Contents

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Introduction xix

Part I: What Is a Geographic Information System? 1

1 How Does a GIS Work? 3

The Fundamental Flow of Information 3

Geography and Geographic Data 5

Georeferencing 8
Queries: Locations and Attributes 8

Geoprocessing 9
Spatial Analysis 11

Geographic Information 12

2 Why Use a GIS? 15

Discerning Your Need for GIS 16

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viii Geographic Information Systems Demystified

Common GIS Products and Bi-Products 17

Database Management Systems 19

Quality Assurance, Six Sigma, and GIS 25

Project Visibility and Popularity 26

Benefits, Cost Savings, and Automation 27

3 The Structure of Geographic Data 29

Raster and Vector Data Structures 29

Vector Feature Geometry 31
Raster Image Structures 34
Topology 35
GIS Attribute Tables and Indices 38

4 Geospatial Metadata 41

What Is Metadata? 42

Geospatial Metadata and GIS 43

Metadata Schemata, Element Sets, and Syntax 45
Geospatial Metadata Standards 48
Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata 50
Dublin Core Metadata Element Set 51
European CEN Metadata Standard 53
Australian Government Locator Service Metadata
Element Set 54
The UK GEMINI Discovery Metadata Standard 54
Executive Orders 12906 and 13286 55
The National Spatial Data Infrastructure 56

Geospatial Metadata Clearinghouses and

Publishing Resources 57
 Contents ix

Part II: Geodesy, Earth Models, and Coordinate Systems 59

5 The Basics of Geodesy and Scale 61

What Is Geodesy? 61

Understanding Map Scale 65

Simple Map Scale Calculations 67
Scale and Accuracy 67
Geographic Data Generalization 69

6 The Ellipsoid 73

History of the Earth Model 74

Shape of the Earth 75

Mathematical Model of the Earth 77
Typical Earth Shape Calculation 81
WGS84 Constants 81
Reference Ellipsoids 82

7 The Horizontal Datum 85

What Is a Geodetic Datum? 86

Primary Types of Geodetic Datums 87
Standard Horizontal Datums 89
World Geodetic System 1984 89
International Terrestrial Reference Frame 90
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 91
North American Datums of 1927 and 1983 92
European Datum 1950 93

Horizontal Datum Transformation Models 94

The Molodensky Datum Transformation Method 95
The Bursa-Wolf Transformation Method 96

Horizontal Grid Transformation Methods 99

The North American Datum Conversion 99
x Geographic Information Systems Demystified

The High Accuracy Reference Network 100

Canadian and Australian National Transformations 100
Reference 101

8 The Vertical Datum 103

Mean Sea Level and the Geoid 104

The Geoid-Ellipsoid Separation 106

Standard Vertical Datums 107

Earth Gravitational Model of 1996 107
GEOID03 and Predecessors 108
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 108
North American Vertical Datum of 1988 109
Vertical Datum Transformation Methods 110

9 The Map Projection 113

The Physicality of the Earth 113

Scale Reduction: From the Ellipsoid to the Globe 116
Transformation from the Globe 116
What Is a Map Projection? 117
The Grapefruit Peel Experiment 119
Choosing a Map Projection 120
Types of Map Projections 122
The Cylindric Type 122
The Conic Type 122
Planar Type 124
The Aspect of Projection 125
Classification of Map Projections 126
Equidistant Projections 128
Azimuthal Projections 128
Equal-Area Projections 129
Conformal Projections 130
Distortion 132
 Contents xi

Distortion Type 132

Distortion Magnitude, Distribution, and Overall Effect 132
The Tissot Indicatrix 133

Methods for Distortion Management 136

Redistribution of the Scale Factor 136
Changing Projection Aspect 137
Other Successful Methods 137

10 The Coordinate System 139

What Is a Coordinate System? 139

The Geographic Coordinate System 140
The Cartesian Coordinate System 142
Universal Transverse Mercator 145
The Universal Polar Stereographic 147
The State Plane Coordinate System 148
Coordinate System Implementation in GIS 150

Part III: GIS Applications and Environments 153

11 Thematic Mapping 155

The Need for Thematic Mapping 156

Manipulating Thematic Layers 157

Types of Thematic Maps 159
Choropleth Maps 160
Graduated Symbol Maps 161
Dot Density Maps 162
Isopleth Maps 163
Mapping Data, Classification, Portrayal,
and Distinction 165
Counts, Rates, and Densities 165
Data Classification 166
Projection and Scale 167
Legends, Color, and Symbols 167

Common Cartographic Elements 168

xii Geographic Information Systems Demystified

12 GIScience, Engineering, and Related Applications 173

Using GIS for Technical Applications 173

GIScience: Principles and Applications 174

Case Study: Using GIS to Study Relationships
Between Bedrock Geology and Subtle Topography 174
Engineering Applications 175
Case Study: New Jersey Natural Gas Transmission
Line Property Delineation 176

Marketing and Financial Applications 177

Case Study: Analyzing the Rapid Closure of a
Cincinnati-Based Office Depot 178

13 GIS and the Environment 181

Using GIS for Environment Applications 181

Managing Natural Resources 182
Case Study: Lebanon Natural Resources Management
with Participatory GIS 183
Case Study: Community-Based Natural Resource
Management Program in Namibia 184
Environmental Investigation and Remediation
Applications 185
Case Study: Illinois Underground Storage Tank
Monitoring and Inspection Program 186
Case Study: The USEPA’s Disaster Dioxin
Air-Monitoring GIS System 186
Shoreline Management Systems 187
Case Study: The Coosa/Warrior Shoreline Management
GIS—Alabama Power Co. 188

Other Environmental Applications 188

14 GIS and the Public 191

A Public Need for Information 191

Managing Public Health and Safety 192

 Contents xiii

Case Study: Detailing Areas at High Risk for Elderly

Fall Injuries to Enhance Injury Prevention Programs
in Alberta, Canada 193

Disaster: Planning, Response, and Recovery 194

Transportation and Information 195
Case Study: Portland’s TriMet Transit Tracker Online 196
Homeland Security’s Third Eye 196
Public Education Applications 197
Redefining Public Policy 199
Case Study: Public Policy Education in Gaston
County, North Carolina 200

15 Getting Started with GIS—An Overview of

Environments, Tools, and Data 201

Getting Yourself Up and Running with GIS 201

Leading For-Purchase GIS Environments 202
GRASS and Other Free GIS Environments 205

GIS Component Software 208

Geospatial Data Clearinghouses 210

Afterword 213

Appendix A: Reference Ellipsoid Parameters 219

Appendix B: Worldwide Geodetic Datums 223

Glossary 233

Bibliography 249

About the Author 259

Index 261