Braided Meandering Coastal India, Ray - Chakraborty 2002

Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243 271 www.elsevier.
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Lower Gondwana f luvial succession of the PenchKanhan valley, India: stratigraphic architecture and depositional controls
Sanghamitra Ray 1, Tapan Chakraborty *
Geological Studies Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, 203 B.T. Road, Calcutta 700 035, India Received 11 September 2000; accepted 9 November 2001
Abstract The Lower Permian Barakar and overlying Motur Formations, in the southeastern part of the Satpura Gondwana basin, India, reveal contrasting lithology and alluvial architecture. Barakar Formation (f225 m thick) consists of laterally extensive 5to 20-m-thick multistoreyed, multilateral coarse-grained sandstone bodies. In the upper part of the formation, a few 1.5- to 11m-thick coal carbonaceous shale units alternate with the thick sandstone bodies. In contrast, the Motur Formation is characterised by a thick (f500 m thick) succession of red mudstone with usually isolated, comparatively thinner (1 15 m thick) sandstone bodies. The multistoreyed Barakar sandstone bodies are inferred to represent deposition in sandy braided streams. Earlier workers inferred development of the associated coal/carbonaceous shale units in contemporaneous floodplains. The present study, on the other hand, indicates that the coal carbonaceous shale units accumulated in an extensive vegetated marshland with small channels and lakes, and were temporally and spatially unrelated to the Barakar braided rivers. Sedimentologic and stratigraphic data suggest that during periods of active subsidence of the basin floor, the braided alluvial plain was transformed to an extensive, low-gradient wetland, and at times of tectonic quiescence, elevated source regions forced the braided system to prograde over the coal-forming marshland. Thicker (1 15 m) sandstone bodies embedded in the red mudstones of the Motur Formation are inferred as channel fills. Whereas the thinner (0.2 2.0 m) sandstone sheets, at places occurring as wings of the channel sandstones, represent levee splay complexes of the Motur channels. The red mudstone intervals perhaps represent the alluvial floodplain environment. Abundant calcareous nodules within mudstones are inferred to record development of calcareous paleosols on the floodplain deposits. Dominance of mudrocks, the smaller dimension as well as isolated nature of the channel fills and well-developed levee deposits in the Motur Formation, are suggestive of deposition in an anastomosed fluvial system characterised by multiple, laterally stable channel levee complexes flanked by extensive floodplains. Occurrence of coal in the Barakar Formation and red mudstone with calcareous paleosols in the Motur Formation indicates a change of paleoclimate from humid (in Barakar) to semi-arid type (in Motur) during the Lower Permian time in the Satpura Gondwana basin. There is no independent evidence of major tectonic reorganisation (stratigraphic discordance, change of paleocurrent pattern) of the basin during the transition from Barakar to Motur Formation. It is inferred that the change from the thick multistoreyed, multilateral sandstone sheets of Barakar Formation to that of the isolated, thinner sandstone bodies
Corresponding author. Fax: +91-33-5776680. E-mail address: tapan@isical.ac.in (T. Chakraborty). 1 Present address: South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa. 0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 6 0 - 3
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S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271
within thick mudstones of the Motur Formation reflects response of the alluvial system to increasing climatic aridity rather than to increasing rate of basin subsidence. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gondwana; Satpura Basin; Permian; Fluvial deposits; Alluvial architecture; Climate
1. Introduction Comparison of modern stream processes and their deposits provides powerful tools for the analysis and interpretation of ancient alluvial facies (cf. Allen, 1965; Walker and Cant, 1984; Smith et al., 1989; Khan et al., 1997). Because of the limitation of time span of human observation and record, controls on the large-scale architecture of alluvial successions are less clearly understood (Blum and Tornqvist, 2000). Computer simulations, laboratory experiments and deductions from ancient fluvial deposits suggest that tectonism and climate exert major controls in shaping the stratigraphic architecture of alluvial successions (Mackey and Bridge, 1995; Heller and Paola, 1996; Olsen et al., 1995; Martinsen et al., 1999). Earlier works highlighted the role of tectonism in controlling the architecture of the alluvial sandstone bodies (Blakey and Gubitosa, 1984; Kraus and Middleton, 1987). The role of climate in controlling the sand body architecture is, however, increasingly emphasised in recent times (Smith, 1994; Fielding and Webb, 1996; Pedley and Frostick, 1999; Blum and Tornqvist, 2000). It is, however, difficult to desegregate the climatic signals from that produced by tectonism in an alluvial succession (Pedley and Frostick, 1999). Indian Gondwana sediments comprise a thick succession of fluvial deposits (Veevers and Tewari, 1995) and evidences for several major climatic shifts have been documented independently from the succession on the basis of the palynological studies (Kar, 1976; Tiwari, 1996; Veevers and Tewari, 1995). Transition from Lower Permian coal-bearing Barakar Formation to the overlying red mudstone-dominated Motur Formation in the eastern part of the Satpura Gondwana Basin (Fig. 1, Table 1) is believed to coincide with such a climatic shift (Veevers and Tewari, 1995). The upper part of the Barakar Formation shows thick sandstone bodies alternating with coal carbonaceous shale units, whereas the overlying Motur Formation is dominated by thick succession of red mudstone interlayered with thinner sandstone units. In an earlier
study, Casshyap and Qidwai (1971) interpreted Barakar sandstones as deposits of low-sinuosity braided rivers, Barakar coal seams as floodplain sediments of these braided streams and Motur Formation as meandering river deposits on the basis of broad lithology and detailed paleocurrent analysis. We undertook a reexamination of these two formations with an aim to understand the possible controls of changing facies and alluvial architecture across these two units. The purpose of this paper is to present a detailed facies analysis of the Barakar and Motur Formations. The analysis shows that simple braided and meandering river facies models are inconsistent with the internal characteristics of the Barakar and Motur Formations, respectively. We present an alternative interpretation for the deposition of the Motur and Barakar sediments and argue that the remarkable changes in the lithology and architecture from Barakar to Motur Formations were dominantly driven by a climatic shift across the Barakar Motur transition rather than changes in the tectonic regime.
2. Geological background Gondwana sedimentary successions occur in several disparate basins in Peninsular India (Robinson, 1967; Fig. 1a) of which the Satpura Gondwana Basin is the westernmost. Crookshank (1936) first published a detailed geological account of the basin and subdivided the sedimentary fill into seven major stratigraphic units (Table 1). Traditionally, Gondwana succession in India has been divided into Lower and Upper subdivisions based on the floral content and presence or absence of coal-bearing strata. In the Satpura Basin, contact between Bijori and Pachmarhi Formations marks the boundary between the two subdivisions (Table 1). In order to assess the regional climatic regime, it is necessary to correlate the age and stratigraphic position of the Barakar and Motur Formations of the Satpura Basin with the sedimentary successions of the other Gondwana basins. Although independent
S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271 245
Fig. 1. (a) Different Gondwana basins of Peninsular India (after Robinson, 1967). (b) Details of the study area. (c) Geological map of the study area. Rose diagrams show the dispersion of the paleocurrent directions. The circled numbers beside rose diagrams denote the number of observations. Bold lines marked A, B, etc. show the position of measured sections in Motur Formation (see Fig. 9); bold lines denoted by BK-I and BK-II mark the locations of measured logs in the upper part of the Barakar Formation.
