Muses, Memories and Museums: How Cultural Institutions Educate and Inspire

Muses, Museums, and Memories Author(s): Bonnie Pitman Source: Daedalus, Vol. 128, No.
3, America's Museums (Summer, 1999), pp. 1-31 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027565 . Accessed: 06/08/2013 03:02
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Bonnie
Pitman
Muses,
Museums,
and Memories
It
is commonly people being
reported
that museums great
are visiting museums, and an even created, are identified by Americans.1
are growing?more of museums numbers number are expanding.
are
museums Today, institutions visited
larger as the most The
cultural popular American Association visitors. it an a What
of Museums
attendance are with
(AAM) estimates
that in the decade of the 1990s,

experience time when
two hundred million grew by over to institutions Is visitors these seeking? and objects?the real artifacts thing?at
is a growing Is it the need for reality phenomenon? that for educational and aesthetic opportunities places provide for social for discourse, experiences, gatherings? virtual Museums memories cultural, centers tion; are more and objects than both and the rare civic of repositories and beautiful. centers in our research, the past, Museums communities? and interpreta with are
educational, for exhibition, are theaters
pro houses, job-training they concert schools and libraries and halls. centers, grams, day-care as quiet, The notion of museums of learn contemplative places are collections researched and cared for ing where studiously has changed dramatically by scholars that offer this kind number of museums ishing; museums rums for their range voices,
Bonnie California. i
conservation, and movie
in recent
decades.
The
of experience
is dimin
increasingly communities. and
serve The
as gathering as fo places, exhibitions and the presented
of materials needs,
Pitman
into collections reflect the multiple incorporated interests of individual communities.

director the Bay Area Museum in Sausalito,
is executive
of
Discovery
Bonnie Pitman
The word "museum" a temple comes from the Greek to the Muses, the arts. Among in Alexandria in the third which mouseion, the nine goddesses the most famous founded around A.D. The
identified of
dedicated and
inspiration, learning, museums was classical the third century in Alexandria, was b.c.,
the one
mouseion in residence,
destroyed a philosophical
relationship both of today; assist individuals The
fully supported between Alexandria's are
by mouseion of
century with scholars academy a direct state. is the There and the museums and
during individual uities, pride of
ideas that objects gathering places in understanding the world around them. was more use of the term museum broadly developed to the of the Renaissance, collections referring private rare of curiosities," with antiq on and other the reflected objects jewels, display, were to provide intended These museums their owners. as well as opportunities to discover, to others to learn. patrons. open were to the public, to these collections available The establish scholars. the clergy, and serious in America owed much to individuals their collections and wealth These "cabinets
pleasure not While the ment
aristocracy, of the first museums to share
willing to enhance While Official museums museums history ally,
in order personal the knowledge and education of the community. in the institutions listed than 8,300 there are more Museum the total of estimates of number Directory, from range to zoos, the to more than 8,300 children's list includes museums, and historic 11,000. museums, sites, From science Addition art and natural
museums, centers, definition
history
plan?tariums. breadth of collec expansive in size of the the tions, with great variety physical plant and the to the public. To be accredited available range of programs by a museum must: the AAM, technology the be a legally institution organized not-for-profit or government institution entity; in nature; educational mission; full-time paid and knowledge stated staff and or part of a
aquariums, an embraces
not-for-profit be essentially have have has a formal at museum
least one
professional experience,
person who is delegated
Muses,
Museums,
and Memories to oper that
resources sufficient financial and allocated authority ate the museum effectively; and exhibits scheduled programs present regularly and interpret objects and for the public according to standards; a formal have care, have and use a formal of hundred of
use
accepted
of
of documentation, program appropriate collections and/or objects; tangible and of maintenance and appropriate program exhibits.2 museums the museum accredited in The of all the United accredited States muse in of
presentation The the ums eight standards represent
represent the leading institutions,

approximately all they include service museums as they to take look
those willing
to be judged by
the museums in terms and annual and their
profession. 10 percent the major to the face
the country; of collections, quality budgets. Today, external values that to create America's challenges
institutions community,
a variety of internal to communicate for ways of the new in the ways
society; fundamental and view
advantage
information
changes and use their
to the changing and demographic communities. and regional these Throughout new to their fund search for ways operations A BRIEF HISTORY Numerous Authors Conn, views private good. Neil of books including OF AMERICA'S MUSEUMS chronicle Edward and the history
technologies access people and to respond collections; in both economic shifts local challenges, is perpetual. their
of museums Nathaniel provide
in America. Burt, Steven over from and
Alexander, Karl Harris, Meyer of the their development, and "cabinets
houses The
thoughtful transition complex of curiosities" for the wealthy
privileged
to public
institutions
designed
to serve the public
of the history of museums, these gather chronicling into of collections for and ings enjoyment objects study, has a Botanical and zoos were built by the long tradition. gardens as as b.c. were at in 2000 Karnak present Assyrians early They Egypt in 1500 B.c. and are amply documented in many texts.
Bonnie Pitman
as we know them, however, they flourished that "Even were created in Europe cen eighteenth Revo well pub deci
Museums during
tury.
the Renaissance; out
in the
lution to-do
Karl Meyer points the educated
before
the American
merchants, lic galleries."3 sion to collect the natural the
men, up of professional classes, to establish and land owners, had begun In 1773 the Charleston Library Society's that the
made
and minerals animals, plants, of South Carolina marked history in America. The tradition
represented
first museum
of founding societ of historical
ies began in 1791 with the establishment of the Massachusetts Historical Society, which included both a library and a public
to promote the desire encouraged to chronicle of the nation. the history there By 1876 learning, were the of historical and societies, majority seventy-eight a museum in art and included with collections these institutions gallery. Historical societies kinds of documents.4 The first historic many history, boasting was in in the 1850 Hasbrouck house museum, House, acquired state of New The headquarters for General York. Washington was to be maintained in the in Newburgh, House Hasbrouck condition tionists Mt. dedicated 1850s. Vernon to characteristic secured Mt. Ladies' of the Vernon, Association funds which and first time when it. Preserva he used was to the then transferred of the Union, group site in the late preserving museum was outdoor opened, the a volunteer
raising In 1926 America's
it was funded using an original site in Colonial Williamsburg; In D. Ford 1929, Henry Rockefeller, Jr. opened an by John
outdoor museum that moved historical structures to the site of
Henry Ford Museum &c Greenfield Village inMichigan. In Philadelphia, Charles Willson Peale, acknowledged for his
civic leadership, moved his collection of art and natural history
objects from his home to the Philosophical Hall of the American Philosophical Society in 1794, and from there to Independence
Hall to the public without in 1802, where it was open charge. in Baltimore of his museum branches Peale established Later, his own paintings and those of York and New City, exhibiting as well as collections of mounted members of his family speci mens museums Peak's of animals, and insects. birds, an in with collections fashion, competing orderly organized the "catch
Muses, museums that were penny" with their live performances In 1827, authentic?objects. ums
Museums,
and Memories
becoming increasingly popular, not always and unique?though after the death of Peale, his muse
gone closed, having bankrupt. essen middle of the nineteenth the there were century, By two museums in of the States. The United first was types tially a public art academy, of a library, historical part gallery, or was the second called club; society, private college, generally the "dime museum," cated to entertainment. established for commercial of the museums in the Many to help immi intended educate the growing in America's cities of ob displays through a visual narrative. The growth of America's purposes, established dedi
mid-1800s grant jects that museums
were
populations conveyed
the growth of the cities and also the devel paralleled new of communities around the country. The displays, opment rows illuminated natural of cases, by light, featuring glass to allow arranged onto the world."5 influence of Phineas as entertainment, Barnum, scientific T. Barnum examination, on "serve[d] museums is often attracted as
carefully windows The
featuring exhibitions, in what
principally overlooked. with he His the public's wonder created
boasting large interested immensely
for people interest, wished at the world around them. from several a collection was filled
collections
museums, six hundred of over with attractions Siamese
to be startled, to gasp In 1841, purchasing the Peak's museums, including thousand and curiosities Tom objects. both and
building living and dead?including and rare objects, strange ine and fake) from
along with the world around
dered
Cities around presentation. to Chicago, this type of museum; developed associated with showmanship, theatricality, redolent Museums in some and of respects created after ideas exotic
relics (both genu in spectacularly disor the country, from Cincinnati these and
twins, ancient
Thumb,
museums, are publicity, of the "blockbuster" shows of today. on presenting the Civil War focused orderly and well might their purpose, in her most the end of fashion. systematic in dazzle viewers under exotic glass, was creations? and
objects
in a more butterflies
Specimens New York had
and Philadelphia, but to demonstrate that nature?even an essential order.6 Through
the nineteenth
Bonnie Pitman
of the twentieth the museums about States interested centuries, the paralleled universe growth growth in the number in knowledge, celebrated.
the beginning of American with to discoveries the United
perpetually
In 1846, the Smithsonian

