactively available in
PDF format. In the example shown here, corresponding to the Besós river (the Northern natural border of the city
of Barcelona) only a part of the total map is shown and the legend has been placed on top in order to show only
the most relevant information.
In Figure 4.91 an example is shown a flood hazard map for the Besós river basin at the northern part of the city of
Barcelona, with a part of the legend shown above. These maps are also available as PDF files directly from the
internet25. Also in this case this is only a part of the total map; the original full sheet includes information on the
map and a clear indication of the location of the map area within the total province of Catalonia. In this case, there
is no indication of the return period that is represented in the map, because they delineate potential flood areas
from the geomorphological standpoint using historical information (areas already subjected to floods) or geologic
evidences. Use is made of signs in green, orange and red to indicate level of low, medium and high risk (see
legend).
22 http://mediambient.gencat.net/aca/ca//planificacio/inundabilitat/inici.jsp
23 http://mediambient.gencat.net/aca/ca/planificacio/inundabilitat/delimitacio/pl_periode.jsp
24 http://mediambient.gencat.net/aca/documents/ca/planificacio/inuncat/conquesinternes/punts_critics.pdf
25 http://mediambient.gencat.net/aca/ca/planificacio/inundabilitat/delimitacio/pl_potencial.jsp
In Figure 4.92 a full flood hazard map is shown of a part of the Spanish coast in order to show the general outline
of such a map, which when printed on a larger scale result very clear and easy to read.
Description code
AA: river or creek
BB: municipality
NN: number of order of hazard
In the Spanish northern basin, 38 384 km2 of total area, 2 900 129 inhabitants use intensively the scarce plain
surfaces, mostly associated to floodplains. The geographic and geological characteristics of the Cantabrian Range
provide an environment where rivers typically have high gradients with straight, short and incised channels, and its
discharges are high in amount, velocity, erosive power and load of sediments. Another important characteristic is
the quick response of these rivers after rainfall.
An approach to river activity in its floodplain can be obtained by geomorphic evidences studied by the
Geomorphology as the science of landscape forms. As a result, the floodplain is divided in different terrace levels
associated to different flood frequency, mostly restricted by steep banks and cliffs, and also defined by the floods
historic analysis. This method, based in real evidences caused by floods, is especially useful in fluvial systems where
rivers are confined within high valley walls and where the floodplain external limit is highly abrupt.
The first step is to define the study area by delineating the alluvial plain limits and the channel course with
topographic criteria and helped by aerial photos. An analysis of a series of historic photographs could help to
understand the river behaviour during the recent past. It is necessary to take note of fluvial system properties as
channel width, margin height, steep or gradual margins, granulometric measures, etc. Furthermore, the main point
is to map the geomorphic elements of the alluvial landscape that are mentioned later. GIS software is an essential
tool because it allows to map and store all the information for its representation in flood maps or to be used later,
for example, in emergency plans.
Historical information of flood events has been obtained from documentary sources and field interviews with local
residents. The former allow the identification of the main locations with flood problems, the latter provide more
accurate data about the extent and characteristics of the events. In bibliographical literature and newspapers an
inventory of sites historically affected by floods was collected for the time period 1522-2007 in an intensive
revision of nearly 7300 newspapers. The low precision of the historic floods data obtained in the previous
compilation forced to realize 2000 field interviews to local residents distributed in 340 km2 of floodplains. Dates,
extent, damage (agriculture, buildings, roads links, etc.), water depth, grain size and sedimentation areas and
overflow zones were recorded. All this information was stored in a database, including photographs and videos of
some floods and data of gauged flow and rainfall of every event when the information is available.
Natural narrowings or river confluences create important local variations of the fluvial energy.
Evidences of different floods frequency: 1 and 2 flood deposits, 3 microtopographt, 4 crevasse and overflow point and 5 steep bank defined by a
cliff.
The hydrological behaviour of rivers can be altered by different anthropic elements which have to be identified
and described: human-made conflictive points, canalizations, reservoirs, others.
All field parameters are analysed by searching overflow points and its relationship with the observed geomorphic
evidences. Also, zones with different fluvial activity, based on the geomorphic analysis, are linked to an
approximate return period by comparison of event properties obtained from the historic analysis (surface occupied,
speed, swept sediments, overflow points, etc.). A good practice is to carry out a regional analysis in order to check
if the followed criteria were homogeneous in the entire basin and also to compare present floods.