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Table 1 The stratigraphic succession of the Satpura Gondwana Basin (modified after Raja Rao, 1983; Bandyopadhyay and Sengupta, 1999)
age data including reports of fossils from the Barakar and Motur Formations of the Satpura Basin are virtually absent, in the following, we attempt to summa-
rise the available information. Palynological studies indicate that top of the Barakar Formation in other Gondwana basins marks the transition from Lower to
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Upper Permian (Kungurian Ufimian; Tiwari, 1996). A number of leaf impressions belonging to the Glossopteris flora and thick logs of petrified woods are present in the Motur Formation. These logs of wood possibly belong to Dadoxylon but absence of any association of these woods with foliage makes it difficult to assign them to any particular taxon. Nandi and Raha (1998) studied the palynofloral assemblage of the Motur Formation and suggested that this assemblage indicates a Late Permian age for the Motur Formation. The age of the overlying Bijori Formation is considered as lower Tatarian (Werneburg and Schneider, 1996) based on the presence of temnospondyle amphibians. Taking into consideration these limiting factors, the age of Motur Formation can be broadly suggested to be lower part of Upper Permian, possibly ranging between Ufimian and Kazanian. Based on stratigraphic position, lithology and palynofloristic composition, these two formations have been traditionally correlated with the Barakar and Barren Measure Formation of other Gondwana basins of India (Robinson, 1967; Raja Rao, 1983; Tiwari, 1996). Veevers and Tewari (1995), in their attempt for a regional time-correlation among the Gondwana basins of Peninsular India, also placed upper part of the Barakar and Motur Formation in the Artinskian Ufimian age bracket. Examination of sedimentary succession of other Gondwana continents shows that the Collie Coal Measures of western Australia is of similar age. However, the Collie succession or other Permian Ufimian and Kazanian coal measures of Australia and Antarctica lack red bed succession comparable in stratigraphic position and age to Motur. Red bed succession of the similar age, however, is present in parts of the South African Gondwana succession (Veevers and Tewari, 1995; Smith et al., 1998).
Within the study area, there are three Lower Gondwana formations, the Talchir, Barakar and Motur. Diamictite, green shale and sandstone constitute the basal Gondwana glacigeneic Talchir Formation (Casshyap and Qidwai, 1971, 1974). Increasing proportion of sandstone marks the gradational passage of the Talchir into the Barakar Formation. Lower part of the Barakar Formation is made up of thick coarsegrained sandstone units interspersed with thin impersistent grey mudstone units. In the upper part of the Barakar Formation, three major coal seams and associated carbonaceous shale occur interlayered with the sandstone. The contact between the Barakar and the overlying red mudstone-dominated Motur Formations varies from sharp to gradational over short distances (Table 1).
4. Sedimentology 4.1. Architecture and bounding surfaces Several facies associations have been recognised in the Barakar and the Motur Formations based on their distinctive lithology, preferred presence of several sedimentary structures and geometry of the lithosomes. Sandy facies associations of both the formations depict several orders of bounding surfaces. On the basis of their mutual interrelationship and following standard practice of describing alluvial deposits (cf. Miall, 1988; Wizevich, 1992; Willis, 1993), these surfaces can be assigned different orders and genetic significance. Fig. 2 schematically shows the bounding surfaces encountered in the Barakar and Motur Formation and we have followed Mialls (1988) scheme in numbering these surfaces. Major sandstone bodies (<25 m thick) of the studied sections are separated from the over- or underlying fine-grained lithologies by sixth-order bounding surfaces (Fig. 2). The sixth-order surfaces marking the lower boundary of the sandstone bodies are erosional, marked by abundant intraformational clasts, show more than 1 m relief in places and are traceable for more than 1 km. The sixth-order surfaces marking the top of the sandstone bodies are sharp but non-erosional in nature (Fig. 2). Thick sandstone bodies delimited by a pair of sixthorder surfaces are internally multistoreyed (sensu
3. Lithostratigraphy of the Lower Gondwana Rocks In order to work out the Lower Gondwana stratigraphic succession of the Satpura Basin, about 300 km2 has been mapped around Parasia (21j11V , 78j46 V ) on 1:50,000 scale (Fig. 1c). Preparation of detailed vertical and lateral profiles, collection of paleocurrent data and petrographic analysis of the Barakar and Motur Formations supplemented mapping.
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Fig. 2. Schematic drawing showing the hierarchy of bounding surfaces observed within Barakar and Motur Formations of the study area.
Friend et al., 1979, 2001) and lower boundaries of the stories are designated as fifth-order bounding surfaces (Fig. 2). The fifth-order surfaces are flat to distinctly concave upward and are strewn with coarser sandstone and claystone clasts. These surfaces lap on to or are truncated by the sixth-order surfaces and in some cases are truncated by other fifth-order surfaces (Fig. 2). Coset of planar or trough cross-strata characterises the sandstone storeys. In some cases, set or coset bounding surfaces that are inclined to the fifth-order surfaces can be recognised within the storeys. These inclined set or coset boundaries are designated thirdorder surfaces in the Barakar and Motur Formations and represent either lateral or downcurrent macroform accretion surfaces. The fourth-order surfaces of Mialls (1988) scheme, representing the preserved top of the macroforms, are uncommon in the studied sections. Isolated plano-concave as well as convexo-planar sandstone bodies encased within mudstone are common in the Motur Formation and their bounding surfaces are also designated as fifth-order surfaces (Fig. 2). Set and coset bounding surfaces assigned first and second orders in Mialls (1988) scheme are recognisable in all the sections but have not been marked in the architectural drawings. 4.2. Barakar Formation Poor exposures of the Barakar Formation do not allow detailed reconstruction of vertical and lateral profiles but plan exposures allow collection of paleocurrent data presented in Fig. 1c. Details of the facies
were observed and sedimentological profiles were constructed from open cast coal mines in the study area. Two major facies associations can be recognised: thick multistorey sandstone association (BFA-I) and carbonaceous shale coal association (BFA-II). 4.2.1. Thick multistorey sandstone association (BFA-I) 4.2.1.1. Description. The BFA-I sandstone bodies delimited from the over- and underlying coal shale succession by the sixth-order bounding surfaces are typically sheet-like and vary in thickness from 5 to 20 m (Fig. 3). In quarry faces oriented nearly transverse to flow, the thicker sandstone bodies can be traced laterally over the entire length of the quarry ( > 1 km). Examination of the adjacent quarries and bore-hole data suggests that many of them are several kilometres wide and alternate with subregionally extensive coal carbonaceous shale units (Rai and Shukla, 1977; Western Coalfields Limited, unpublished data). The lower bounding surfaces of the sandstone bodies are erosional in nature, whereas upper contacts are sharp to gradational over short distances. The sandstone bodies show slight upward fining of the grain size. The BFA-I sandstone bodies are multistoreyed in nature. The storey bounding (fifth order) surfaces are flat to concave-up (Fig. 3b) and are marked by granulerich sandstone and intraformational shale fragments. Storeys are 1.5 to more than 5 m thick, and in sections oriented transverse to flow directions, can be traced for a few hundred metres (Fig. 3a,b). The width/thickness ratios of the storeys are usually >50 and they may
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Fig. 3. (a) Photomosaic of Barakar sediments in the Tuti open cast quarry. Note the coal seam (No. III), IHS and the gleyed paleosol unit in the lower right corner of the photo. (b) Line drawing prepared from the photomosaic showing the major bounding surfaces within Barakar sand body. Note the concave-upward geometry of many fifth-order surfaces.