Englishman
Institution was
founded with
a gift
an from government James Smithson, in "the increase and diffusion of knowl principally Brown of George on he focused the Smithsonian; collections The in the arts and sciences. focused
In its early years, the Smithsonian edge."7 on scientific in 1873 The arrival research. Goode the direction changed museum it a national as well of with
making humanities
1870s, following were a time of industrial and commer the years of Civil War, Museum this period the Metropolitan of cial expansion. During Museum Museum American of Natural the of the Art, History,
as the natural
Fine Arts
founded.
in Boston,
and the Philadelphia Museum
of Art were
a different established with purpose, Each, perceived all its collections but from the pubic support differently, sought sectors. Museums created this period were and private during to educating the public. dedicated
The first American

delphia various natural common ceased captivity education A cal similar gardens. in 1854. animal The
zoo was founded in Central Park in Phila

concept of changed with "menageries," 1870s. after the dramatically zoos as
specimens, with 1890s. where
The New York Zoological

surroundings, in the late to be to places become and The D.C., in 1895.
Society began to display animals

large In the past thirty wild and domestic barless enclosures
in
becoming zoos have years, animals live in
about
conservation and promoting "bioparks" life. and plant forms of animal in botani trend has occurred dramatic equally all earliest American in 1850, were in founded gardens in St. Louis in 1859, and in New there are more than three hundred
Washington, York City botanical
Today, Botani in the United States. The New York gardens in the country, in the Bronx, includes the largest cal Garden a In re and research facilities, major library. public gardens, cent years, have of zoos and botanical the missions gardens greatly. expanded habitats natural parts of the world. Their for Zoos concern and and is to address plants botanical by the destruction humans have in many become animals
of
gardens
Muses, Museums,
places of learning and and sanctuaries threatened of and to their science forefront
and Memories
the extinction
7
of and have
to prevent species. their work. and
many endangered are at the education museums Children's strong Museum, interest historic links
Conservation centers The
educational
technology mission.
Brooklyn
Children's Museum,
established in 1899, and the Boston Children's
in 1913, which house collections of special opened to children?toys, artifacts from other cultures, children's on and natural collections. Focused costumes, serving history muse their families, and their caregivers, children's children, have of children's tors ties to the communities strong museums one of represent museum the there community; in the country, interest in science with and another they the serve. Currently, sec fastest-growing are over 350 children's in the planning influential in the
ums
museums
stages.
hundred was
The
technology
founding of the Smithsonian and of the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876, which included five buildings dedicated to
industrial exhibitions of all and implements, in the National the collections which Brothers' Museum embraces Air various and and the National all manner of machines, types. The collection of innovations became the basis of Museum History, and computers, including which features the Wright capsule. established and The in of American
technologies,
Flyer of Science in 1933;
Space Museum, Alan Mercury Shephard's in Chicago, and Industry York Museum
1926 by Julius Rosenwald,

opened (now the New defunct) founded
head of Sears, Roebuck

of Science
&c Co.,
Industry cen the arrival of science represents technology on as without that role focus their ters, collections, an understanding to promote institutions educational of scien centers tific principles. in the past These have grown rapidly three decades. Since World War after the II, and in particular launch for Sputnik, and teaching Science the of America's learning museums of desire about and to enhance science science and opportunities technology has centers,
increased. emphasizing they include
technology
are today very prominent; science, teaching in Seattle, the Pacific Science Center the Museum
of Science in Boston,
the Exploratorium
the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia,

in San Francisco. Their exhibitions are
and
de
Bonnie Pitman
active engagement The principles. of that those who of seek Science of its to
to secure the signed learn about scientific
Association
estimates Centers (ASTC) Technology over current members number (which in the 1990s. The their doors growing and science of museums how and such reflects the standing education organizations they contribute
one-quarter
five hundred) opened for children's demand increased opportunities school and idea of under for family
public's support to both the
how
in their communities. learning as in the past, Yet for many today, an museum. to art Because mind brings quently powerful the most visible and on in the their of museums boards of and wealthy in the press, and
a museum are fre
art museums
in a community,
boasting frequent the art in are fre
coverage their collections
directors, enjoying of the value emphasizing and because sections of they
display,
quently represented with of promotions The known. tradition powerful those who whose buildings, special The and
advertising current exhibitions, the art museums' associated of the crowds them
newspapers they are well star system, the them?not also the only artists their their
influential sit on their are the
people boards
with but who
works and
exhibited, large
trustees, architects that are with
design to attracted an
exhibitions?gives and wealth power
their
renown. art museum's
associated
in the Metropolitan its origins Museum board may have of Art in Boston; in New of Fine Arts York and the Museum both were in citizens 1870. of The founded distinction private by groups
of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts (aswell as the Philadelphia Museum of Art) derived in part from its galleries for the display
of As its early for industrial school art, but also from design. were not "palaces of fine Steven Conn has said, these museums art would art but functional be put to the instead where places "the Metropolitan Mu service of By contrast, industry." seum . . . was to exhibit the objects collected d'art established the election of J. P. Morgan After benefactors."8 by its wealthy to the Metropolitan's board and others in 1888, of this he filled vacancies on the art
board with millionaires

