vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i
Lembar Pengesahan ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii
Motto and Dedication ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
Acknowledgment ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v
List of Contents ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
List of Figures, Tables, and Schemes ----------------------------------------------------------------- xi
Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Background ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
Problem Statements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Research Objectives -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Significances ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Scope--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE --------------------------------------- 9
Overview of Approaches in Language Teaching and Learning --------------------------------- 9
1. The Structuralism-Behaviorism Approach ------------------------------------------------------- 10
2. The Structuralism-Mentalism Approach --------------------------------------------------------- 13
3. The Functionalism Approach ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
4. The Constructionism Approach ------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Positivistic Paradigm in Language Teaching and Learning Approaches -------------------- 21
Language Acquisition and Language Learning --------------------------------------------------- 26
1.

Aspects of Language Acquisition ---------------------------------------------------------------- 27

1.1. Psychological Aspect of Language Acquisition ------------------------------------------- 27
1.2. Biological Aspect of Language Acquisition ----------------------------------------------- 28
1.3. Social Aspect of Language Acquisition ---------------------------------------------------- 29

2. Hypothesis in Language Acquisition ------------------------------------------------------------- 29

2.1. Tabula Rasa Hypothesis ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
2.2. The Innate Hypothesis ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
2.3. Critical Period Hypothesis -------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

viii

2.4. Universal Stages of Language Development Hypothesis -------------------------------- 30

2.5. Krashen's Five Hypotheses ------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
2.6. Error Correction Hypothesis ----------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.7. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis ------------------------------------------------------------ 33
3. Competences of Language ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
3.1. Linguistic Competence ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33
3.2. Semantic Competence ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
3.3. Pragmatic Competence ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 34
3.4. Sociolinguistic Competence ------------------------------------------------------------------ 35
4. Issues in Language Acquisition ------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
4.1. Competence and Performance --------------------------------------------------------------- 35
4.2. Comprehension and Production ------------------------------------------------------------- 36
4.3. Nature and Nurture ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
4.4. Universals --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
4.5. Systematicity and Variability ---------------------------------------------------------------- 37
4.6. Language and Thought ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 37
4.7. Imitation and Practice ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
4.8. Input --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
4.9. Discourse, Coherence, and Cohesion ------------------------------------------------------- 38
4.10. Interlanguage ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
4.11. Fossilization ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 39
4.12. Interference and Borrowing ------------------------------------------------------------------ 39
4.13. Anxiety in Language Learning -------------------------------------------------------------- 40
5. Conditions of Learning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
5.1. Immersion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
5.2. Demonstration ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
5.3. Expectation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
5.4. Responsibility ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
5.5. Approximation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
5.6. Employment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 43
5.7. Feedback ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
6. Multiple Intelligences ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 44

ix

7. Components of A Course -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45

8. Pedagogical Grammar ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 48
9. Language Skills ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
9.1. Listening Skill ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
9.2. Speaking Skill ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
9.3. Reading Skill ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
9.4. Writing Skill ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 51
10. Issues in Language Learning ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
10.1. Implicit Learning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 51
10.2. Explicit Learning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 52
10.3. Creativity ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
10.4. Learning Focus --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
10.5. Lingualism -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
10.6. Motivation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
10.7. Transfer Processing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
10.8. Language Evolution --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
Critical Perspective of Language Teaching and Learning -------------------------------------- 55
Main Consideration in Critical Language Teaching and Learning: Interchanging Messages
in Dialogue ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
1. Human Communication System ------------------------------------------------------------------ 60
2. Interchanging Messages ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
3. The Message Construction: Codes --------------------------------------------------------------- 63
Paulo Freire and The Critical Turn of Literacy Education -------------------------------------- 66
1. The Life of Paulo Freire ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
2. Freires Conceptual Framework of Literacy Education --------------------------------------- 67
3. Starting Point to Critical Literacy Education: Naming The World -------------------------- 68
Theoretical Framework --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHOD ----------------------------------------------------------- 75
Research Design ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 75
Definition of Key Terms -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78
Data and Data Collection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
Instruments of Collecting Data ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 80

x
Procedures of Data Collection ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
Techniques of Data Analysis --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION -------------------------------------------------- 86
Findings ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
1. Structuralism-Behaviorism Methods of Language Teaching and Learning ---------------- 86
a. Direct Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
b. Oral-Situational --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
c. Audio-Lingual ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
d. Total-Physical Response ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
e. Suggestopedia ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 98
2. Structuralism- Mentalism Methods of Language Teaching and Learning ------------------ 103
a. The Lexical Method --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
b. The Silent Way --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
3. Functionalism Methods of Language Teaching and Learning -------------------------------- 112
a. The Communicative Method ----------------------------------------------------------------- 112
b. Natural Hypothesis Method ------------------------------------------------------------------ 117
c. Competency-Based Method ------------------------------------------------------------------ 121
d. Content-Based Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 124
e. Task-Based Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127
4. Constructionism Methods of Language Teaching and Learning ----------------------------- 133
a. Community Language Learning ------------------------------------------------------------- 133
b. Neurolinguistic Programming ---------------------------------------------------------------- 137
c. Multiple Intelligences ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 140
d. Cooperative Learning -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143
5. Discourse Construction on Approaches and Methods ----------------------------------------- 150
6. Freires Critiques on Approaches and Methods ------------------------------------------------ 171
Discussions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ---------------------------------------- 194
Conclusions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 194
Suggestions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 195
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 196
DATA SOURCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 203