Low Terrace: it is the most active floodplain terrace flooded at least once every 10 years so it is plentifully of
geomorphic evidences.
Middle Terrace: higher than the low terrace, it is associated to a flood frequency of once every 50 years.
High Terrace and Very High Terrace: with a flood frequency of once every one hundred years and five hundred
years respectively. They are short of geomorphic evidences and human activity is highly intense.
Example of a floodplain zonification in a section of the Narcea river (Asturias, NW Spain) with fluvial and torrent floods.
Other floods can be mapped as Tidal influence, mountain torrents an also drainage deficiency caused by artificial
elements in the floodplain.
River flood risk determination has been carried out combining flood hazards mapping and land use vulnerability.
Additionally, the risk map provides supplementary information about mountain torrent hazard, tide dynamics and
drainage deficiencies, and also it includes an inventory of assets at risk in the analyzed river sections.
Vulnerability maps show different classes established regarding land use and a combined indicator which takes into
account material loss (direct and indirect economic vulnerability, VED and VEI), loss of life (population vulnerability,
VP) and the reaction capacity decrease and services provision interruption (community vulnerability, VC), plus the
possible damage of Cultural Monuments protected by the regional government.
Vulnerability and flood mapping are combined in a GIS in order to obtain different categories of flood risk: very
low, low, medium, high and very high, which are displayed in a 1:5.000 scale topographic map.
Flood risk map of the Caudal river floddplain through the city of Mieres (Asturias, NW Spain)
Swedish risk management programs are lead at local level. Sweden has chosen the “bottom up” approach to
make sure that all risks are addressed on the basis of the resources that are available. Risk assessment has to be
dealt with locally due to the fact that accident and hazards occur locally - every accident/hazard has a geographic
position but the effects of the accident/hazard may be of local, regional, national or international character.
Therefore, the subsidiary principle is the key factor in Sweden’s risk management policies. The Swedish Civil
Protection Act supports this view.
The Swedish Rescue Services Agency (SRSA) is the government authority tasked to improve safety against
accidents within society. Among other things, the agency works with risk assessment and risk management in
several different sectors, for example, natural disasters.
SRSA mainly supports rescue services and municipalities with knowledge and subsidises preventive measures in the
built up environments that may be at risk of flooding and landslides. The SRSA also has the responsibility, on
commission from the government, for providing the municipalities and county administrative boards with general
planning information such as general stability maps and general flood inundation maps. Flood risk assessment is a
municipal responsibility.
The Swedish Rescue Services Agency (SRSA) is conducting a general mapping of parts of Sweden’s waterways.
The mapping began in 1998 and the goal is to achieve maps of approximately 10,000 km (approx.10%) of
Sweden’s waterways. In January 2007 almost 8 000 km are mapped and 56 of the rivers are covered with Flood
Inundation Maps. 5 new rivers are going to be mapped in 2007.
The general maps are intended for the overall planning of fire & rescue service work and as information for land-
use planning. The flood mapping covers natural floods in both governed and ungoverned waterways, but not
floods that occur, for example, as a result of a dam break or an ice-dam.
The priority is made by a preliminary risk assessment based on risk identification and urbanized areas along the
rivers together with records of occurred flood events in the past.
In Figure 4.93 an overview is given of the rivers for which interactive maps are available now. The maps can be
accessed through a map browser on the internet26, showing the same map as in this figure, by clicking on a
region. This loads the corresponding PDF document. Both the internet site as well as all the texts accompanying
the maps are only available in Swedish.
26 http://www.raddningsverket.se/templates/SRV_ExternalPage___2257.aspx
Flood Inundation Maps highlight the areas that are at risk from flooding during two known high water discharges.
Two types of flood are used:
• the 100-year flood
• the highest estimated flood.
The latter is calculated in accordance with the Swedish Flood Committee’s guidelines for the dimensioning of dams
(dams in risk class I). The calculation is made on a systematic combination of all the critical factors (rain, melting of
snow, levels of ground moisture, and the filling of basins in governed waterways) that contribute to a flood. The
calculated return period is approximately 10 000 years.
Map production
Three elements are involved in the production of flood maps:
• Calculation of the two floods. The 100-year flood is calculated by the statistical analysis of observed water flow
measurements. The highest estimated flood is calculated in accordance with the Flood Committee’s guidelines.