Walters, Henry museum boards followed
like himself,
including Henry Clay Frick,

wealth. including Other Chicago,
comparable same model,
Muses, Museums,
Detroit, reason Frick contents San that a number were and of Francisco, art museums
and Memories
Another and Washington. important is that such ample notice have enjoyed as gifts by individuals like Henry established Stewart private who the entire Gardner, provided to be converted into museums homes
Isabella their
and opened to the public. Paul Mellon funded the building of the while J. Paul Getty's National Gallery of Art inWashington,
created bequest Los Angeles. Tax needs
ums:
the museums
that
bear
his name
in Malibu
and
law was of wealthy
immensely donors who
in accommodating the important to contribute to art muse wished
to the rise of the art Two fiscal measures have been indispensable museum in the United States: The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909, which added to the duty free list the importation of original works of art that were more than twenty years old, and the charitable in federal and state taxing income, estates and provision it is safe to say the these Without inducements, gifts. legislative museum never of this could have occurred.9 century explosion deduction to construct invested works of Money buildings, purchase not to of indi art, and create major exhibitions, speak large to art museums. attention vidual One of gifts, attracts example
an individual donor's
donations to the Museum the San Diego Museum on communities impact buster" paintings become exhibitions as
generosity
is found
in the $30 million
of Contemporary and Art, San Diego, is the economic of Art. Significant, also, of the presentation of such "block the tomb or the which
of King Tutankhamen, or Jackson Van of Monet, Pollock, Gogh, news events. cultural and major OF EXCELLENCE
ACCREDITATION?STANDARDS The AAM's
a formal Accreditation review Program provides are to of the those that hold museums, process country's willing stan themselves accountable for maintaining publicly specific to regular dards of performance and are committed review and improvement. Today, achieved accreditation, there are over 750 more museums are that have of and hundreds in the process
10
Bonnie Pitman
a formal means Accreditation this distinction. seeking provides a museum's measures an institu it for evaluating performance; in tion against the field. standards evolving Over the provements reviews emphasized zational redefine had never and the Accreditation years, In the in performance. the need This since was their Program has the led to im 1970s, to upgrade fundamental organi a time museums to for many and operations, which The many focus of accreditation
structures. clarify reviewed
their missions
reviews accreditation many on the care and management seen attention concentrated ums. Museums to accredited the public; they seek that demonstrate ences, care for their collections The definition of and acteristics guidance effectively accredited Museum
original founding. in the 1980s was more of on collections. The
specifically have 1990s
the public dimension of muse not do information just present today to communicate with audi disparate are well their managed resources. and of that they
they and
of a museum, and an accredited museum,
the delineating have provided
the char invaluable
to a broad
to operate that aspire range of museums roster of currently be publicly accountable. The as diverse museums as the includes organizations
San Diego Zoo

seum, celebrating McFadden-Ward in Chicago; University; City. In the sector,
and Wild
Animal
the
Park; the Rogers Historical

Brooklyn Children's in Mu
in Rogers,
the 1999; anniversary in Beaumont, Museum the Field Texas; at Yale Museum of Natural the Peabody History in New York of Harlem and the Studio Museum House increased of next the not-for-profit set a goal ten
Arkansas; its hundredth
light of the AAM
public Accreditation accredited continues foster,
scrutiny Program in the
has
of The
1,600 having accreditation efforts excellence to
museums program
and service accountability, performance, Assessment the Museum the public. Program by Supported have increased Information and the Technical Service, museums to effect and access to a comprehensive network of information manage
century.
to motivate, in museum
years. to be the centerpiece of AAM's and and advancement recognize
change
as
they
seek
to meet
the challenges
of
the new
Muses, Museums,
THE DIVERSITY The OF AMERICA'S of museums are well over MUSEUMS
and Memories
11
diversity sive. There than sizes.
in the United 8,300 museums
States
is indeed in the
country
impres and
more ent use
historic 15,000 Some museums
and ideas objects a report Museums Count, study an overview Museums, provides museum
of very differ collections sites, with but of any note, boast no collections to provide The instruction. decade-old by the American of the complex museum bodies Association fabric of of the
field. Many professional on their constituent information has been one no and
associations
update
there 1980s, The cultural number
country's Count of ways. Museums 4 percent museums] [of America's been have founded Three quarters and 1970, testifying the rapidly expanding AAM's The specialists."10 since to the surge
importance life of the
national comprehensive is desperately needed. museums to the educational of American communities recorded were since of public of museum is documented that founded 1950 interest in 1989 before and
However, annually. since the late study and in a "only 1900.
40 percent in museums and esti
corps Technical the of
professionals Service Information
mates
will be
that between
spent Some on 26
1998 and 2000,

improving percent
approximately
infrastructures
$4.3 billion
of museums;
more
than 150 museums will be built or expanded during this

the new museums social issues and will ethnic focus on a subjects. to be expansions of art museums. to the number in museums relates
period.11
topic, including specialized are expected Some 34 percent trend Another important that museums
are merging of government-funded and also to the number are heavily influ that are privatizing. These changes economic enced include the Mergers necessity. by Marysvilk, in and the Pioneer Association Historical Society Washington, which their collections have merged Marysvilk, a new museum. for and are now preparing plans Museum Glass Center and the Corning of Glass have Museum ter have combined to create a new nonprofit and The boards Corning in New York that will Cen houses
organization Museum already
be supported by the Corning Glass Company.

and the Cincinnati of Cincinnati, Ohio, to merge. Center The Museum chosen
The Children's
12
Bonnie Pitman
History and Science, the Museum Museum, an Omnimax theater. museums of Natural There to and with His science are numer consolidate free their
the Cincinnati tory ous other centers costs As and
examples and natural to attract seek
of children's
merging hoping
and cities
museums, history new audiences.12 their to
to reduce
expenditures be another Institute of Detroit,
up
limited
incomes
for the increasing demands

seems of with the Detroit the city
of other public
popular of Arts, will be solution. under respon a
services, privatization The Founders Society new agreement and (1998) a new
sible for all the operations of the Institute. The joint boards will
be dissolved the Founders to nonprofit A Society. the Heritage Board a city department, merly transform bership tions are itself association. focused for into will be formed corporation by to reduce three-year plan city support in Alaska, of the Valdez Museum for
to will time for the museum provide a public/private a mem with partnership The new trends of mergers and reorganiza stability and
sustainability
on financial improving future. the museum's
AMERICAN MUSEUMS?A Headlines Times and of America's
BOOM conspicuous note Journal as as the the New York
growing inform readers Reporters events. Museums than to sports have go to museums people an increase two hundred in recorded of almost million visitors museums.
in newspapers Street the Wall
influence that more
ten years?678
1997-1998.13 "golden new or age"
million
The of New
in 1989 and an estimated 865 million

York Times, believing cites to than that we are "a growing with capacity hundred Art
in
in a
the American
expanding It is estimated visitors."14 Science Museum of Fine in San
museum, institutions filled that more
list of eager muse the
three
ums will be built or expanded by the year 2000,