show slight coarsening or fining upward trend. Although most storeys are in direct contact with others, at a few places, they are separated by laterally impersistent, up to 20-cm-thick, grey mudstones (Fig. 4a). The storeys are characterised dominantly by cosets of decimetre- to centimetre-scale planar and trough cross-strata. Isolated large clay clasts in places mark coset-bounding surfaces. Basal parts of the storeys show large downcurrent-dipping compound crossstrata (Fig. 5) that are overlain by cosets of planar and trough cross-strata. In some flow parallel sections, coset-bounding (3rd order) surfaces display a small downcurrent inclination with respect to the fifth-order surfaces. In a single isolated case, lateral-accretion macroforms could be recognised, where the third-
order surfaces dip westward against the north north west mean paleocurrent direction measured from the associated cross-strata. Paleocurrents measured from Barakar Formation show a unimodal pattern and at the level of individual exposures are characterised by low dispersion with consistency ratio (sensu Rao and Sengupta, 1972) varying between 89.0% and 98.9% (for paleocurrent roses, see Fig. 1c). 4.2.1.2. Interpretation. Individual storeys, in places with concave-up erosional lower boundaries, and internally consisting of unidirectionally oriented decimetre-scale planar and trough cross-strata with locally developed fining-upward grain-size trend, suggest deposition in fluvial channel (Collinson, 1996;
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Khan et al., 1997). Compound cross-beds are inferred to represent in-channel macroforms that grew through the accretion of smaller bedforms on its lee (Bank, 1973; Chakraborty, 1999). Low-angle downcurrent inclination of the third-order surfaces observed at a few places probably indicates presence of large-scale frontally accreting macroforms (Haszeldine, 1983). Sheet-like geometry of the storeys, dominantly coarse sand size of the deposits, absence or presence of thin, impersistent veneers of mudstone, locally developed DA-elements and low dispersion of the paleocurrent data collectively suggest a low-sinuosity braided pattern of the Barakar river (Bristow and Best, 1993; Miall, 1988; Chakraborty et al., 2000). In this context, lateral accretion surfaces noted in a single exposure of the BFA-I probably denote sidewise accretion of the braid bars in zones of local flow expansion (Bridge et al., 1986; Bristow, 1993). Thin mudstone units are interpreted as bar-top fines or small floodplain deposits in the braided alluvial plain. The major sandstone bodies of BFA-I produced by the superposition of individual storeys represent the channel belts of the Barakar river system. High stacking density and interconnectedness of the channel-fill sandstone units (storeys) and paucity of mudstone probably indicate either (i) a high avulsion frequency within a multiplechannel braided system with poorly developed floodplain or (ii) a low subsidence rate or (iii) a suitable combination of these two factors (Mackey and Bridge, 1995; Heller and Paola, 1996). Amalgamated nature of the coarse-grained BFA-I sandstone bodies, their thickness on the order of tens of metres and lateral extent on the scale of kilometres probably imply that the supply of the coarse clastic far exceeded the accommodation space created by the basin subsidence resulting in sandy braided channels wandering back and forth across the entire alluvial plain. 4.2.2. Coal carbonaceous shale association (BFA-II) 4.2.2.1. Description. This association alternates with thick sandstone bodies of BFA-I and comprises an interlayed succession of coal, carbonaceous shale, sand shale heterolithic units, sheet-like thin beds of medium- to fine-grained sandstone and relatively uncommon lenticular sandstone bodies. The individual BFA-II successions varies in thickness from 1.5 to >11 m. Persistent thin laminae characterise the shales,
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Fig. 4. (a) Log through the upper part of the Barakar Formation exposed at the two open cast quarries. Position of the logs (BK-I and BK-II shown in Fig. 1c). For explanation of the symbols, see Fig. 8B. (b) Explanation of symbols used in the log diagrams of this paper.
whereas parallel laminae, wave or combined flow ripple (Fig. 6) and small cross-strata are typical of heterolithic or fine sandstone units. The thicker units of BFA-II are sheet-like and can be laterally traced for many kilometres across the Pench Kanhan coalfield area (Rai and Shukla, 1977; Western Coalfields Limited, unpublished data). The thinner units of BFA-II, however, pinch out within several tens to few hundreds of metres. The BFA-II succession associated with the topmost coal seam (seam number III of Pench Kanhan coal-
field area, sensu Rai and Shukla, 1977) exposed in two quarry sections have been shown in Fig. 4a (for location of the sections, refer to Fig. 1c). The basal part of the BFA-II succession is marked by the coal seam that is overlain by a set of inclined heterolithic strata (IHS, Thomas et al., 1987). In the Tuti quarry to the east (Fig. 3a), IHS set is overlain by a succession of structureless, hardened, greenish grey mudstone containing iron-oxide-lined fractures and poorly developed iron oxide nodules. This is followed upward by an alternation of wave/combined flow rippled fine
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Fig. 5. Large downdipping compound cross-strata within BFA-I; Panara open cast quarry, Kanhan valley.
sandstone sheets and carbonaceous shale (log BK-I, Fig. 4a). In the Panara quarry to the west (log BK-II, Fig. 4a), the IHS unit is erosively overlain by BFA-I sandstone. In spite of local variation in the BFA-II successions, many of the adjacent quarries show coal seam number III to be persistently overlain by inclined heterolithic strata thereby constituting a coarsening-upward trend in the lower part of the BFA-II succession.
The relative inclination of the individual stratum of the IHS sets, with respect to the generalised dip of the succession, varies between 15j and 2j (Fig. 7). The IHS set consists of gradationally alternating very fine sand (1 10 mm) and carbonaceous shale (3 40 mm). Well-developed wave and combine flow ripples and climbing ripple lamination (Fig. 5) are typical of the sandy strata and are separated by shale laminae with rare burrows. The inclined heterolithic strata
Fig. 6. Wave-ripple lamination in the heterolithic facies of the BFA-II; Datla open cast quarry, Kanhan Valley.