In the latter case a hydrological run-off model is programmed with maximum adverse conditions as regards
precipitation, melting of snow and ground moisture conditions, while at the same time giving consideration to
possible waterway governing and dam basin activities.
• Calculation of the water level along waterways during the two floods. This is achieved using a hydraulic model.
The description of the waterway and stretch of river is achieved with the help of dam and bridge diagrams, and
Legend:
Urban area
Fields of applications
The mapping out work is presented partly in a report with printed maps and partly as GIS-layers for further work
by users in the municipalities, county administrative boards etc. The idea is that the overlays shall be connected to
a suitable map (e.g. 1:50,000) that shows where floods can occur and suggests likely problems with roads, railway
lines, bridges and buildings. The map overlays can also be connected to various co-ordinate registers, such as, for
areas sensitive to landslides, property registers detailing numbers of inhabitants, wells, sewage treatment works,
industries, environmentally hazardous operations, warehouses etc. Examples of the combined use of flood hazard
and land use information are shown in Figure 4.9527 and Figure 4.9628. The former shows the flood-affected
roads, while the latter shows the occurrence of quick-clay areas at risk of flooding. These two maps are examples
of dedicated maps that combine flood inundation information with other types of information and therefore the
colour setting of the maps are also completely different.
27 Source: Swedish Rescue Services Agency and County Administrative Board of Västmanland
Figure 4.96 An overlay analysis of the General Stability Map and the General Flood Risk Map
In Switzerland several types of flood maps are produced. They include flooding (dynamic and static), debris flow
activity and bank erosion/scouring. Flood indication maps (flood extension maps) are produced on a scale of
1:25,000 for the bigger cantons as shown in Figure 4.97. The maps represent an extreme event (generally set
equal to a return period of 1/1,000 y) to get a quick insight in the most critical areas (by overlaying the vulnerable
elements on the flood areas).
Flood hazard maps are produced in a scale of 1:5,000 for return period similar to those used in Austria (1/30,
1/100, 1/300, extreme event; the latter is not available in Austria). By combining the probability and the intensity
(magnitude), the latter expressed as flow velocity or depth, the flood hazard class is obtained as indicated in Figure
4.98.
In Figure 4.99 an example is shown of a flood hazard map in Switzerland. Note that the processes represented in
this map are debris flows and related phenomena. The meaning of the three colours (including the hatching) is
explained in the text following the figure.
The basis for the production of hazard maps is the so-called “intensity map”. The intensity (or magnitude) of a
particular process is delineated for each return period. In Figure 4.100 an example of a flood depth map is shown
for an event with a return period of 1/300 y with the flood depth indicated in steps of 0.25 m. Use is made of a
colour ramp from light pale green (0 to 25 cm) slowly intensifying through orange to red for the greatest depth.
In Figure 4.101 the flood hazards using the definition explained above is shown for the same region in
Switzerland.
There are very detailed documents available on the explanation of flood hazards and the use of the hazard zones.
An interesting example is given in Figure 4.102 where the effect is shown of the implementation of flood
mitigation measures (e.g. lowering of river bed, raising of dikes etc.) on the flood hazards.
In Switzerland the flood risk maps are not yet widely distributed. However, a qualitative risk can be depicted by
overlaying the hazard zones with the various land use classes (damage potential). In a first attempt this is done by
just using the topographic information (settlements, housing or industrial estates, transport infrastructure etc.). An
important instrument is the so-called “Map of Safety Deficits” relating flood risks with protection objectives as
shown in Figure 4.103.
General information
In England & Wales the Environment Agency has developed several mapping products to raise awareness of flood
risk and support decision making. Examples of these are shown as Figure 4.24 to Figure 4.28. All are available for
public or professional use; some data is published on the Environment Agency’s internet site4.
The Flood Map is currently the Environment Agency’s main map to raise awareness of flood risk with the public
and our partner organisations, such as land use/spatial planning authorities, emergency planners, emergency
services, developers and drainage authorities. It has been available on the internet since 2004, although an earlier
version was first published on the Internet in 2000. The Flood Map shows:
• Flooding from rivers or the sea without defences – the natural flood plain area that could be affected in the
event of flooding from rivers and the sea.