Museum Museum of Minnesota, in Houston, Arts Francisco. The the Arkansas and celebrated Museum
including the
Center,
the Bay Area
museums, including nia Science Center
the J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles,
Discovery of new openings and the Califor Historical
the Minnesota
Muses, Museums,
Society Center History in New York and in St. Paul, have City, and
and Memories
the Museum much museums
13
of Jewish
Heritage Architects dramatically
received their
notice. provide plans Their
for today's designers from those of different to enhance the stature of
predecessors. and
desire for their buildings

communities, have nity, needs of including nationally building concern civic city, A become
to add to the quality of life in their

the city the commu
the diverse all-important. Accommodating new creates visitors demands for facilities, public Inter like. and the restaurants, theaters, bookstores, acclaimed architects as places of have affirmed their focus on and beauty. Their knowledge to landmarks that will contribute benefits were to the community, the
museums is to create
important economic pride and provide the region. decade ago, art museums of the American and zoos attracting since then.
segment aquariums, Much has exhibition attendance major included hundred phia, tural
changed at the Museum of over
population, the largest The Monet of Fine Arts
serving with
a relatively small science museums, number of visitors.15 in the 20th in Boston number. a million Century an drew Other visitors
565,000, attracting and
exhibitions Edgar
an unprecedented to half close Vincent Van exhibitions
Degas
three-month
period. Twenty-one in Brooklyn, visitors thousand Philadel Minneapolis, St. Louis, While and San Francisco. other American cul for example, including symphonies, museums have been attendance, successful, of people of all backgrounds and witnessed attracting educational
over a shows Gogh over two attracted
institutions,
declining large numbers

levels.16
boom of the 1990s, museums have by the economic to the and of their needs social, economic, responded political environments. and specific Continuing demographic changes context in in which the population affect the growth necessarily Fueled museums ethnicity, and support. Changes to spend their leisure and operate. Demographic and income levels, in how time must have to those of age, shifts, including must influence both attendance and how they choose people work in their staffing affect museums marketing access to to policies their educa
Museums programs. new attract audiences,
developed increase the
14
tional
Bonnie Pitman
resources both at the museums themselves a decline needs and through
theWorld Wide Web. While

this strong during from governmental MUSEUMS The
support from individuals has been

in support to be noted.
there has been period, and this fact sources,
AS CENTERS OF LEARNING characteristic institutions. all museums among not all museums While are public is their role as
common
educational
all museums serve, or study objects, to engaging in the public learning, For example, while the collections greatly, different the focus on education as Mystic
spaces
acquire, devoted knowledge.
con
in disseminating and exhibitions is common to
may institutions
vary as
of America's its wealth Expanded along with ums are of
in Connecticut, with Seaport maritime and contemporary history children's toys. of the of
its exploration relationship
to the sea, and the Please Touch Museum

acceptance an embracing serving, was educational
in Philadelphia, with
roles audiences in the of museums, that muse with the
the changing articulated early
1990s
publication
Dimension
of Excellence
and Equity: Education
and the Public
This landmark statement, pre of Museums. policy museum with the articulates and the community, by pared on as role their of role museums, changing focusing expanded to appeal to diverse institutions intended audi educational to present ences, lections. Excellence the educational interpret and Equity role of museums and col their diverse imaginatively on was the first major report AAM. "The the by published
two concepts?excellence and equity. links report By giving to take invites museums this report these concepts equal value, as to em in their tradition stewards of excellence and pride brace the cultural tremendous an presents meant role, educators, report has have able been for the as they foster their of our nation diversity Excellence and Equity educational potential."17 museum's of the definition educational expanded to and been revised the entire museum?boards, engage The other staff and volunteers. the AAM's substantial; to incorporate and articulated hold curators, of the impact accreditation standards museums account from
concepts
in it. Increased
funding
Muses, Museums,
foundations museums and prepared federal to
and Memories
directed initiatives. at
15
those
has been agencies new program support Wallace
Major as of edu
funding from foundations

the Lila Wallace countless education Museums cation and and DeWitt community
like the Pew Charitable Trusts and

Foundations, an has fueled as well expansion both
foundations, their After for
programs. are increasing entertainment. to be
capacity a period
to provide when their museum
institutions
survival, appeared struggling to address the problem of why seriously began to theme parks and the Internet. their audiences museums to revitalize their image. Today, ways as learning/experience themselves environments,
professionals they were losing at looked They are
redefining the studying new methods and policies of their competitors, with working of for information about their consultants, types searching come consumers?what how where they want, they learn, they to spend. time and money from, how much they are prepared The and visitors to these questions are educated; they attend travel. The average age and answers have theme income revealed parks, of museum that museum own computers, visitors is
this is a satisfactory trend for it suggests that more declining; are coming to museums. from more diverse people backgrounds to The discover and audience, seeking experience something and educational, values the content of museum new, unique, stories and exhibitions. and opportuni Compelling to engage are the experiences that manage all the senses new and returning in attracting that succeed visitors. The para a textual for is and both exhibition education from digm shifting an to a visual to that makes form, literacy approach lecturing collections ties visitors Involvement volving in schools conversations with than having them. important a in learning in of course, is, process lifelong a rich matrix of experience, formal education including and that universities occurs outside as well as informal the this schools?in The learning. in home, travel, educa continuing less
learning and in libraries tional museums
experience. have involved
and museums?supports As their services their entire
to the public have increased, staffs in understanding and
to the education in the of their publics. The growth contributing resources to allocated educational and public-service functions
16
has their ences
Bonnie Pitman
been conspicuous. hardware and Museums their software are pushing the limits to enhance visitors' Advanced of multiple interests, and audio of both experi tech
in their multisensory exhibitions. for the transmission allow nologies to visitors of different tailored ages, Museums life
tures.
soundtracks
are creating to allow settings
immersion visitors
environments, to participate
languages. real recreating in real-life adven
FAMILIES AND MUSEUMS Market identified come nonschool attention the research as to learn. has revealed where that families all types of museums are and for their that on
enjoy together being now have programs Eight out of ten museums are increasingly Museums audiences.18 directing to the family audience, in part because they know places of learners will young as museum visitors identified as safe have in the a direct future. effect
experience
their participation are environments to and and discover and that memories
Museum the family
explore, are shared.
stimulating Museums of
places, the greatly
allowing senses and enrich empower
creating sensory children
the
individuals; symbolic vocabulary they to engage in experiences that use language, adults arts, and a new them the natural of both movement, appreciation giving to Museums learn about and the cultural worlds. help families themselves,
future.
connecting with
them
to
the world?past, have invested of and and and
present, heavily discovery other
and in fam rooms, to be pro learn
Some museums ily experiences demonstration provide unavailable. vide access
collections
the development through theater areas, programs, to those collections that participatory places where programs
would
ways otherwise can
These
exhibitions
parents collections. while from the museum's using objects together are to activities and These designed help both young learning ex to ask questions The old and discover things together. panded influence of new of families on museums by can be seen replacement and plexes discovery theater rooms productions experience-oriented to engage intended com fami
comfortable
children
in the
Muses, Museums, lies. Currently,

and outdoor programs Institute Denver cated also
and Memories
17
the Chicago Zoological