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Fig. 7. Photo showing low-angle inclined heterolithic strata of the Panara quarry. Note downlapping nature of the IHS set on the underlying coal seam. BFA-I sandstone erosively overlies the IHS set (see log BK-II, Fig. 4a). Human figure for scale.
show a non-erosive, downlapping relationship with the underlying coal seam (Figs. 3a and 7) and are marked by distinct fining of grain size in the downdip direction. 4.2.2.2. Interpretation. Sedimentary structures and lithology indicate accumulation of BFA-II rocks in shallow, ponded water environment. The laminated carbonaceous shales are inferred to represent deposition in lakes that covered part of the low-lying marshland environment and the sheet-like thin sandstone units might represent either distal crevasse splay or storm-emplaced sediments within the lakes. Lack of in situ tree trunks or extensive root horizons indicates that much of the plant detritus was allochthonous (cf. Rai and Shukla, 1977). High water table in the poorly drained marshes locally produced anaerobic reducing environment favouring formation of peat (Duchaufour, 1982). High ash content of the coal (Raja Rao, 1983) and the intercalated sandstone and shale partings imply formation in the low-lying marshland rather than in raised peat bogs (McCabe, 1984; Collinson, 1996; Jorgensen and Fielding, 1996). Small lenticular sandstone beds are inferred as small channel-fill deposits. The depositional scenario envisioned for BFA-II succession comprises extensive, poorly drained swamps with a mosaic of
lakes and sluggish drainage channels such as that occurring in Mississippi delta plain (Tye and Coleman, 1989; Aslan and Autin, 1999) or Cumberland marshes (Smith et al., 1989). In the absence of erosional lower bounding surfaces and unidirectional current-generated bedforms in the IHS sets, it seems unlikely that they formed from the lateral migration of point bars of sinuous rivers (cf. Fielding et al., 1993). A coarsening upward trend in the lower part of the BFA-II succession coupled with the dominance of wave-generated structures, downlapping nature of the heterolithic strata and abrupt fining of the IHS set in the downdip direction suggest that the IHS set probably formed through the progradation of a subaqueous levee complex or small lake delta (cf. Perez-Arlucea and Smith, 1999). As the crevasse splays or deltas filled up the small floodplain lakes, vegetation encroached upon them forming incipient soil profiles. Destruction of stratification, inclined fracture planes and iron oxide nodules in greenish mudstone overlying IHS in the Tuti quarry (Fig. 3a) probably represent such incipient gleyed paleosols. Wave-rippled fine-grained sandstones within carbonaceous shale at the top of the BFA-II succession of the Tuti quarry probably represent another episode of subaqueous progradation of crevasse sheets in the Barakar wetland.
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4.2.3. Barakar depositional system The alternation of thick sandstone and coal carbonaceous shale units in many Gondwana basins has been previously attributed to deposition in fluvial channel and associated interchannel floodplain environments (Banerjee, 1960; Casshyap and Qidwai, 1971; Casshyap, 1979). Our inference of braided stream deposition for the BFA-I sandstone bodies is in agreement with that of Casshyap and Qidwai (1971), but it is difficult to reconcile a floodplain origin for the BFA-II rocks for the following reasons. (1) Observation of modern braided rivers suggests that the floodplain in braided river alluvial plain is usually small and discontinuous (Brierly, 1991; Reinfields and Nanson, 1993) and their deposit have a low preservation potential (Walker and Cant, 1984). Compacted thickness of up to 15 m and high lateral extent of the coal-bearing fine-grained sediments of BFA-II is inconsistent with the above observations from the modern braided stream systems. In contrast, our interpretation of thin mudstone units interlayered with channel-fill storeys of BFA-I as floodplain or bar-top fines is consistent with the observations from the modern braided river systems. (2) Over the entire studied area, the coal and associated shale facies lack any demonstrable lateral intertonguing relationship with the sandstone of BFA-I. (3) Presence of lacustrine features (persistent laminations in silt, wave ripples, etc.) over a large area occupied by the BFA-II succession indicates rapid regional rise of water table rather than existence of small ponds that are common in alluvial floodplains. (4) Instead of fining upwards succession, common in floodplain deposits (Collinson, 1996), the lower part of the BFA-II is coarsening upward with coal at the base and heterolithic or sandstone beds occurring upward. These features suggest that the depositional milieu represented by these two associations was spatially unrelated and was temporally separated. We infer that vertical transition of BFA-I to BFA-II indicates a major reorganisation of the alluvial plain when braided channel system was replaced by an extensive, vegetated wetland. Such sharp temporal changes between sandy braid plain and low-gradient wetland can be brought about by tectonism (Haszeldine and Anderton, 1980) or by climatic changes (Fielding and Webb, 1996). On the
basis of remarkable regularity of alternating sandstone and coal shale intervals occurring over several hundred metres of stratigraphic thickness, Fielding and Webb (1996) inferred a Milankovich climatic forcing for such changes in the Bainmedart Coal Measures of Antarctica. In the Barakar Formation, which is older than Bainmedart Coal Measures of Antarctica (Veevers and Tewari, 1995, their Fig. 45), BFA-I and BFAII alternations are limited only in the upper 100 m of the succession and lack such regularity. Sandstone bodies occurring in-between two coal shale successions vary in thickness from 3 to 18 m (Rai and Shukla, 1977; Western Coalfields, unpublished data). We believe such irregular nature of alternation of BFAI and BFA-II is more consistent with episodic tectonic movements than regular periodicity of climatic fluctuations driven by orbital forcing mechanism (cf. Haszeldine and Anderton, 1980; Fielding and Webb, 1996). At times of increased tectonic activity, the basin floor subsided rapidly transforming the entire alluvial plain into a low-gradient, waterlogged marshland that favoured accumulation of peat and development of gleyed paleosols at places. Sluggish channels, lakes and muddy lake deltas characterised the extensive vegetated marshland milieu (cf. Smith et al., 1989; Aslan and Autin, 1999). During periods of tectonic quiescence, the elevated source region forced the braided fluvial system to prograde over the peataccumulating wetland (Alexander and Leeder, 1987; Blair and Bilodeau, 1988). 4.3. Motur Formation Red mudstone-dominated Motur Formation can be subdivided into three broad facies associations: thick sandstone association (MFA-I), thin sandstone association (MFA-II) and red mudstone association (MFAIII). Lack of exposure precludes continuous logging through the entire succession, but composite logs (Fig. 8) spread across the study area display the vertical succession of these facies associations. 4.3.1. Thick sandstone association (MFA-I) 4.3.1.1. Description. The sand bodies vary from 0.8 to >15 m, but are mostly 1 2 m thick and are made up of cross-bedded very coarse- to medium-grained sandstone. The sand bodies are sheet-like to lenticular in
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Fig. 8. Lithologs through the different well-exposed transects through the Motur Formation of the study area. For the location of the individual sections, see Fig. 1c. For symbols, refer to Fig. 4b.
geometry with flat to concave-upward fifth-order lower bounding surfaces (Fig. 9), usually single storeyed and encased within the mudstone of MFAIII (described later). In a few cases where flow normal
dimension is measurable in the exposure, the sand bodies have width/depth ratio around 20. The sandstone units usually show a fining-upward grain size trend together with upward decreasing scale of sedi-
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Fig. 9. Field sketch of three isolated sandstone bodies of Motur Formation in the Pench River section, east of Pench dam. Note concave-upward geometry of the lower bounding surfaces of the sand bodies. Base of the section coincides with the water level of the Pench River. North of the rose diagram is towards top of the diagram; circled number represents the number of observations.