Two shaded areas are presented, which are aligned with the Flood Zones as defined by land use planning policy
for England:
_ Areas that could be flooded either from rivers with an annual probability of flooding greater than 1% (1 in
100) OR areas that could be flooded from the sea with an annual probability of flooding greater than 0.5%
(1 in 200)
_ Areas other than covered by the above that would be flooded by an extreme flood with an annual
probability of 0.1% (1 in 1000) from rivers and the sea
• The location of flood defences – such as embankments and walls, and flood storage areas
• Areas benefiting from these flood defences in a 1% fluvial flood or 0.5% coastal flood – where possible the
areas that benefit from the flood defences are shown. However, not all areas that benefit from flood defences
are currently shown (Figure 4.24 is an example of this). Figure 4.25 shows how areas benefiting from defences
are shown where the information is available. There is ongoing work to increase the coverage of this
information.
On the internet the Flood Map is presented as a single layer in map form. Users search for their location of interest
through a standard search tool by entering either a post code or a location name. The mapped output shown on
the internet site (default scale 1:20,000) is very similar to Figure 4.24, which has been shown at a scale of about
1:45,000.
The online Flood Map also has the facility to allow users to gain further information by opting to ‘learn more’ by
pointing at a specific location within the map. This leads to data from the National Flood Risk Assessment, a
mapped data set which provides further qualitative information on the probability of flooding taking into account
the location, type and condition of flood defences. This information on the actual (residual) probability of flooding
is presented in three categories used by the insurance industry in the UK, as noted below:
• Significant: the chance of flooding in any year is greater than 1.3% (1 in 75)
• Moderate: the chance of flooding in any year is 1.3% (1 in 75) or less, but greater than 0.5% (1 in 200)
• Low: the chance of flooding in any year is 0.5% (1 in 200) or less
Figure 4.24 and Figure 4.25 both show extracts from the Flood Map. Flood extents ignoring the presence of
defences, as described above, are shown. These extents are shaded in hues of blue, with the area of greater
probability in the darker colour. The map also shows flood defences. Although these do not stand out well at the
scale shown in the Atlas, they are clear on the internet version of the map shown at a scale of 1:20,000. Data on
areas benefiting from defences is not available at all locations, but exists for all defences built since 1998. Further
4 http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/
Figure 4.26 is a presentation of the assessment of flood probability bands for Carlisle as produced by the National
Flood Risk Assessment. It maps the ‘Low’, ‘Moderate’ and ‘Significant’ flood probability bands as defined above
and takes into account the reduction in probability as a result of flood defences. The underlying information used
to generate the map (the flood probabilities and depths) is also a step in the subsequent assessment of risk when
combined with depth/damage information. This banding is tailored more for commercial concerns as the insurance
industry in the UK has a particular interest in the 1.3% limit. Whilst this data is not available in mapped format on
the internet, the information is available on the internet through the ‘Learn more’ option on the Flood Map.
There may be discrepancies between this map and the areas benefiting from defences on the Flood Map. This is
because the assessment used to develop the Flood Map does not take into account the presence or condition of
flood defences, and so ignores the possibility of breach under different loading conditions. The areas benefiting
from defences on the Flood Map may therefore show a greater area of ‘benefit’ when compared with the National
Flood Risk Assessment results.
Figure 4.27 shows flood hazard rating data, with 7 bands of assessed hazard rating from 0 – 30 on a non-linear
scale. The hazard rating (HR) is calculated as a function of velocity (v), depth (d) and a debris factor DF such that
HR = d x (v + 0.5) + DF. The hazard rating provides an assessment of the direct risk to life arising from the
combination of water depth and its velocity of flow, based on experiments, and includes a debris factor which
recognises that debris-filled flowing water increases the danger to people. The map shown in this figure gives the
absolute values of this calculation. As this is a more specialized type of information, this map will be more useful to
the expert in flood risk than to the general public.
The formula on which this map is based is taken from the “Flood Risks to People – Phase II” report5. A simplified
presentation of the information for general use has been proposed in the report, as in the table below:
Figure 4.27 could have been produced using this banding rather than the banding shown. However, there are
several uses for such maps and the needs of the user must be understood before deciding on the bandings. For
example, the bandings in the table may be most useful for planning emergency response (evacuation routes, for
example) whereas the more detailed banding may be better for deciding where buildings and other infrastructure
should be located. This data has not been developed for the whole of England and Wales but will be produced
where needed (using a risk based approach). The data is not available on the internet.