Zoological that will include families as the Minneapolis have expanded Gardens
Park (Brookfield Zoo)
the San Francisco complexes to educate of Chicago, Art Museum families
are building indoor/ interactive exhibitions and zoos work. The Art Institute of Arts, and the and spaces allo
to how
for
provided
ing initiatives The Everett Botanical an
programs the museum have galleries. They for staff and launched market programs training to attract families. throughout Children's fosters Adventure an attitude Garden at the New York it helps create of wonder; of nature children and among adults, sup areas of the school The garden curriculum. to spend for families time eager together curricula the sixth needs grade. of The their children twelve-acre
Garden
porting
understanding the science
a retreat provides while the specific addressing from kindergarten through gardens and wetlands. The
Children's Garden utilizes the landscape to teach the biology of

decompression on the meadow climb maze, children's hedge maze?directs They tion, seed dispersal, Garden has resulted Botanical Garden them. learn about and features?where garden, specifically can children boulder focus maze, to the plant success with designed run through the and explore the landscape around anatomy, pollina of the Adventure other by areas of the
plant biology, the like. The to
in plans for increased
improve visitation
family
groups.
SUPPORT FOR SCHOOLS Each of students tumble out of their yellow school year, millions museums of and into the halls, and gardens galleries, around of the museums the country. that percent Eighty-eight buses responded to the The 1998 Institute of Museums and Library Ser
vices
(IMLS) survey reported that they provided K-12
school
programs. cal gardens museums programs. percent of
that aquariums, and botani zoos, survey notes as well as art, history, natural and children's history, over on school around the country $193 million spend The the most frequently and identified museum program programs of is
that of the field trip, with

institutions
staff-guided programs offered by 88

volunteer-guided
18
fered
Bonnie Pitman
museums Most offer multiple-visit pro by 76 percent. museum with lessons and materials the grams, previsit linking in the classroom. visit with the curriculum studied Museums recorded with the in the school IMLS survey suggest in subjects curriculum that as they coordinated as math, different
art, and history.19 science, In recent years, there have been several additions important to the traditional list of museum school programs. The focus on learners (infants early charter and schools, teacher have training grams. schools tions Early children, facilities American tory, and Museums and to reform Enrichment are other through kindergarten), the increased emphasis all affected museums' seen to the creation of and pro with on writing educational be are partners
increasingly institutions that community the quality of American education. Center
solu seeking The Smithsonian
nonprofit
developmental at is located for preschool and History an infant and
a privately (SEEC), incorporated, and education for young program are Institution. the Smithsonian There children the National toddler center to be at the National Museum a model at the Arts Museum of Natural and His of
Building. education sionals
established SEEC, for preschool children,
and early childhood to universities it is licensing its program lum; centers around hood education the country. a museum was in The first charter school Minnesota. ter lumbia. schools years there are over schools
Industry of museum-based museum is training profes in the use of its curricu educators and early child
later, Eight in twenty-four the District states, including own state its While each has developed laws, are free generally restrictions. and of most of the state
in 1991 in opened nine hundred char of Co charter
educational
regulations museums have accepted and New York. Michigan,
The authorities charter-granting in Arizona, Minnesota, California, One of the museum-based example
charter school
located on
is Henry
Ford Academy,
of Henry
a public high school

& Greenfield
the premises
Ford Museum
in Dearborn, Village on a collaboration and pany, first class will The
is founded The charter school Michigan. between the museum, the Ford Motor Com the Wayne Services. Educational County Regional graduate in 2001, having had access to the
Muses, Museums,
resources jects, of the museum's and traditions collections, of American
and Memories
authentic including innovation and with
19
ob inge the
stories,
nuity.20 The Autry Museum of Western Los Angeles Unified School District
program a new curriculum to develop based on the multicultural charac use re ter of western museum's of the communities, making are working sources. in rural Minnesota in partner Teachers a Visual to create Institute of Arts the Minneapolis ship with
worked Heritage on a collaborative
that will the museum's Curriculum support Strategies Thinking access to a framework to provide commitment for learning the are arts. There of outstanding countless school-mu examples seum partnerships, New the project including England Aquarium's with Boston-area about schools. the science This liaison to youngsters ity-building access direct of water There is designed a variety using who other do are to teach of capac not have that
strategies, targeted to the Aquarium.
children
museums
in the development of curriculum materials, including specialize at the University Hall the Lawrence of Science of California, curriculum its nationally acclaimed with and teacher Berkeley, education programs. AND the PRESERVATION survival of AS THE FOCUS OF LEARNING has and brought appreciation The and increased of story their the of ef that made
CONSERVATION Concern attention about
the planet
to the need
of interconnectedness resources diminishing fect on our planet to explain wish
for understanding and the species and
ecosystem.
expanding populations is a compelling for museums one, critical on the research the phenomena based which This that often include is a profound in order history focus on science
their collections, possible through of vanishing cultures and species. Peak's wonder concerned objects display to exhibits and curiosity with the the of
examples shift from to excite and are
of natural
Although missions for natural and anthropol part of the founding history and botanical there zoos, ogy museums, aquariums, gardens,
of species and life on earth. preservation was an integral of the natural world stewardship is
20
today
sion.
Bonnie Pitman
a heightened awareness of the importance of this mis
of the major trends role of education expanded for living collections?zoos, museums. natural history and planet, our natural on teaching the and about growing cultural
One
of the past twenty years has been the in museums and learning that care aquariums, The critical support for have botanical ecological a careful focused and gardens, crisis of the of stewardship more attention The
heritage, conservation and the critical
preservation.
messages
emphasize life. As the human taining population are lost each year. The and animals loss sand species of plants of the coral and the death with of rain forests reefs, together in the expansion result of deserts, the such other changes, absence of times mass to protect and internationally, resources, nationally, locally, more exhibitions and programs through graphic the need of life. president York, of writes:
demonstrates that nearly every eco
role
primary in sus biodiversity plays over grows, thirty thou
water, drinking starvation. The need
safe
economic
and decline, and preserve
some fragile can be that inter
world made
demonstrate dependence Ellen Futter, History

Exhaustive
for a thoughtful
preservation Museum
of
the
the American
of Natural
in New
documentation
of biological network system?every species in a natural setting? are virtually of the habitats lost. One need is under threat. Many 21 statistics for the loss of consider the percent of all sobering only in the last century or the decimation of over forests and woodlands over in the Pacific Islands the last of birds resident 2,000 species to the compro that we have already moved is left for future what of strategy saving Equally generations. and their component is the fact that these ecosystems disturbing and energy, nutrients, balancing species play roles in recycling are a in from far environment that ways maintaining global understood.21 completely millennium mised to realize Natural and history museums, have both an as well awareness as botanical and of zoos, gardens, to the commitment
aquariums, to their bring publics Attendance biodiversity.
the resources in these museums
of the importance is higher than many
Muses, Museums,
others, nomic and and their social demographic class barriers visitor as well
and Memories
21
eco are com of the of an estab
that suggests profile as those of education
low. Embracing the widest audience, possible relatively to learning and understanding the importance mitted are today at the forefront natural world, these institutions a habitable to sustain universe. effort The lished scientists American a Center to Museum of Natural and History, having for Biodiversity into their integrate
taxonomic surveys, habitats, exhibitions The museum's special
Conservation, encourages the study of research programs and other such related subjects. on global warming and on
endangered
Biodiversity and plants step rain behind forest
species have toured nationally.