mentary structures, and eventually grade into the overlying red mudstone. Lateral accretion surfaces characterise few of the fining-upward sandstone units (Fig. 10a, the lower sandstone body). Paleocurrent direction measured from trough cross-strata of these thicker sandstone bodies is usually unimodal and vector mean directions of paleocurrent data measured from different outcrops vary from 291j to 22j (total number of observations 109; Figs. 1c and 9). A single sandstone body (the upper sandstone body in Fig. 10a,b) occurring in the Pench River section has features somewhat different from those described above. The sandstone unit is about 3.5 m thick and
shows a little change in thickness over few hundred metres across the entire outcrop. This sandstone body, coarser than most other MFA-I units, is made up of pebbly, very coarse-grained sandstone, has an erosional, undulating base and lacks well-developed fining-upward trend. Internally, the unit shows few laterally extensive subhorizontal erosion surfaces (Fig. 10a,b) and each of the lithosomes bounded by these surfaces consists mostly of small (up to 25 cm) trough cross-strata that at places are abruptly overlain by thin (<10 cm), laterally impersistent grey mudstone (Fig. 10c). Paleocurrent data measured from this sand body yield a vector mean of 49j.
Fig. 10. (a) Photograph of a section of Motur Formation exposed near Pench dam. Note lateral accretion surfaces (arrow) in the lower sand body. This is sharply overlain by coarse-grained sandstone with subhorizontal bounding surfaces. (b) Line drawing showing the details of (a). (c) Details of the box marked within coarse-grained sandstone of (b). Note thin impersistent mudstone units in the succession of the coarse-grained trough cross-bedded sandstone.
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4.3.1.2. Interpretation. The erosively based, lenticular sandstones of MFA-I with their fining-upward trend and unimodally oriented cross-beds are inferred to represent fluvial channels fills. Occurrence of single-storeyed sand bodies with limited lateral and vertical dimension (when compared to storey dimension of BFA-I) with enveloping red mudstone implies that the channels were smaller, as compared to BFA-I channels, and were mostly confined within the muddepositing environment of MFA-III (see below). Presence of lateral accretion surfaces with well-developed fining-upward trend within some of the sand bodies (lower sand body in Fig. 10a,b) indicates point bar accretion in these channels. However, the coarse-grained sandstone sheet of the Pench River section (upper sand body in Fig. 10b,c) that lacks well-defined fining-upward grain size or thinning-upward trend of the sedimentary structures and contains impersistent mudstone lenses, resembles sheet-braided stream deposits dominated by the vertical accretion of the smaller bedforms (Williams, 1971; Fedo and Cooper, 1990; McCormick and Grotzinger, 1993). Subhorizontal internal bounding surfaces within this sheet sandstone body imply dominantly vertical aggradation of shallow, wide channels. Thin, grey mudstone lenses probably indicate rapid flow stage fluctuations. This sandstone body probably represents deposition from high-energy flood event that swept across a large tract of the Motur alluvial plain and closely resembles the ephemeral sheet-flood
deposits (McKee et al., 1967; Williams, 1971; Tunbridge, 1981). Rarity of such coarse-grained, extensive sheet sandstone bodies within the Motur Formation indicates the rarity of intense flood events that could transport the huge amount of coarse clastics. 4.3.2. Thin sandstone association (MFA-II) 4.3.2.1. Description. The sediments of this association are medium- to muddy, fine-grained sandstone and are thinner than sandstone bodies of MFA-I, and range in thickness between 0.20 and 2.0 m. The sandstone usually occurs as isolated units but may be connected laterally to thicker MFA-I sandstone bodies. At a flat lower bounding surface, much greater lateral extent relative to their thickness is typical of these sandstone units. The upper contact of the sandstone unit is usually sharp, but may show a gradational passage to overlying mudstone facies. Paleocurrents measured from these sandstone units show an east or westward divergence from the northward paleocurrent direction revealed by the MFA-I sandstone bodies (Figs. 1c and 12a). Depending on the geometry and the internal features, three distinctive types of sandstone units can be recognised within MFA-II. (A) This is the most common type of sandstone unit and shows a sharply defined sheet-like or wedgeshaped geometry. At places, the upper surface of the sandstones units is convex upward (Fig. 11). It varies in thickness from 50 cm to about 160 cm. The lower
Fig. 11. Photograph showing the sheet-like MFA-II sandstone units inferred to represent crevasse splay deposits. Note slightly convex-up shape of the two thinner sandstone units and overlying thick MFA-I sandstone body. Section in Pench River near Richhora village.
S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271 Fig. 12. (a) Line drawing showing geometry of a levee complex (type B sandstone, MFA-II) exposed in a section east of Fig. 9. Coarse-grained MFA-I channel sand body on the left side of the section progressively fines away from the channel sand body. Note also the low-angle clinoform internal bounding surfaces within the levee complex. Note divergence of paleocurrent data from main sand body and the finer grained levee sandstone. A unit of grey mudstone siltstone embedded with thin sandstones overlies the levee complex. (b) Photomosaic depicting a slightly oblique view of the levee complex detailed in (a). 259
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part of the sandstone unit contains small- to mediumscale trough cross-beds overlain by parallel lamination or ripple cross lamination. Tops of the sandstone units at places are calcareous and show colour mottling. (B) These sandstone units are laterally linked with thicker channel sand bodies of MFA-I and resemble winged sand bodies described by others (cf. Stear, 1983; Mjos et al., 1993). The type B sandstone units may be up to 3 m thick. The sandstone beds are typically wedge shaped and are characterised by
clinoform geometry and a low-angle downlapping relationship of the internal bounding surfaces with the underlying mudstone. The units show a fining of grain size away from the main MFA-I sandstone body (Fig. 12a,b). Parts of the exposure proximal to the MFA-I sand bodies are coarse grained with mediumscale trough cross-strata, whereas parts further away from the MFA-I sandstone bodies are characterised by muddy fine-grained sandstone with small cross-strata or ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 12a,b). At places,
Fig. 13. (a) MFA-II sheet sandstone units exposed in the Richhora section. Lower part of the exposure (marked Y) comprises greenish grey mudstone sandstone alternation. Features of gleyed paleosol are common in this part. Note undulating top (arrows) of the overlying sheet sandstone body (marked X) and grey mudstone that fills in the depressions resulting from the bed-top irregularities. The view represents about 3 m of Motur succession, near Richhora. (b) Details of the internal features of the sheet sandstone (marked X) in (a). Note undulating basal surface, form-discordant and bi-directional nature of the foreset laminae, transition of dipping foreset laminae into low-angle laminae and abundant mud flasers within the sandstone bed.