Figure 4.28 shows Social Flood Vulnerability. This map is very easy to read for the non-expert and gives a quick
insight into the vulnerability of either a person or property at different locations within extreme flood outline. The
5 http://sciencesearch.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?DocumentID=3646
In Scotland the organization SEPA looks after all aspects of flood control. Recently an interactive internet site has
been activated6 where for the whole of Scotland the expected flood extension is shown for a return period of
1/200 years. Both flooding from rivers and the sea are incorporated. The information provided is very similar to
what is available for England & Wales, although they use a return period of 1/100 yr for river flooding and
1/200 yr for flooding from the sea. An example is shown on Figure 4.29 for the city of Edinburgh.
Figure 4.29 Flood extension map for the city of Edinburgh from interactive internet site
6 http://www.multimap.com/clients/places.cgi?client=sepa
For the city of Hamburg, detailed information is available on the internet on the activities that are being
implemented for the purpose of flood protection. Maps are available for several parts of the city on flood hazard
and the evacuation routes. On Figure 7.1 a detailed map is shown of part of the city (Wilhelmsburg) with an
indication of the evacuation zones corresponding to different water levels (6.5m and 7.5m), the location of
evacuation locations (‘Fluchtburgen’, indicated with ‘F1….8’), emergency residences (‘Notunterkünfte’, indicated
with ‘N1…4’) and busstops (‘H’) from where evacuation busses will depart. The maps are accompanied by an
extensive description of the expected situation in case of flooding and detailed advice to the general public how to
act in such circumstances.
This is a good example of a well-planned information package for urban population in a very large city. The
information is well-presented and easily accessible, although the files themselves may prove large for slow-speed
internet connections.
Figure 7.1 Part of the map with flood protection and evacuation zones of the city of Hamburg with (German) legend
53 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/stadtentwicklung-umwelt/bauen-wohnen/hochwasserschutz/start.html
54 http://fhh.hamburg.de/stadt/Aktuell/behoerden/inneres/katastrophenschutz/service/merkblaetter/start.html
In Japan municipalities are obliged to inform their inhabitants on the flood risk conform the Flood Fighting Act,
established in 2001. Since 2005 the municipalities are also obliged to take a pro-active attitude by distributing
flood risk and inundation maps freely among the inhabitants in order to increase the flood-preparedness and, as a
secondary goal, to contribute to the spatial planning within the municipality. The flood maps are prepared in two
steps:
1. the Ministery of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and the prefecture (for resp. nationwide and regionally
adminstred river basins) determine the flood-prone areas;
2. the municipalities produce the Flood Hazard Maps.
The flood maps are produced following a nationwide standard that is determined by the Ministry, which e.g.
establishes the inundation depth classes (0 – 50, 50 – 100, 100 – 200, 200 – 500 & > 500 cm) and the
corresponding colour codes. The choice of those depth classes is based on ‘human characteristics’:
• 0 – 50 cm: most houses will stay dry and it is still possible to walk through the water;
• 50 – 100 cm: there will be at least 50 cm of water on the ground floor and electricity will have failed by now;
• 100 – 200 cm: the ground floor of the houses will be flooded and the inhabitants have either to move to the
first floor or evacuate;
• 200 – 500 cm: both the first floor and often also the roof will be covered by water. Consequently evacuation is
the logic choice of action now. The same applies, evidently, for the depth class > 500 cm.
Similar to the situation in e.g. the Netherlands, the flood inundation maps are based on hydrodynamic calculations
for several scenarios of possible locations of dike failure. The final map is based on the scenario that would cause
the maximum number of victims, i.e. a worst case approach. The return period of the flood that is shown on the
maps depends on the region as a function of potential damage.
Once such maps have been made on municipal level, the municipality adds local information that is relevant for
evacuation, such as the location of shelters, important buildings, evacuation routes, etc., as well as information on
the items that should be taken along during an evacuation. On some maps space is left for the user to draw a
personal evacuation route map based on the particular situation of the person or family.
All the maps are distributed free of charge to the public on scales of 1:5.000 to 1:10.000, and in some cases they
can be downloaded from the internet. It is the task of the municipality to keep the maps up to date.
Examples of flood maps that are available to the public are shown in Figure 7.2 for the city of Toshima, using the
depth inundation classes mentioned above. As in most cases the legend is only given in Japanese, although in
some cases an English legend is provided. Further information on the preparation of the map is given on the
internet55. On this site all relevant information is given necessary for evacuation in case of flooding, including the
addresses of the shelters.