with opened other organisms an
In 1998, the Hall of
array of animals, "extraordinary to in a diorama visitors that allows African changing . . ,"22 The smells.
a constantly glass and experience habitat alive with sounds, sights, schools, using on scientific developments, of the urgent electronic bulletin
Hall
vide
of Biodiversity
with
uses the World Wide Web

seeking and fragile
to link field
boards to foster issues to pro an of
research
updates awareness increased
biodiversity.
The Field Museum

lished exhibits, functions two centers and of and
of Natural History
in Chicago has estab
in collections, its interests education, is an integral research. This part of the outreach The Center for Evolutionary the museum. and Biology, like the Center is a cross-functional the museum's Under Cultural center to designed educational and research for
to unite
Environmental standing coordinate efforts
Change, and focus
access to its collections. Rather than increasing on or a culture the museum's region, focusing specific geographic on a simple is "based permanent exhibition, Living Together, to contemporary is central idea that that all anthropology: while cultures Museums dens, need will have with common of their living concerns different collections, are working but in the context to them differently respond histories and environments."23 such as zoos, botanical gar to teach about the together and the impact that this
and aquariums, to protect and preserve species have on our planet's future.
22
Bonnie Pitman
AS FORUMS communities are for are changing dramatically, and as a
MUSEUMS America's
result museums ering places As memories. coming abilities features The more and are
forums, increasingly becoming public gath creators the exchange of of shared ideas, museums accommodate audiences that are be ethnically levels to and are economically, as physical new disparate, muse un
diverse education
being architecture welcoming
added
increasingly the museum's offerings. to make is being of museums altered to visitors. Two At museums are that transformations of Arts.
ums more
have
major dergone physical Institute and the Minneapolis cavernous, Merlin's doors dark
the Exploratorium
the Exploratorium, the which had a quality like that of environment, new has been and cave, up with opened skylights come to in. The that allow natural of light regrouping creates of a more coherent admissions exhibits of Arts' Institute order area the museum improved to orient visi helping revitaliza $150 million of reinstalling the entrance the to for visitors, includes and the
exhibitions
redesign with visitor services, tors. The Minneapolis tion project a added and The "main collections, serve as liveliness. the
interactive
design a sense of warmth and street," providing to to desire families expand offerings provided a
new thirty-three the changed physical
galleries,
rationale
rest, might ties include available The issue
eat, for
where adults and children center, family a moment. ameni and Other drink, enjoy quiet rooms with and books made computers community for interactive of safety learning. in museums is a matter is at once of no small
consequence. ent with the
appar visually and other surveillance cameras, guards, that protect the collections. elaborate systems security By con no Museum and no Area has the trast, Bay Discovery guards nor an it extensive have does surveillance cameras, security as a Parents the museum's campus system. perceive eight-acre Safety security safe for their children. a to The is especially important loss of wild front yards of provision Parents today. spaces?having to neighborhood safe and
in art museums
gathering place for children places children, moved
having experienced to parks from creeks
Muses, Museums,
streets?are today that give discussion dence concerned naturally communities with providing them with a safe trained about
and Memories
23
haven, staff members. of Art's at
are safety. Museums for programs young people their learning supporting through One thinks, afterschool programs, care program, Children's forums. for example, the Provi and Museum. Museums produced a virtual are pages tour of the
of the Toledo for to
Museum
Children's
Museum teenagers the role
afterschool the Brooklyn as
programs dimension
The explosion of theWorld Wide Web has added yet another

of museums with take becoming that summarize their "virtual museums" their beautifully you on
and galleries, bitions with images web dio site while and
offerings, access to the collections and exhi provide in Art and audio. The Museum of Modern
New York reports that in 1997 1.2 million

1.65 visitors Live@the Exploratorium cover live science with and island at home. Webcasts
individuals used their

visited
and experts classrooms Caribbean thousand Internet
audiences A of Aruba
the museum.24 actually are produced stu in a new events worldwide, scientists linking as well as in at the Exploratorium total solar and was eclipse witnessed traveled than over the one by nearly three million
Exploratorium visitors worldwide. and
visitors The
and more
its popular tive, on-line Memory atomic closed. Museums munity much can that bomb
award-winning look at scientific launched persists served The that
exhibition
by expanding Exploratorium, an interac web site, provides The Exploratorium's phenomena. a discussion on the Web about the a year after the exhibition
today, for decades and
have gather is new. able
to discuss
as places where the com resolve issues. Yet is there Children's for Museum, and African-Ameri their differences ex
ample, cans were
served
Brooklyn as a forum where to come together
Hasidim to
resolve
during the Crown Heights crisis of the early 1990s. A very different example is provided by the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, which is legally prevented from adding to
its collection walls. museum lectures, The the location of the objects within its changing the Beholder" initiative of the encourages "Eye to work with its artist-in-residence schools; programs, performances, audio tours, and web sites have or
musical
24
lectures, created to such in has the dressed
Bonnie Pitman
musical lively levels house new audio tours, and web performances, roles for the museum. Attendance sites has have
are being ad is of the It that the members staff. Gardner significant by an urban meeting its goal of becoming for achieved place learning. AS CENTERS OF CIVIC PRIDE AND ECONOMIC
to maintain of how questions access barriers without creating that
grown the collection
community MUSEUMS
DEVELOPMENT The new of American of how museums a communities has given achieve and recognition or expanding muse creating investment common. bases areas. cultural able and centers of As the look Origi cen to at as have sec
popularity
they appreciation influence. The motives for enjoy ums vary greatly; individuals and gifts by private are tax dollars increasingly by city governments the experience residential continuing cities to museums nally, ters?with tract to bring were museums erosion flight visitors anchors of to for their industrial to the
can
urban suburbs, the downtown the downtown buildings increasingly
architecturally audiences. Today, for metropolitan catalysts San Francisco, Baltimore, on aggressive all embarked tions of their downtowns,
distinguished are museums renewal Kansas, projects
serving
projects. Orlando, designed and Atlanta to revitalize
creasing a Negro and Rock and Roll front; of Modern river
cultural
tourism.
Leagues of Fame Hall
and in encouraging redevelopment a Kansas Museum Jazz City opened Cleveland the Baseball has Museum; and a new and science center San Francisco the along Museum
the Seattle
Art Museum
at of museums the cluster located Art, along with are new in Buena Center San Francisco, the Yerba develop ments. In Seattle, of the art museum the placement helped across a new attract the street, with located hall, symphony new businesses art galleries and restau including burgeoning, rants. have the new tionally In San relocated or Francisco, around more the Yerba The than have seven been goal of cultural institutions in most cases, interna is to Buena Center;
renovated
prominent
buildings architects.
designed by these projects
Muses, Museums,
attract
and Memories
25
to prolong to downtown their stay, con areas, people to the region's economy. tributing in Baltimore, Port Discovery, Museum is an the Children's a new museum a on in is of that other city example depending its museum fish market and ery from city, to reenergize transformed the downtown into district. A a $32 million children's long-vacant museum
entertainment Port Discov and learning, library for family a creative team that assembled included individuals design the Disney the organization. and the With state financial as well as from the support from investments created in a to Kidsworks,
county, and private the museum donors, corporations a giant urban of three stories playground a television and new access maze; station; Free Library. Port object-oriented Museum Baltimore and The the National Tech Discovery institutions of Art, sees as itself the Walters
jungle-gym-like Pratt the Enoch such the
as
a gateway to Art Gallery, Historical
the Maryland
Society,
Aquarium. Museum of Innovation
with invention, in the community; the Redevelopment of Agency to industries
innovation
and
on focuses Jose of and homage strong support it enjoys extensive from funding the city of San Jose. The Rede in San
a supporter has also been of other down Agency velopment town projects, the Museum Children's and Discovery including the San Jose Museum of Art's with collaboration the Whitney
Museum
Museum
of American Art inNew York. The $96 million Tech