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desiccation cracks occur near top of the sandstone unit. The paleoflow directions measured from the distal part of the clinoform unit show a divergence with those measured from the laterally linked MFA-I sandstone body (Fig. 12a). (C) These sandstone units are characterised by flat to undulating base, wavy top and internal wave-generated sedimentary structures (Fig. 13a,b). The sandy beds are sharply overlain by grey or molted greenish red claystone that drapes over the undulating bed top (Fig. 13a). Internal cross-strata show lensoid and pinch-and-swell geometry, variable foreset dip direction, form discordance, common mud flasers and locally grade into low-angle undulating laminae (Fig. 13b). 4.3.2.2. Interpretation. Reduced thickness, greater lateral extent, smaller internal structures, finer grain size and flat base of these sandstone units are inferred to indicate deposition from shallow, wide flows outside the deeper channels represented by MFA-I sandstones. Flat base and convex top of the type A sandstone resemble the depositional geometry of crevasse lobes (Collinson, 1996; Mjos et al., 1993). Colour mottling and calcareous nature of the top of these sandstone units are inferred to indicate incipient pedogenesis of the exposed crevasse lobes (Collinson, 1996; Bown and Kraus, 1987). Type B sandstone resembles the wing (cf. Stear, 1983) of the channel sandstones and is inferred to represent fluvial levee (Mjos et al., 1993; Nadon, 1994). The clinoform geometry of these sandstones, their lateral fining and divergence of paleocurrent with that of the related MFA-I channel sandstone bodies are consistent with a levee interpretation (cf. Fielding et al., 1993; Michaelson et al., 2000). Desiccation features indicate subaerial to near-emergent condition for these units. The clinoform geometry and the downlapping relationship are inferred to denote the relief of the successive channeloverbank interface close to the channel margin (cf. Nadon, 1994). Tabular to pinch-and-swell sand bodies and internal wave-generated sedimentary structures of type C sandstone units provide evidences for their deposition under oscillatory flow (cf. Brenchley et al., 1993; Midtgaard, 1996). Dark grey to greenish grey colour of the claystone enclosing type C sandstone units and burrows in this succession probably indicate their deposition in water-logged low-lying areas of the
flood basin. Small intrafloodplain channels or crevasse channels supplied the sand to the localised floodplain ponds that were subsequently reworked by waves (cf. Smith et al., 1989). Large (metre-scale) bed-top irregularity produced by these wave-generated bedforms was at places preserved during subsequent periods of rapid rise of the lake-water level (Fig. 13a, cf. Browne and Plint, 1994). Top of these type C sandstones were marked by periods of slow deposition between two floods and favoured infestations by burrowing organisms. 4.3.3. Red mudstone association (MFA-III) 4.3.3.1. Description. Red mudstone with interlayered thin (less than a cm to 10 cm) sandstone and siltstone beds comprise the bulk lithology. At a few places, the mudstone is green, greenish or dark grey. Claystone/mudstone in some exposures show welldeveloped thin laminae but are mostly massive. Calcareous concretions (Fig. 14), fossil woods (Fig. 15) and organic traces (Fig. 16) are common. Occurrence of calcareous concretions is a hallmark of the Motur red mudstone. The nodules are 1 to >15 cm in diameter and vary in shape from highly irregular to vertically elongated and tubular (Fig. 14). Some of the vertically elongated nodules taper downward. Reworked calcareous nodules occur as dispersed pebbles at the base of MFA-I and MFA-II sandstones (Fig. 17). The cores of larger vertically elongated nodules at places show tubular holes and radiating cracks filled with sparry calcite cement (Fig. 18). Nodular zones are often associated with carbonate-filled, inclined cracks that are up to 60 cm long in the sections. The nodule-rich mudstone develops a distinctive vertical succession that is typically about 1 m thick but may be up to 3 m thick (Fig. 19). The base of the succession is marked by green or red mudstone and followed upward by a zone of dispersed nodules. Dispersed nodules become vertically elongated, and then coalesce to develop larger and more equantshaped nodules higher in the profile (Fig. 19). At places near the top of the nodule-rich succession, coalesced nodules form limestone beds that are subparallel to primary stratification. Erosively emplaced sheet-like sandstone unit (Fig. 19) usually overlies the succession. However, in some sections, nodular zones
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Fig. 14. Photograph showing elongated to irregular-shaped calcareous nodules with Motur red mudstone. Pench River section.
are thinner (V20 cm) and lack well-developed sequential arrangement of the different units described above. Microscopic examinations show that the nodular mudstones are characterised by pervasive micritic cement as well as micritic nodules/glaebules of a variety of shape and internal fabric. At many places,
micritic nodules show circumgranular and radiating cracks filled with micritic and sparry calcite (Fig. 20). Detrital siliciclastic grains frequently have corroded margins and are coated with thin films of isopachous clay or micrite or micro-spar cement (Fig. 21). The greenish grey mudstones associated with type C
Fig. 15. Petrified wood fossil within Motur sandstone. South of Datla.
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Fig. 16. Bedding plane view of burrows at the sandstone mudstone interface within Motur Formation at Richhora Section (Fig. 13).
MFA-II sandstones at places show destruction of primary layered fabric, corroded quartz grains and small iron oxide concretions. 4.3.3.2. Interpretation. Red mudstone encasing most of the MFA-I and MFA-II sandstone bodies is inter-
preted to represent deposition in the overbank areas of the Motur alluvial plain. Laminated red mudstones probably represent undisturbed suspension settlement in the overbank areas. However, activities of burrowing organism, plant roots (inferred from the presence of both tubular calcareous nodules as well as abundant
Fig. 17. Photograph showing the contact between the top of the calcareous paleosol profile and overlying cross-bedded MFA-II sandstone unit. Note coalesced nodules at the top of the soil profile and abundance of calcareous nodules (arrows) in the sandstone derived from the underlying soil profile. Near village Richhora.
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nodules that grew around the plant roots and the central voids, created by the subsequent decay of the vegetal matter, were later filled-up by sparry calcite. Bedding-parallel limestone horizons formed of coalesced nodules probably resulted from the combined effect of increasing density of roots up the profile as well as increased precipitation of calcium carbonate in the upper part of the soil horizon. Micritic glaebules with circumgranular and radiating cracks are commonly attributed to shrink swell cycles operative in the solum (Nagtegaal, 1969; Goudie, 1983; Esteban and Klappa, 1983). The green-coloured mudstones at the base of the nodular zones probably represent the groundwater tables near the base of the soil profiles where intergranular pore spaces were perennially saturated preventing oxidation of the iron (Buurman, 1980). Thin calcareous mudstone units that lack distinctive vertical succession probably represent incipi-
Fig. 18. A view of a large calcareous nodule within Motur mudstone (MFA-III). Note circular holes (arrowed) filled with a mixture of clay and micritic carbonate and well-developed radiating cracks around the holes. The tubular features are inferred to represent relict root pores in Motur calcareous paleosols. Exposure near Barkuhi. Lens cap for scale.
silicified woods), and diagenetic changes related to the development of soil profiles probably rendered bulk of the Motur mudrocks structureless (cf. Nadon, 1994). High proportion of the clays in the Motur Formation implies that extensive, low-energy floodplain environments surrounded fluvial channels. Pervasive red pigmentation of the mudstone denotes oxidising environment and a generally low water table. Reworked calcareous nodules within MFA-I and MFA-II sand bodies imply their syndepositional origin. Calcareous nodules and its vertical succession are inferred to be related to the soil profiles that developed over the subaerial floodplain sediments. Pervasive micritic cement, corrosion and isopachous envelop of micrite or micro-spar around detrital grains, microspar-filled cracks of different orders are commonly associated with paleosol deposits (Brewer and Sleeman, 1964; Nagtegaal, 1969; Esteban and Klappa, 1983). Tubular shape of the calcareous nodules typically resembles calcified root tubes or rhizocretion in the soil profile. We infer that the elongate calcareous
Fig. 19. A field sketch showing paleosol profile developed within Motur red mudstone (MFA-III). Note upward increase in the size and density of calcareous nodules in red mudstone.