Other examples are shown in Figure 7.3 and Figure 7.4. Especially the latter gives indications of shelters,
temporary shelters (which probably have fewer resources for a long duration stay), boundaries of evacuation
areas, the location of flood warning speakers and, contrary to general custom, an indication of roads that should
NOT be used for evacuation. The map also provides expected flood depths, although no indication is given to
which return period this applies, and the limits of a recent historical flood. Although this map has some interesting
features that are hardly ever found in other evacuation-type maps (like the earlier mentioned location of ‘flood
warning speakers’), the topographical layout on the scale presented is not sufficiently clear to be used in practical
situations. It may be used, though, for preparation purposes as a training for flood situations. Further information
can be found on the internet56.
55 http://www.city.toshima.tokyo.jp/english/bousai/hazardmap/index.html
56 http://www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/html/docu/jan_20_22_2004_ws/pdf_output/hiroki.pdf
Figure 7.4 Example of a flood hazard map with indications of evacuation roads
An example of an evacuation map in the Netherlands is shown in Figure 7.5 for polders along the Rhine river near
Germany. This maps shows clearly the mandatory evacuation routes, including indication of one-way converted
roads, closed entrances and exits, and are a easy to interpret by the general public.
In Figure 7.6 the simulation of the expected flood extension for the region of “Land van Maas en Waal” (see also
Chapter 4.14) is translated into a decision-support map that shows the areas that will either remain dry, reach a
water level that leaves the first flood of dwellings dry and those areas that will reach such water depths that
evacuation will be required. In order to take decisions on the best evacuation routes, a map is produced that
shows the time of arrival of the inundation front with a depth of 50 cm at the various types of infrastructure
(especially roads, see Figure 7.7). Depending on the decision up till which depth roads or other escape routes are
still safe to use, maps with the arrival time of dfferent inundation depths can be produced.
Figure 7.5 Example of an evacuation map for the Netherlands with indication of obstructions and lane direction and closed entrances and
exits
Figure 7.7 Time of arrival of the inundation front of 50 cm depth at infrastructure (roads/elevated areas)
7.4.1 Mississippi
Similar to the comments made on insurance maps, there are a number of very interesting examples of evacuation
maps that can be used as examples for the development of evacuation maps in Europe. In the USA the evacuation
routes are published both by state and central on a clickable map of the entire country57.
In the maps from the USA reference is often made to the ‘contraflow’ principle, i.e. the reversing of the normal
traffic flow direction to change an ordinary two-direction road into a one-direction (evacuation) road to increase
its capacity. Special maps are prepared for such occasions that are referred to as ‘contraflow maps’. An example is
given in Figure 7.8 for a part of the State of Mississippi58 and a detailed map of a road crossing prepared by the
Mississippi Department of Transport is shown in Figure 7.959.
Figure 7.8 Hurricane evacuation routes in Mississippi state with indication of ‘contraflow’ roads
57 http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/evacuationroutes.html#sbs
58 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
59 http://www.gomdot.com/cetrp/hurricane_evac_routes.pdf
7.4.2 Florida
The State of Florida produces a number of very clear and attractive evacuation maps. An example is shown in
Figure 7.10. This evacuation map is accompanied by a text with an indication of the ‘best’ evacuation route for
each of the villages in the region. The colours refer to expected hurricane / storm surge force (category 1 – 5)
60 http://www.firstcoastnews.com/weather/stormtrack/evacuation_map.aspx
61 http://www.dotd.state.la.us/maps/
Another example of an evacuation map for the city of New Orleans, including a phased evacuation plan, is given
in Figure 7.13. Very detailed instructions are available in case of a hurricane threat, with emergency shelter
information points, agency contact information, radio frequencies, a guide on how to make a ‘family
communication plan’ and even a chapter on ‘preparing your pets’.
Figure 7.13 Part of evacuation map of area of New Orleans with phased evacuation plan
A total of 18 sets of maps are available. Examples of both types of maps, with the corresponding legends, for the
American – River Arden region, are shown in Figure 7.14 and Figure 7.15.
Detailed maps are also available for some of the other States in the USA, especially New Jersey63 and South
Caroline64, but provide no extra information compared to the maps already shown in this Chapter.
62 http://www.msa.saccounty.net/waterresources/floodready/?page=maps
63 http://www.nj.gov/njoem/plan/evacuation-routes.html
64 http://www.dot.state.sc.us/getting/evacuation.shtml