4.

Wave Forces on Structures

One approach used to estimate the highest expected wave forces on an offshore structure is based on a single design wave. For a particular wave theory, with a wave height and wave period chosen according to the location of the structure, the corresponding pressure field and horizontal components of wave particle velocity and acceleration are them determined. With this flow information, the distributions of the two governing flow parameters Re and Kc (the Reynolds and Keulegan-Carpenter numbers) are found for the structural components. Based on Re and Kc, The flow regime is determined and the appropriate fluid force coefficients for drag, inertia, and diffraction (wave scattering) are chosen from a database. The structural loading is then computed using these latter coefficients, together with the expressions for wave velocity and acceleration applied to either Morisons loading model, or a modified version thereof, or to a diffraction model.

 The equation or method for calculating the load on a cylindrical structure in a fluid wave flow field depends on the flow regime. Loads on structures in waves may be conveniently classified under three headings: inertia, drag and diffraction. The relative importance of these in a particular case depends on the type and size of the structure and the nature of the wave conditions. The following relationships between cylinder diameter D, the wave height H (peak to trough), and the wavelength serve to define the flow regime. Drag: D/H<0.1 In Morisons equation the term involving CD dominates the term involving CM. Wave loads on the very small diameter components of offshore structures such as conductor tubes will be drag-dominated. Inertia: 0.5<D/H<1.0 In Morisons equation the term involving CM dominates the term involving CD. The columns supporting the deck of a gravity-type platform are designed to sustain wave forces in this regime. Diffraction: D/ >0.2 Diffraction forces are only significant when the sectional dimensions are a substantial fraction of the wavelength. Diffraction forces are due to scattering of the incident wave by the structure.

4.1 WAVE LOADING OF FLEXIBLE CYLINDERS 4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID LOAD REGIMES

 Calculation of diffraction wave forces Generally, diffraction force calculations are based on the Froude-Krylov pressure distributions derived from ideal, hydrodynamic flow and linear wave theory. These forces are then modified by the experimental flow coefficients Ch, Cv and Co. Consider the application of diffraction theory to the submerged cylinder shown in Figure 4.2. For this example, the total horizontal force, vertical force, and overturning moment on the cylinder are p1x (t ) = Ch Fkx ; p1z (t ) = Cv Fkz

M 0 (t ) = C0 ( z Fkx + x Fkz ) = C0 M k The terms Fkx and Fkz, defined as the Froude-Krylov forces, are the net pressure-induced forces on the vertical sides and on the top horizontal surface, respectively. Those forces, located at the respective centers of pressure z and x , are time dependent. The basic assumption in the calculation of the Froude-Krylov forces is that the wave pressure field is completely undisturbed by the pressure of the structure. Hogben and Standing (1975) recommended the following flow coefficients for a submerged cylinder as shown in Figure 4.2.

h D Ch = 1 + 0.75( )1/ 3 [1 0.3( ) 2 ] D D h h Cv = 1 + 0.74( ) 2 for <1 D D h Cv = 1 + for >1 2 D C0 = 1.9 0.35

The restrictions on equations above are

h for Ch, Cv, C0 < 0.6 d h 0.3 < < 2.3 for Ch, Cv only D h 0.6 < < 2.3 for C0 only D

 Calculation of the Froude-Krylov forces (Example Problem 4.3) Calculate Fkx and Mk , the Froude-Krylov horizontal force and overturning moment on a rectangular box caisson resting on the ocean floor. The box has cross section dimension 2a x 2a and height h, as shown in Figure 4.2. Assume that there is single incident wave and that linear wave theory is appropriate. Relative to the coordinate system of Figure 4.2, the dynamic pressure given in Table 3.1 becomes

p( x, z, t ) = g

H cosh k ( z + d ) cos(kx t ) 2 cosh kd

The value of Fkx is computed by integrating the pressure difference over the vertical sides of the box normal to a right-traveling wave.

Fkx = 2a = 2a
d

( h d )

[ p (a, z , t ) p (a, z , t )]dz

H cosh k ( z + d ) H cosh k ( z + d ) cos(ka t )]dz cos(ka t ) g cosh kd 2 cosh kd 2 ( hd ) H cosh k ( z + d ) g [cos( ka t ) cos(ka t )]dz = 2a d 2 cosh kd ( hd ) H cosh k ( z + d ) g 2 sin ka sin tdz = 2a d 2 cosh kd sinh kh sin ka sin t = 2 ga k cosh kd
( hd )

[ g

The overturning moment is the sum of two integrals. The first is Mkh, the moment about 0 due to the side pressure forces. The second is Mkv, the moment about 0 due to the pressure forces on the top of the boxes. Thus

M k = M kv + M kh M kh = 2a
( hd ) d a

[ p ( a, z , t ) p (a, z , t )]( z + d )dz

M kv = 2a p[ x, (h d ), t ]xdx
a

The estimation of Mk and Fkz in closed form is also a straightforward exercise. With these results, the total horizontal diffraction force p1x(t), the overturning moment M0k(t) and the total vertical load p1z(t) can be estimated using the respective flow coefficients, Cv, Ch and C0.

HOMEWORK#6

Solve the problem 4.13 of the text book.

4.3 FLOW REGIMES FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES A perspective on the size of components (caissons, legs, bracings, etc.) for typical offshore structures is shown in Figure 4.3. The gravity and tethered buoyant platforms, the most massive of the offshore structures, will experience diffraction forces under most wave conditions. At the other extreme, the jackup platforms with their relatively thin legs and small diameter bracing will experience mainly drag forces.

 A further insight into the influence of wave height and cylinder diameter on the occurrence of three flow regimes was presented by Hogben (1976). Such a mapping, shown here only for cylinders at the water surface (z=0), is illustrated in Figure 4.4.

The following assumptions were used in deriving these curves. 1. Linear wave theory 2. Deep water approximation 3. A wave length to wave height ratio of / H = 15 4. CM=2.0 for all flow regimes. CD=0.6 for postcritical drag where the drag force changes abruptly at Re=5x105. CD=1.2 for subcritical drag. 5. Re based on the amplitude of the waves horizontal particle velocity The ratio
qD shows a relative effect of fluid drag forces to fluid inertia forces. When qI

this ratio is 0.9, the drag and inertia forces are of comparable magnitude, but this ratio is 0.1, the inertia forces dominate.

4.4 SUMMARY OF FLOW COEFFICIENTS CD AND CM It is quite apparent that CD and CM are not simple constants. Data show that CD and CM are functions of three parameters, Re, Kc and cylinder roughness. Here Reynolds uD where is the absolute viscosity of the fluid. And number, Re, is defined by Re =

the Keulegan-Carpenter number, Kc, which arises when a free stream, plane, periodic
flow is imposed on a stationary cylinder, is defined by Kc =

u0T where u0 is the D amplitude of the wave velocity and T is the wave period. A survey of measured values for CD and CM made by the British Ship Research Association (1976) is depicted in Figure 4.5.