of Innovation the has been innovations driven not by its collections and new that technologies but have
by featuring created this
community. THE FUTURE that museums and face is Two
CONSIDERING The future
indubitably
complex.
defining the matter
issues?access
of accountability. and management governance, tion of the number of American steady expansion.
sustainability?are direct attention They of what is today not museums,
as is crucial, to the costs, a vast prolifera of their
to speak
26
Access Today's The
Bonnie Pitman
definitions
of
community
require
some
understanding
of both the land-based and the virtual, the local and the global.
life of museums that to are a number munities long to the life of com is intimately connected new in be Individuals ways. quite evolving of quite different communities leisure by com interests, be defined by local gather defined
geography,
can also petencies, and engagement?through modes of participation a in the electronic media space or through ings physical specific in the past are Boundaries that existed of the World Wide Web. are not required now membranes?we to go to museums to see certain The become objects, in discussion. AAM's integral hear lectures, and conduct research, encouraged or participate museums to
occupation, ethnicity, religion, and disabilities. Community
Excellence
Equity
educational, tional partnerships document between
of their parts and cultural social, and the their been the
their communities, expanding In advocating institu roles. the of new technologies, adoption importance communities. active resources, committed to their of the Federal relationship and agencies new support think to the
acknowledges museums and have
foundations private that of programs
in their
additional provoke
visibility work of the Brooklyn the successful Expedition, through an educational Children's site created web jointly by the Brooklyn Public Museum of Art, and the Brooklyn the Brooklyn Museum, strated Library. institutions, networking their staffs arduous use new The site combines by and the theme. on-line resources of the three organized the museums how were Its problems libraries and the public through enormous. were redefine electronic The museums many?
ing, and call of partnerships The value resources and of museums
together bring for new levels of
designed to raise
partnership. access increase
is demon
to communicate the benefits will
teaching were media ways we in the
tasks?but technologies century.
necessarily
coming
Sustainability
Museums financially effective operating plans require museums Because sustainable. to allow have them increased to be in
Muses, Museums,
number and size, the need costs for increased rising are
and Memories
27
imperative. Operating ment has declined. support
more becomes funding at a time when govern organizations, to seeking those fami
of capture larger segments lies that find their attractions and appeal experiences centers are expanding, major creased and corporations with
particularly educational entertaining, provide "Edutainment" that cannot be discounted. new
For-profit the market,
competition as each to attract seeks similar regions, larger but often a recent audiences. economy," "Experience theory developed B. H. and B. Joseph Pine II, as Pine, James Gilmore, by Joseph as other current marketing well and management has theories, had ships a dramatic with impact on their visitors. the ways museums develop relation
created facilities constantly by in is also There like Disney and Sony. museums within their communities among
are in a precarious with many museums Financially, position, to 60 than fewer endowments sufficient sustain percent having to be the their operations.25 Private-sector continues support museums. base for many of America's Art major sustaining museums en and living collection institutions have the largest but the declining funds from dowments,26 government?na tional ing and in new local?have ways, museums to search compelled individual including giving. for fund
Building
intense
a new
facility
is only
the first problem.
There
is
are
pressure
of perpetually Merchandising as or branded such hats and shirts with umbrel products, logos, are offered las with of the collection, in museum reproductions stores onlocated both and off-site, but also through catalogs on web and increasingly sites. Museums their hours extending to maximize and attendance, sponsoring trips abroad, receiving as the Orkin from corporations for their exhibits?such support sponsored Museum The Insect Cantor Zoo exhibition at the Smithsonian's become Arts common National of Natural History?have Center of the Visual practice. at Stanford Uni
to bring in new revenues, new sources of income. seeking
and museums
new
an auditorium, to a century-old a book added versity building a caf??whimsically called the Edible Arts?and the store, museum's first conservation lab. The new and renovated build to the installation attention with and pre ings were designed
28
sentation visitors' of
Bonnie Pitman
of the collections, an and with make in eye review of light of a careful toward that ways discovering to support costs the increased education with a small goals. Museum local The Chi of Boston
needs, the museum could
business developed relationships Museum Children's created Chicago tion of
cago have
and operation Museum Children's
money to achieve its art and
the Children's
The airports. interactive exhibi
at O'Hare Museum for young children the Children's Airport; a satellite on travel, set up KIDSPORT, Boston exhibition a gift store, at Logan with Airport. together concerns sec There that the non-profit are, very naturally, will museums, tor, including sures of self-sustainability, in commercialization. increase be negatively affected by the pres that there will be an inevitable Rising prices and with the other increased business status of
promotion
of
branded bring Income
activities, may lated Business museums. questions The of and
products, together to tax issues?such attention Tax?that affect
as the Unre raise
of all such consequences but also local tax exemption, support missions
the nonprofit commercialization
government private museum to be essential Accountability Museum ment trustees practices of plans, by and to make business
to the need for point are thought to implement what and goals.
staffs
increasingly use effective with and
use of
business
their
manage resources. The mar deter call use
development keting mined
plans,
strategic
objectives,
capital customer
investments, is now needs, businesslike with
goals performance common. The increased practices and of museums
and professionalization for insightful management, professionals vide museums and
management of museums desire to use Museum management and change sulting firms their
of thoughtful dynamic to Internal pro changes, required new with well-trained staff and boards, with structures address the and planning processes, volunteers. to offer increased involved and theories access to those and who the wish use need con Com of to
resources. professionals, practices are adapt, such in research to their
support on professional increasingly calling as Arthur Andersen and McKinsey &
Muses, Museums,
pany and on and research specialized museum firms mindful
and Memories
to assist them with
29
their
Trustees, planning. institutions of their with the operations care, new expertise to assist with is required of both staff and board market campaigns, analysis, advertising technology upgrades, re and the investment of the museums' maintenance, building one-half of many museums' to costs, and museums budgets personnel the demands of affected very diverse managing by resource Human volunteers. concerns?recruitment, and sources. In general, is dedicated over
of the need
to analyze that recognize
operating are greatly staffs and compen as museums
sation, training?are increasingly important one of the seek to retain qualified and effective staffs. Perhaps museums an most is for needs significant facing all experienced curators and well-trained work force. Museum and educators not only demonstrate in areas of collec today must expertise are tion or in the subject matter for but are they responsible to have also and management skills. expected interpersonal Museums, ments of visitor staff with different skills to meet hiring their operations, which include marketing, are obliged and new services, technologies, work force, and this calls for large the require evaluation, to maintain investment in
a qualified professional
training. such for the economic, Museums, civic, importance having are and educational of in life, community quality quite engaged new ways with the communities If the boards of they serve. directors and and advisory committees understand that that have programs to support museums funds finding to consult also that it is essential communities. around The the country to support the work news and help guide museum the requirements for changed, they know interests of their
policies
the various
programs marketing have increased?both
developed by museums the funding allocated
presenting and other Cantonese, museums their
of museums
out into the community of reaching and the to audiences advertisements through in foreign media languages, including Spanish, to continue audiences as and
are certain Japanese. Changes to the needs of their expanded respond communities. changing
30
Bonnie Pitman
CONCLUSION Museums, all the frenetic still offer activity, despite are museums, and reflection. There contemplation of for within small numbers many them, designed a place for or spaces rather than
crowds?the
the gentle Missouri nestled meditative produced a place world. and the to While on
elegant halls of the Frick Collection