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Fig. 20. Photomicrograph shows a glaebule within Motur mudstone. Note well-developed circumgranular and radiating cracks filled with sparry calcite cement. X-nicols. Bar scale = 1 mm.
ent soil profile that could not develop into thick soil horizon due to comparatively higher rate of sedimentation. Locally developed grey mudstone (those associated type C sandstone of MFA-II) and occurrence of
corroded quartz grains and iron oxide nodules within it probably indicate development of incipient gleyed paleosols (Buurman, 1980). The occurrence of these grey mudstone-gleyed paleosol successions with type C sandstones of MFA-II is indicative of their associ-
Fig. 21. Photomicrograph showing an isopachous rim of sparry cement around a corroded quartz grain within mudstone. X-nicols. Bar scale = 1 mm.
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ation with small floodplain lakes (cf. Zaleha, 1997b; Kraus, 1999). Development of pedogenic calcrete is typical of semi-arid to arid climate, with precipitation exceeding several hundreds of millimetres per year and a seasonal distribution of the rainfall pattern (Goudie, 1983; Retallack, 1990; Tandon and Gibling, 1994). Significant thickness of some of the nodular calcareous zones (possible Bk horizon) indicates precipitation on the higher side of the range and low water table allowing seepage to some depth below the exposed surface. In the overall stratigraphic context of the Motur Formation, thinner calcretes or gleyed paleosols are probably attributable to changing geomorphic setting rather than to change in the climate within the Motur alluvial plain. 4.3.4. Motur depositional system The Motur depositional system was characterised by a mosaic of main channels (thicker sand bodies of MFA-I) intimately associated with numerous crevasse splay/levee deposits (types A and B sandstones of MFA-II) and surrounded by extensive mud-depositing flood basin (MFA-III). Occurrences of lateral accretion surfaces within MFA-I sand bodies denoting lateral migration of the sinuous channels are few in the study area. General paucity of lateral accretion surfaces, limited lateral extent and flanking levee deposits of many of the MFA-I sandstone bodies indicate that the channels were not very mobile and in many of the cases probably were confined and stable within the floodplain fines. General character of the Motur Formation of the study area marked by the dominance of flood basin mudstone encasing numerous crevasse sheets and fewer isolated channel sandstone bodies, bears striking resemblance to the anastomosing fluvial deposits (Tornqvist, 1993; Nadon, 1994; Morozova and Smith, 1999; Makaske, 2001). Although contemporaneity among these channel sandstone bodies cannot be demonstrated, as is the case for the most ancient anastomosing fluvial deposits (cf. Makaske, 2001), the abovementioned similarities are strongly suggestive of deposition of the Motur Formation from a mud-dominated anastomosing fluvial system. The exposed areas of the floodplain were subjected to soil-forming processes resulting in formation of caliche profiles of varying thickness. Variable thick-
ness of the caliche deposits was plausibly controlled by the time available for soil-forming processes, which in turn was related to geomorphic stability and rate of sedimentation in that particular area (cf. Bown and Kraus, 1987; Kraus, 1999). The red coloration of the floodplain fines and calcareous soil profiles indicate a semi-arid climate with seasonal rainfall pattern during Motur sedimentation. Localised, ponding of water in the floodbasin resulted in small lakes, in which some of the splay sand bodies were subaqueously emplaced and were subsequently reworked by wave action. Gleyed paleosols developed sporadically near these floodplain depressions. It should be noted that Casshyap and Qidwai (1971) inferred a meandering pattern for the Motur Formation from the evidence of higher variance of paleocurrent azimuth (compared to those of underlying Barakar Formation) and overall mudstonedominated lithology. The paucity of well-developed lateral accretion surfaces in the channel sand bodies on the contrary demonstrates rarity of typical meandering channels. Since the crevasse channels develop oblique to the main channels (Smith et al., 1989; Perez-Arlucea and Smith, 1999), the paleocurrent direction measured from smaller sandstone lenses or sheets are expected to show slightly divergent direction and higher dispersion (cf. Figs. 1c and 12). Amalgamation of paleocurrent data from all the sandstone units of both MFA-I and MFA-II will therefore, tend to increase the dispersion value, as observed by Casshyap and Qidwai (1971) leading them to a meandering channel interpretation for Motur Formation. The coarse-grained, sheet sandstone body of the Pench River section (upper sand body in Fig. 10a,b) probably is not consistent with the inferred deposition from anastomosed channels. Coarse grain size, lack of fining-upward internal organisation and amalgamation of sheet-like lithosomes across horizontal bounding surfaces probably represent vertically stacked sandstone units deposited by shallow, wide braided channels. We infer the causative mechanism to be high magnitude flood that resulted in high-velocity shallow, wide flow carrying a heavy load of pebbly coarse-grained sand. Rarity of such sandstone units within the Motur Formation of the study area indicates a low frequency of catastrophic flood events in the Motur catchment area.
