INTRODUCTION

Coal is an organoclastic sedimentary rock, composed essentially of lithified plant debris. The initial sediment formed by this process is a moist, spongy material called peat, but this becomes compressed, dried and modified in both texture and composition due to diagenesis associated with burial and tectonic activity. The amount of coal produced each year, with growth at a constant rate, can be expressed by the equation :

where X is the amount of coal produced in the year occuring N years from the end of the present or initial year and R is the annual percentage rate of increase in coal production. The total life of the recoverable reserves can be calculated, according to Meadows et al (1974), from the following formula :

Where N is the life of the reserves in years (the exponential index) and S is the life of the same reserves if the initial rate of production were to be maintained with no growth at all. The value of S can be calculated by dividing the recoverable reserves by the initial production rate. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF COAL This type of analysis is only attempted as part of a detailed research investigation. For most practical purposes, the general nature of these materials can be evaluated by a combination of two sets of analytical data : a. Proximate analysis,,,,this gives the relative amounts of light organic compounds (volatile matter), as opposed to non-volatile organic material. This type analysis also gives the amount of moisture in the coal, and a measure of the inorganic components, left as a residue or ash when the coal is burned. b. Ultimate analysis,,,,,this determines the total amount of each of the principal chemical elements in the coal : carbon, hydrogen, axygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. Sampling of coal face An in situ exposure of a coal seam in a mine or outcrop is normally sample along a line running perpendicular to the bedding planes. The sample may be taken by one of the following methods : a. Pillar sampling This involves taking a continuous rectangular block of coal, extending the upper and lower bedding planes marking the limits of the interval in question. Pillar sample are very time

consuming to obtain, as well as dificult to handle, and are seldom used except for detailed research work. b. Strip or channel sampling This involves cutting a channel or groove into the coal face, and collecting all of the pieces removed on a clean plastic sheet at the base of the exposure. Moisture The moisture in a coal may occur in four possible forms : Surface moisture Hygroscopic moisture Decomposition moisture Mineral moisture

Apart from chmical analysis, the commercial evaluation of a coal also involves the determination of a number of its physical properties. These include the relative density, and for sample of broken coal, the particle size distribution. Relative density (or, less corectly, the spesific gravity) of coal depends on the rank of the material and the degree of mineral impurity. Knowledge of the relative density of each ply is necessary for the preparation of composite samples representing larger intervals of the seam. It is also an essential factor in conversion of coal reserves from units of volume to units of mass. Particle siza distribution is the distribution of particle size in a broken coal depends on the mining, crushing, and handling processes it has undergone, together with the hardness, tenacity, and degree of fracturing in the material itself. Float sink testing as well as being of different sizes, the particle in a mass of broken coal are of different relative density.

Mineral matter in coal The minerals found in bituminous coals are chiefly silicates, carbonates, sulphides, sulphates and other species such as phosphates.

The total amount of mineral matter can be evaluated from a series of normative calculation based on the coals ash content and other chemical properties. Several such methods exist, the most comprehensive of which is the King-Maries-Crossley or KMC formula (King et al 1936).

Where MM= percentage mineral matter, A = percentage Ash, CO2 = percentage carbonate CO2, Spyr = percentage pyritic sulphur, Sso4 = percentage sulphate sulphur, Cl = percentage chlorine (all in airdried coal), and

Mineral matter forms a significant part of nearly all coals, and must be considered in assessing a particular deposit for utilization. Knowledge of the amount and composition af the mineral matter is also important for many types of coal classification. a. b. c. d. Storage and handling Combustion Carbonization and liquefaction Coal classification

Reporting of coal analysis Most analyses of coal are carried out on air-dried samples, and the percentage of the various constituents calculated in proportion to the mass of that material. The most commonly used bases for reporting of analytical results are indicated : a. b. c. d. e. As received or as sampled Air dried Dry or moisture free Dry ash free Dry, mineral matter free

Coal classification For most geological purpose, the rank and type of the coal, as determinated by petrographic methods, and a number of schemes have been drawn up to classify coal for academic and industrial purpose. a. Seyler classification it is based on the percentag e of the carbon and hydrogen present in the coal, calculated to a dry, mineral-matter free basis. b. A.S.T.M. classificataion it is based on two fundamental properties of practical significance, the fix carbon content and the calorific value. c. International coal classification, this classification system uses a series of numbers to give summary of the coals chemical and physical characteristics. d. Australian standard coal classification, the method used for classification of Australian hard coals. e. National coal board classification, the classification derived by the National Coal Board of the United Kingdom uses a three-figure numerical code to classifi bituminous coals and anthracites on the basis of their volatile content and cooking properties.

Coal petrology and petrographic analysyis The petrology of coal may be studied at either a megascopic or a microscopic scale. From a megascopic point of veiw, coal may be classified into two broad group, the banded or humic coals, and the non-banded (massive) or sapropelic coals. Lithotypes in banded bituminous coals, a large part of the terminology used in coal petrology as derived from the work of Stope (1919): a. b. c. d. Vitrain Clarain Durain Fusain

Lithotypes in sapropelic bituminous coals, the two major types of sapropelic coal are cannel coal, composed largely of spores or fine organoclastic detritus and boghead coal composed largerly of algal material. Coal maceral in Stopes-Heerlen system are classified into three groups on basis of their physical appearance, chemical characteristics and biological affinities.