lines and Botanical the sugar
inNew York,
at the in the Japanese Garden quiet ponds in St. Louis, the small Garden building at Grove Farm in Kauai, and the plantation of an the Menil Collection lighting. Museums in Houston, are able to provide
atmosphere by its diffused rest from there
in the future, incredible opportunities gain tirely new audiences in their collections housed to share ing together increase their abilities gage the public.
hectic and media-driven increasingly are many now problems facing museums we should focus not on the difficulties but on that will access and to the exhibitions. as en engage museums information and ideas Museums are work to en
and collections services, expertise, to communicate with and actively
ENDNOTES Endowment for the Arts, national Arts (Washington, D.C.: National
2American tation Association Handbook of Museums, (Washington,
1997 Survey of Public Participation Endowment for the Arts, 1998).
in the
A Higher Accredi Standard: The Museum Association of Museums, D.C.: American
1997),
19-20. Century
and Local
3KarlMeyer, The Art Museum: Power, Money, Ethics: A Twentieth Fund Report (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1979), 24.
4Edward Functions An inMotion: Museums P. Alexander, American (Nashville: of Museums Introduction Association of
to the History State and
History,
1979),
11. (Chicago:
5Steven Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876-1926 University of Chicago Press, 1998), 8.
6Ibid., 8-9. Museums and in Motion, American 31-32. 11. Intellectual Life, 29.
7Alexander, 8Conn, 9Meyer,
Museums The
Art Museum,
Muses, Museums,
10American Association D.C.: (Washington, nRoxana sion," Adams, American Museums of Museums, American Association
and Memories
ed. Ann 1994), Hofstra 33.
31
Grogg
Count, of Museums,
"Research Association
on Museum and Report Development of Museums Technical Information
Expan Service,
1998,
12Ibid., 13"The
1.
5-6. Boom?and What to Do About It," Museum News (November/Decem
ber 1998): 59.

14Ibid., 15Judith 35. H. Dobrzynski, "Art Museum Attendance Keeps Rising in the U.S.,"
New
16Ibid.
York Times,
1 February 1999, Bl-3.
17American American 18American Report
Association
of Museums,
Excellence 3.
and
Equity:
Education
and
the
Public Dimension
Association Association of
of Museums,
of Museums,
ed. Ellen Cochran Hirzy

1992),
(Washington, D.C.:
1997: Associa A
the National
Museum of Museums, Financial Information D.C.: American Results Survey (Washington,
tion of Museums,
19Ellen Cochran Hirzy, 4-5.
1998), 27-28.
True Needs, True Partners: Museums Serving Schools
1998 Survey Highlights

Services, 20Wendy 1998), Pittman and William
(Washington, D.C.: Institute ofMuseum

S. Pretzer, "Museums and the
and Library
School
Charter
Movement,"
21Ellen V. Futter,
Museum News
in "Toward
(September/October
a Natural History Museum
1998): 41-42.
for the 21st Century,"
Museum News
22Ibid., 42
(November/December
1997): 40.
23Peter R. Crane,
in "Toward
a Natural
History
Museum
for
the 21st
Century,"
Museum News
24Steven Madoff, January 25American 1999,
(November/December
"Where 41. of Museums, the Venues
1997): 45.
Infinite," New York Times, 10
are Virtually
Association
Museum
Financial
Information
Survey
1997: A Report of the National

26Ibid., 37.
Survey Results.

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Muses, Museums, and Memories Author(s): Bonnie Pitman Source: Daedalus, Vol. 128, No.

is commonly people being

that museums great

are visiting museums, and an even created, are identified by Americans.1

are growing?more of museums numbers number are expanding.

museums Today, institutions visited

larger as the most The

cultural popular American Association visitors. it an a What

that in the decade of the 1990s,

educational, for exhibition, are theaters

conservation, and movie

increasingly communities. and

as gathering as fo places, exhibitions and the presented

into collections reflect the multiple incorporated interests of individual communities.

relationship both of today; assist individuals The

fully supported between Alexandria's are

during individual uities, pride of

pleasure not While the ment

aristocracy, of the first museums to share

willing to enhance While Official museums museums history ally,

museums, centers, definition

not-for-profit be essentially have have has a formal at museum

person who is delegated

and Memories to oper that

presentation The the ums eight standards represent

represent the leading institutions,

profession. 10 percent the major to the face

a variety of internal to communicate for ways of the new in the ways

society; fundamental and view

changes and use their

of museums Nathaniel provide

in America. Burt, Steven over from and

Alexander, Karl Harris, Meyer of the their development, and "cabinets

thoughtful transition complex of curiosities" for the wealthy

to serve the public

the Renaissance; out

Karl Meyer points the educated

merchants, lic galleries."3 sion to collect the natural the

of founding societ of historical

raising In 1926 America's

mid-1800s grant jects that museums

carefully windows The

featuring exhibitions, in what

principally overlooked. with he His the public's wonder created

boasting large interested immensely

museums, six hundred of over with attractions Siamese

along with the world around

Specimens New York had

and Philadelphia, but to demonstrate that nature?even an essential order.6 Through

the beginning of American with to discoveries the United

In 1846, the Smithsonian

and the Philadelphia Museum

The first American

zoo was founded in Central Park in Phila

specimens, with 1890s. where

The New York Zoological

Society began to display animals

becoming zoos have years, animals live in

Washington, York City botanical

to prevent species. their work. and

Conservation centers The

established in 1899, and the Boston Children's

Flyer of Science in 1933;