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5. Discussion Both the Barakar and Motur Formations of the eastern part of the Satpura Basin are alluvial deposits though they differ markedly in facies and alluvial architecture. The alluvial successions of the Barakar Formation are characteristically mud poor and are made up of thick (f20 m) multistoreyed, multilateral sandstone bodies. Individual channel-fill units are up to 5 m thick and more than few hundred metres wide in flow transverse sections. In contrast, Motur channel-fill sandstone units are thinner (usually 1 2 m), and occur as isolated sand bodies enveloped by red mudstone. Decreasing interconnectedness of the channel-fill sandstone bodies along with an increasing proportion of floodplain fines, as displayed by Barakar and Motur Formations, have often been explained in terms of increased rate of basin subsidence (Blakey and Gubitosa, 1984; Kraus and Middleton, 1987; Bristow and Best, 1993). However, climatic changes can also produce remarkable effects on river channel patterns and are thus capable of effecting major changes in the architectural pattern of the resultant deposits (Pedley and Frostick, 1999; Blum and Tornqvist, 2000). In the following, we shall examine the evidences of allogenic factors that might have influenced changing facies and architecture across the Barakar and Motur Formations. Since there has been no report of marine strata in the study area, we assume that eustatic base level did not exert any tangible control on the depositional pattern of the sedimentary succession under investigation. Therefore, the major factors that might have controlled the large-scale architecture of the alluvial deposits were climate and tectonism. Coal and calcretes form in exclusive climatic conditions. Coal formation is favoured by a humid climate with rainfall distributed throughout the year and a waterlogged reducing environment. Calcretes, on the other hand, are typical of semi-arid climate characterised by a net moisture deficit with precipitation in the range of 400 600 mm/year, and strongly seasonal pattern of the rainfall (Goudie, 1983; Tandon and Gibling, 1994). Thus, occurrence of grey mudstone and coal in the Barakar Formation indicates climatic regime quite different from that prevailing during the deposition of red mudstone and calcretes of the Motur Formation. It should be noted that Barakar
Formation gradationally overlies glaciogenic deposits of Talchir Formation and is often inferred as periglacial fluvial system. Palynological studies from different Gondwana basins of India also indicate a cold and humid climate for Barakar Formation and warmer climate for Motur and equivalent stratigraphic units (Tiwari, 1996; Veevers and Tewari, 1995). Semi-arid climate, as compared to arid or humid ones, is known to enhance the sediment supply probably through increasing rate of chemical weathering and decreasing vegetation cover (Schumm, 1993). Also the modern day dryland rivers are known for their higher concentration of suspended load, about 20 times more than that of the perennial systems with comparable size of the drainage basin (Reid and Frostick, 1987). A higher proportion of fine-grained sediments in the Motur Formation and its inferred semi-arid climate is consistent with the above two observations from the modern fluvial systems. It has also been documented from the historical records of modern rivers of Arizona that one of the principal ways in which rivers adjust to decreased precipitation is by decreasing their depth and width and an associated increase in the rate of floodplain aggradation (Hereford, 1984). We invoke the same cause and effect relationship to account for the relative decrease in the sandstone body dimension and increase in the proportion of preserved floodplain fines in the Motur Formation. Similar transition from sandy/gravelly deposits of braided streams to sand mud alternation of meandering streams recorded from many Quaternary alluvial deposits has been attributed to climatic changes (Blum and Tornqvist, 2000). It is difficult to assess rate of sedimentation (the proxy for rate of tectonic subsidence) in the absence of well-constrained age data. Examination of the large-scale sedimentary packages in seismic profile often allows correlation of the sedimentation with episodes of tectonic movements (e.g., Ruffel and Shelton, 1999). In the absence of these data, we depend on the evidence observable from outcrop-scale exposures and stratigraphic relationships. The studied sections, however, do not show any features that may indicate increased rate of tectonic subsidence at the Barakar Motur transition. On the contrary, lack of any stratigraphic discordance between the formations and very similar northerly paleocurrent pattern of both the formations argues against any major tectonic event
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in the Satpura Gondwana Basin during Barakar Motur transition. There is no tangible increase in the occurrence of soft sediment deformation features in the Motur Formation, which otherwise might have implied more frequent tectonic movement. Variation in the proportion and interconnectedness of the channel-belt sandstones, occurring over a thickness of several hundred metres, and broadly similar to those observed at Barakar Motur transition, has also been reported from the Miocene Siwalik deposits of northern Pakistan. On the basis of available palynological data that suggest persistence of tropical monsoonal climate throughout the deposition of the Siwalik Group, Zaleha (1997a) attributed the changes in alluvial architecture to the megafan lobe switching driven by tectonic and autocyclic processes. In a later study, Friend et al. (2001), however, suggested that the climatic control for such changes could not be ruled out altogether from the field evidences. More importantly and in contradiction to the prevalent notion, they pointed out that decreasing proportion of mud and increasing interconnectedness of the sandstone storeys at the Chinji Nagri transition coincide with the increasing (not decreasing) rate of sedimentation (a proxy to basin subsidence) as calculated from wellconstrained magnetic reversal chronology of the Siwalik succession. Similar changes of alluvial architecture and associated changing sand/mud ratio from many Neogene or Quaternary successions, where allogenic controls are better constrained, have been attributed to climatic and not tectonic changes (Smith, 1994; Blum and Tornqvist, 2000). The case studies discussed here and many more suggest that the hypothesis that assigns tectonic processes as the sole allogenic control for changing alluvial architecture is not supported by current research. In the Satpura Gondwana basin, sedimentological evidences suggest marked climatic shift at the Barakar Motur transition. This interpretation is strongly supported by regional palynological studies. On the other hand, there is no independent evidence of increased rate of tectonic subsidence at this time. Although definitive correlation of the architectural changes to specific allogenic forcing mechanisms would require more data, our investigation strongly suggests that the changing facies and alluvial architecture across Barakar Motur Formations were driven by climatic changes.
6. Conclusions (a) The upper part of the Barakar Formation in the eastern part of the Satpura Gondwana Basin is characterised by alternating thick, coarse-grained, multistoreyed channel sandstones and laterally extensive coal carbonaceous shale units. In contrast, overlying Motur Formation is characterised by thinner, isolated channel sandstones embedded in a thick succession of red mudstone. (b) Available sedimentological evidence suggests episodic reorganisation of the Barakar alluvial plain to an extensive peat-accumulating swamp. Tectonic movement of the basin floor probably controlled alternation of braidplain and muddy wetlands. Periods of higher subsidence favoured development of peat swamps, whereas periods of quiescence coincided with the progradation of the braided alluvial system across the basin. (c) Presence of coal in the Barakar Formation and presence of calcretes in the Motur Formation indicate marked shift in climate from humid to semi-arid at the Barakar Motur transition. (d) By analogy to modern fluvial systems, increased proportion of mudstone, decreased thickness of the channel sandstone bodies and their isolated nature in the Motur Formation, are attributed to increasing climatic aridity and adjustment of the fluvial system to such changes. (e) Lack of independent evidence of changing rate of tectonic subsidence during Barakar Motur transition and evidence of climatic shift during the same period are construed to indicate climatic influence in establishing contrasting fluvial style and markedly different alluvial architectural pattern across the Barakar Motur transition.
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the General Managers of Kanhan and Pench Valley Coalfields of Western Coalfield Limited for permission to work in the different open cast mines in this area. We are thankful to S. Bandyopadhyay who encouraged us to take up this work. We are grateful to P. Ghosh for his invaluable assistance during fieldwork and help in identifying the paleosols in the Motur Formation. We also thank S.N.
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Sarkar, S. Chakraborty and Sanjoy Ghosh for help during the field work. A.K. Das drafted the line drawings. We gratefully acknowledge the infrastructural facilities provided by Indian Statistical Institute, and financial assistance received from the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi (Grant no. ESS/ 23/VES/072/99) for the research work. The earlier version of the manuscript benefited from the critical comments from C. Chakraborty, P. Ghosh and S.N. Sarkar. Thoughtful comments by Timothy Cross and Chris Fielding and Chief Editor Andrew Miall helped improve the manuscript considerably.
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S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

S. Ray, T. Chakraborty / Sedimentary Geology 151 (2002) 243271

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