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Theoretical Perspectives on Gender

The Nature of Scientific Theories

Theory: Organizes and explains observations of various phenomena Hypotheses

Testable predictions Provides ability to falsify theory

Theoretical Constructs about Gender

Gender identity Gender role Gender stereotypes Sexual orientation

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Characteristics of Good Theory

Criterion Clarity Completeness Coherence Description Theory clearly presents principles, constructs, and other important elements. Theory sufficiently explains the phenomenon of interest. Theoretical components and constructs are not contradictory, but contribute to a meaningful whole. Parsimony A simpler theory is superior to one that contains a larger number of principles, constructs, or assumptions. Testability Theoretical hypotheses are testable and generate additional researchable hypotheses. Diversity Theory is applicable to a number of diverse populations and experiences.

Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory

Structure of human mind, personality

Id Ego Superego

Ego ideal Conscience

Stages of Personality Development

PreOedipal stages (identical)

Oral stage (id) Anal stage (ego)

Phallic stage (superego) Latency stage Genital stage

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Resolution of Phallic Stage: Boys

Sexual attraction toward mother

Hostility toward father

Castration anxiety

Identification with father

Outcome Masculine identification Strong superego Contempt for women

Resolution of Phallic Stage: Girls

Sees self as inferior Penis envy Blames mother Desire to give birth replaces penis envy Reforges feminine identification

Desire for child

Sexual attraction to father

Father unattainable

Outcome Feminine identification Masochism Concern with sexual attractiveness Desire for child Sense of inferiority Contempt for women Weak superego

Evaluation of Freuds Theory

Accepts childhood sexuality Accepts homosexuality, bisexuality as natural (though not typical) outcomes Phallocentric Difficult to subject to empirical testing

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Horneys Feminine Psychology

Moved from biological inferiority to cultural and social factors that devalue women Reconceptualized penis envy as womb envy Gynocentric Foundation for feminist psychoanalytic theory Addressed homosexuality Advocated cross-cultural research Not subject to empirical testing

Chodorows Feminist Psychoanalytic Theory

Fusion: Childhood identification and socialcultural factors Mens sphere (public) and womens sphere (private) Powerful emotions directed toward primary caregivers (women) Process of individuation at ages 3-5

More difficult for boys Involves maternal devaluation

Evolutionary Theories

Darwinian principles

Members of species compete for resources Individual differences in variability (variability hypothesis) Success in reproduction evidence of fitness

Through process of natural selection adaptive attributes becomes more common in gene pool

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Evolutionary Theories

Parental investment theory

Sex differences in parental investment Differential parental investment results in different sexual strategies Evolution of attributes that provide reproductive advantage Intra/intersexual competition Again result in different sexual strategies

Sexual selection theory

Evolutionary Theories (contd)

Strategic pluralism theory

Desirable males opt for short-term mating strategies; undesirable males opt for long-term (or not at all) Women likely to benefit from either short-term or long-term mating

Age Fertility Personal circumstancdes

Evaluation of Evolutionary Theories

Considers gender roles to result from biological x environmental interaction Critics say circular reasoning, neglect role of culture Whereas considerable cross-cultural difference supportive, reanalysis of data fail to be supportive

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Social Role Theories

Eaglys Social Role Theory

Gender roles result of physical sex differences x sexual division of labor Status/power differentials favor men and boys Gender roles based on gender stereotypes learned through experience

Female: communal Male: agentic

Eaglys Social Role Theory Model

Sexual Dimorphism Sexual Division of Labor, Gender Hierarchy Social Structure Socialization: Gender Roles Gender Stereotypes Gendered Behavior

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Evaluation

As women enter the workforce, gender roles become more nontraditional (Diekman, Eagly, Mladinic, & Ferreira, 2005) Gender differences in mate preferences only among women and men who endorse traditional gender roles (Eastwick, et al., 2006) Evolutionary psychologists argue neglect role of evolution, sexual strategies

Plecks Gender Role Strain Paradigm

Emphasis on sociocultural factors that define gender roles Nature of gender roles: contradictory and inconsistent Violation of gender roles leads to personal/interpersonal consequences

Consequences/Examples of Gender Role Strain

Work versus home roles Consequences of role violation more severe for males Some aspects of roles psychologically dysfunctional

Nonexpression of emotion Extreme passivity, nonassertiveness in relationships

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Results of Male Gender Role Discrepancy

Discrepancy results from failure to conform to gender roles Hypermasculinity: example of overconformity Masculinity ideologies: internalization of male gender role

Achievement motivation Risky behaviors Emotional control Antifeminity/homophobia

Evaluation

Though Pleck argues for diversity in masculinities, critics assert focus on European American middle class Basis of considerable research on adolescent boys high-risk behaviors and substance abuse Little cross-cultural research, but some research with American multi-ethnic samples

Social-Cognitive Theories

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Kohlbergs Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Based on Piagetian model

Invariant, universal stages Age-graded due to maturation x experience

Gender identity (age 3-4 years) Gender constancy (age 4-6 years) Gender stereotypes develop over age

Valued due to gender identity Become more flexible with age Regulate childrens behavior

Evaluation

Studies show gender stereotypes emerge between 18-24 months of age

Habituation studies Childrens ability to match toy w/gender Sex-segregated play, attitudes toward sissies, tomboys

Developmental sequence established through research but less evidence constructs necessarily related to behavior

Social Learning Theory

Special case of basic theory

Modeling Imitation Reinforcement Punishment

Contingencies based upon gender of child and model

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Reciprocal Model (Bussey & Bandura, 1999)

Personal Factors Biological influences Gender stereotypes Personal values Personal standards Personal beliefs Self-efficacy

Behavioral Factors Gender-related behaviors (e.g., chores, play, parenting, etc.)

Environmental Factors Social institutions Culture Media Home environments Play environments

Sources of Influence

Modeling

Abstract content of gender roles Situations in which gender roles appropriate Develop gender stereotypes Imitate same-sex models, if behavior appropriate for situation

Reinforcement and punishment Self-regulation of behaviors emerge as child matures

Process of Self-Regulation

Self-monitor Observe reactions of others Evaluate self Adjust/modify behavior Importance of self-efficacy

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Environmental Influences

Parental encouragement of gendered play Media Division of chores in family Sex-segregated play, behavior of peers

Evaluation

Supported by huge number of research studies Useful in addressing cross-cultural differences and similarities Acknowledges active role of child, life-long process of acquisition Critics argue fails to consider development of cognitive skills

Bems Gender Schema Theory

Schemas cognitive structures that are employed in information processing

Direct attention Facilitate recall Facilitate information processing (speed and organization)

Gender schemas specialized Sex typing gender schemas become associated with self-concept

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Bem (1981)

Two related studies

Recall of masculine, feminine, neutral words Categorizing of masculine, feminine neutral words (like me vs. not like me)

Sex-typed participants clustered more words on recall test Sex-typed participants responded faster on sex-congruent than sex-incongruent words

More Recent Research

Aschematic individuals versus schematic individuals

Similar responses found for same-sex typed and other-sex typed individuals (schematic) Androgynous and undifferentiated participants aschematic Study of who said what? (Frable & Bem, 1985)

If you are gender schematic, all members of the opposite sex look alike

Evaluation

Gender schema (like stereotypessimilar concepts) develop as early as 18-24 months

Habituation studies Identification studies (pointing out to researcher)

Some (but not consistent) cross-cultural support Critics assert that we see little relationship between gender schema and behavior

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