Lignites and sub-bituminous coal have physical and chemical properties which seem to set them apart from coal of higher rank. Many petrographers therefore believe they can better characterize these low rank coals with a special maceral classification rather than constrain themselves with the system described above that is traditionally used for hard coals. They are organized into three subgroups, namely humotelinite, humodetrinite, and humocollinite, which represent a series of coarsegrained, fine grained, and colloidal size particles of humic materials, respectively. Reflectance measurement made with the precision required for coal rank determination are generally carried out by comparing the amount of light reflected from the maceral concerned to the amount of light reflected from a standard substance under the same illumination conditions. The reflectance can be calculated from the following formula : Where R = reflectance of the coal maceral, Rs = refelctance of calibration standard, A= deflection of galvanometer, As = deflection of galvanometer for the calibration satndard. The relationship between reflectance (R) and the other optical properties of both the reflecting material and the immersion medium can be expressed by Beers equation as follow : Where n= refractive index of reflecting material, k = absorption index of reflecting material, and n1 = rfractive index of medium in which the measurement is made. Aplications of reflectance measurements : a. b. c. d. Reflectance profiles Isoreflectance maps Interpretation of stress patterns Generation of petroleum hydrocarbons

Coal Utilization Coal is used mainly as either a fuel for electric power generation or as a raw material for the manufactire of metallurgical coke. Significant amount are also used for cement manufacture and a wide range of indutrial processes. Historically, the first main use of coal was for combustion, to provide heat for houses and factories. By modern standard, atmospheric pollution resulting from this combution was very severe. Carbonization and coke manufacture Ccoke is the solid residue that remains when coal is heated out of contact with air until a substantial part of the volatile constituents have been driven off. Comparison of coal properties and coke properties : a. Ash b. Sulphur and phosphorus c. Volatile matter

Physical properties of coke It is common for many different coals to be used in coke oven feeds, and it is necessary to select the correct mass ratios of each component, whose individual properties are known, in order to produce a coke of the desired specification. Estimation of the physical properties of coke from the chemical, petrographic, and caking properties of the component coals is a difficult task, especially when dealing with new coals, and for thhis reason experimental cokes, produced in pilot ovens, are tested wherever possible. a. b. c. d. Measurement of coke strength Reactivity Fissures Oven operation and coke strength

Penggunaan lainnya untuk Gasification Liquefaction

Efect of handling and exposure on coal properties # coal oxidation and weathering # spontaneous combustion of coal, from a practical viewpoint, three aspect are significant in oxidation and spontaneous combustion of coal in stokpiles : Particle size Temperature Oxygen concentration

Geology of Coal The processes associated with peat formation, together with the physical and chemical properties of coal and non-coal srata at different stages of rank advance, are responsible for the development of a number of unusual geological features in and around coal seams. Coal seams may range from beds of homogeneous character in a vertical sense to units with well-defined lithologic layering. The individual layers may consist of coal of different type, or of various classes of non-coal material, and where present these can be used to divide the seam into smaller units called benches or plies, significant layers of non-coal material within the seam are known as bands or partings. Them such as clay band and dirt band are sometimes used to describe the lithology of the material, while terms such as penny band are used to indicate thickness. Coal may be formed in areas that range from relatively stable intracratonic basins and platforms to tectonically active regions, principally those described by reading(1978) as late orogenic basins, associated with mountain building processes. Intracratonic areas are dominated by epeirogenic process, often with the sediment source located some distance from the depositional site. Relatively thin coal-bearing sequences are usually built up, but the effects of transgressions and regressions extend over wide areas and laterally persistent coal seam may be formed in coastal environment.

Coalfield Exploration A programme of geological exploration for coal usually has one of two possible objective : a. To find an area from which a given amount of coal of a spesific quality may be successfully recoverd, or b. To determine the amount and quality of coal that can be economically extracted from a given area. Geological exploration for any class of material, including coal, is based very heavily on investigations carried out in the field. The preparation are : 1. Legal apect of coal exploration 2. Literature survey In the course of the literature survey, and even more so in the succeding phases of the exploration programme, it is necessary to compile items of geologic data on to an appropriate base map. Geological mapping, at scale appropiate to the aims of the project, is a necessary starting point for the field work of nearly all exploration programmes. The technique used is such a study clearly depend on the nature of the area under investigation. Where the area has already been reliably mapped in detail, it may be sufficient to compile all axisting data on to base map, and use field work only to check on inconsistencies or point of detail. Together with the result of field mapping, the data from these techniques can be used to draw up the most appropiate drilling programme to further test the value of the deposit. Geophysical methods may also be used in conjunction with this drilling. The geophysical methods can be used are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gravity methods Magnetic method Electrical resistivity Electromagnetic methods Seismic reflection

Field mapping and geophysical studies can provide valuable data on the geological setting of the deposit, and allow the location and extent of individual seams in the subsurface to be delineated with some degree of precision in favourable circumstances. Exploratory drilling may be directed towards the recovery of core samples of coal and non-coal strata for detailed lithologic desciption, analytical studies and geotechnical testing, or towards recovery of broken fragments or cutting of the materials penetrated. Coal Mining Geology The two basic methods of extracting coal are surface mining involving excavation from ground level to the coal bed over the whole of the area to be worked, and undergound mining where excavation in the seam are jointed by only narrow openings to the surface. For present purpose, however, this wide variety of technique is divede into two main methods as follows : a. Strip mining

Where the material above the seam, known as the overburden, is emplaced directly from the digging equipment used to remove it from the ground, in area immediately adjacent to the working face. This process is known as direct back-casting. b. Open-pit mining Wjere the overburden is moved from the face to an emplacement site some distance away by an intermediate haulage or transportation process. Despite the advantage offered by open-cut techniques, most of worlds coal resources are located at depths that can only be worked by underground methods. They are : 1. 2. 3. 4. Bord and pillar mining Longwall mining Shortwall mining Hydraulic mining

The principal geological factors to be considered for bord and pillar mining are as followes : a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Seam thickness Coal strength Roof an floor characteristics Seam gases Seam dip Seam depth Surface subsidence

The principal geological factors that can affect the succes of a longwall operation iclude the following : a. b. c. d. e. f. Seam thickness Seam floor Working roof Strata dip Seam discontimuities Surface subsidence

Even before mining, the strata below the ground surface are subject to a stress, brought about by factors such as : 1. The weight of overlying rock 2. Tectonic stresses in the earths crust 3. Residual stresses, or remnants of pre-existing stress patterns Methods of measuring subsurface stress patterns : 1. 2. 3. 4. Overcoring Flatjack Hydraulic fracturing Core discing

Three types of movement are involved at the ground surface, these are : a. Subsidence b. Ground slope changes c. Strain in the surface layer

Coal Preparation and marketing Assesment of properties for coal preparation 1. Sampling Sampling is one of the most fundamental aspect of the planning, design, and assessment of coal preparation processes. 2. Assessment of properties There are a number of different reason for sampling in conjunction with coal preparation processes in order to assess the properties of any coal or refuse materials. 3. Size distribution Size distribution characteristics are usually presented graphically, and the most popular plots give an approximatelly linear relationship. 4. Float-sink testing In the majority of coal preparation processes, the actual cleaning operation is based on the differences in relative density between the various particles, and therefore float-sink testing to determine the distribution according to relative density is of major imporance. The mass of sample taken for float-sink testing depends on the number of size fractions and relative density fractions ultimately required. 5. Efficiency of separation The efficiency of separation is determined by plotting the partition coefficient against the nominal or mean relative density for each relative density range. 6. Froth flotation testing Froth flotation is a technique widely used in the processing of finely ground metallic ores, but it is also applied to cleaning the finer fractions in a coal preparation plant. 7. Bore core evaluation The evaluation of coal preparation characteristics from bore core samples is a particularly important subject, as such samples provide the most comprehensive basis for assessing coal quality in an area that has yet to be mined, and for assessing any variations over this area. Several methods of coal peparation : a. Jigs Their name comes from the upward and downward or jigging movement of the water involved in their operation. b. Heavy medium baths Although not used to the same extent as jigs, a variety of heavy medium baths are also employed in coarse coal cleaning operations. c. Cyclones

As well separating particles on the basis of size, the principles of cyclone operation described in are also used for the separation of particles on the basis of density. d. Cylindrical separators e. Tables f. Miscellaneous units After preparation, coal may be transported to the end consumer by a wide variety of methods. These include : a. b. c. d. e. f. Conveyor belt Road haulage Rail haulage Barge Pipeline Ship

Coal with a wide range of qualities are produced around the world, and as with any field of marketing. The markets available are normally considered under the following three categories : Cooking Fuel Conversion and miscellaneous

The following cooking and caking test are generally considered in the countries that represent potential international markets for coking coals : a. b. c. d. e. f. Crusible swelling number or free swelling index Gray-king coke type Plastometer indices Dilatometer indices Roga index Petrographic characteristics (maceral composition and vitrinite reflectance)

The chemical test most commonly requested for fuel coals are as follows : a. b. c. d. e. f. Total moisture content Air dried analyses Ultimate analyses Analysis of ash constituents Forms of sulphur Trace element analyses

Coal and Environment Once exploration results indicate the possibility of a viable mining operation, the coal geologist is normally required to prepare a preliminary draft environmental report. This report follow are:

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Objective Description of coal resource Existing mining operations Description of the proposed mine Labour requirement Storage and transport system

Once a coal prospect looks encouraging enough to proceed to a mine feasibility study, base data collection for a complete environmental assessment should also be commenced. a. b. c. d. Climatic data Hydrological data Noise level evaluation Dust level assessment

Once a representative picture is compiled of the geology, the coal reserves, the relevant environmental characteristics and basic environmental data, and a preliminary mine plan has been drawn up, environmental planning in relation to water, air, noise, waste, and rehabilitation aspect of the mine developmant can be commenced. a. b. c. d. e. Water quality control Noise control Subsidence Coal refuse disposal revegetation