Lecture 11 - Functions on Complex Numbers: computing ei

There is a subject in mathematics called Complex Analysis which deals with extending Calculus concepts from functions on the real numbers to functions on the complex numbers. Calculus concepts such as limits, derivatives, integrals, and innite series are extended in appropriate ways to work with complex numbers. Many of the same rules continue to operate. To handle dierential equations ay + by + cy = 0 with characteristic equation ar2 + br + c = 0 that has complex solutions, we will need to study how to extend the function f (t) = et to the complex numbers. For instance how do you compute ei or e3i or e1+2i ? At rst exponentiation made sense only for whole number exponents. Example 1: If n is a positive whole number, then en = e e . . . e.
n times

e3 = e e e 20.09 Next, exponentiation was extended to 0, in such a way that all usual rules of exponentiation held. Example 2: If n = 0, then en = 1. Next, exponentiation was extended to negative numbers in such a way that all usual rules of exponentiation held. Example 3: If n = m is a negative whole number, then en = 1/en . e3 = 1/e3 0.05 Next, exponentiation was extended to rational numbers in such a way to all rules of exponentiation held. b a a/b Example 4: If a/b is a fraction, then e = e . 3 e2/3 = e2 1.95 Next, exponentiation was extended to irrational numbers in such a way that all rules of exponentiation held. Example 5: If r = s.s1 s2 s3 s4 . . . is an irrational number, then er = limn es.s1 ...sn . e = lim{e3 , e3.1 , e3.14 , e3.141 , e3.14159 , . . .} 23.14 Question: How was exponentiation extended to complex numbers? There are various formulas to approximate f (t) = et . 1 )nt Formula 1: et = limn (1 + n 2 3 4 Formula 2: et = 1 + t + t + t + t + + 2! 3! 4! Let us make some calculations using the second formula: e1 = 2.71828 . . . 2 3 1+1+ 1 + 1 2! 3! 2 3 1+1+ 1 + 1 2! 3! 2 3 1+1+ 1 + 1 2! 3! 2 3 1+1+ 1 + 1 2! 3!
4 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/6 + 1/24 = 2.70833 4! 4 5 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/6 + 1/24 + 1/120 = 2.71666 4! 5! 4 5 6 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/6 + 1/24 + 1/120 + 1/720 = 2.71805 4! 5! 6! 4 5 6 7 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/6 + 1/24 + 1/120 + 1/720 + 1/5040 = 2.71825 4! 5! 6! 7!

e1/2 = 1.648721 (1/2)2 (1/2)3 (1/2)4 1 + 1 /2 + + + = 1.64843 2! 3! 4! (1/2)2 (1/2)3 (1/2)4 (1/2)5 1 + 1/2 + + + + = 1.64869 2! 3! 4! 5! (1/2)2 (1/2)3 (1/2)4 (1/2)5 (1/2)6 1 + 1/2 + + + + + = 1.64871 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
1

2 2 3 4 Formally, we call 1 + t + t + t + t + + an innite series and write it mathematically as: 2! 3! 4!

et = The symbol means sum! We calculate

tn n=0 n!

tn n! n=0

2 3 4 n by nding limn 1 + t + t + t + t + + t 2! 3! 4! n!

The functions f (t) = sin(t) and g (t) = cos(t) can also be approximated by innite series! Here is the innite series for sin(t): sin(t) = t t3 t5 t7 t9 (1)n t2n+1 + + + + = 3! 5! 7! 9! (2n + 1)! n=0

Notice that the innite series for sin(t) looks very similar to the innite series for et . The dierence is that the sin(t) series skips all the even powers of t and alternates + with . Let us make some calculations using the innite series for sin(t): sin(1) = 0.84147 3 5 7 9 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 = 1 1/6 + 1/120 1/5040 = 0.84146 3! 5! 7! 9! sin(2) = 0.90929 5 7 9 3 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 = 2 8/6 + 32/120 128/5040 = 0.90793 3! 5! 7! 9! Here is the innite series for cos(t): t2 (1)n t2n t4 t6 cos(t) = 1 + + + = 2! 4! 6! (2n)! n=0 Notice that the innite series for cos(t) also looks very similar to the innite series for et . The dierence is that the cos(t) series skips the odd powers of t and alternates + and . Let us make some calculations using the innite series for cos(t): cos(1) = 0.54030 2 4 6 1 1 + 1 1 = 1 1/2 + 1/24 1/720 = 0.54027 2! 4! 6! We use the formula t2 t3 t4 + + + + 2! 3! 4! to extend the function et to complex numbers. Using this formula preserves all the rules of exponentiation. et = 1 + t + Example:
2 3 4 5 6 7 ei = 1 + i + i + i + i + i + i + i + + 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! How do we compute what complex number this innite sum is equal to? We use the table below which simplies powers of i and innite series for sin(t) and cos(t).

i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 i6 i7 i8 . . .

=i = 1 = i =1 =i = 1 = i =1

ei = 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 + i + i + i + i + i + i + i + + = 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 1 + i 1 i + 1 i 1 + i + + = 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! (1 1 + 1 1 + + ) + i(1 + 1 1 + 1 + +) = 2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7! cos(1) + i sin(1) 0.54 + 0.84i A general calculation gives us the formula: eit = cos(t) + i sin(t) This equation was rst discovered by Euler and it is known as Eulers Formula. Examples: 1. e2i = cos(2) + i sin(2) 0.42 + 0.91i 2. e1+i = e1 ei = e1 (cos(1) + i sin(1)) = e1 cos(1) + ie1 sin(1) 0.20 + 0.31i (We are assuming here that using the innite series for et with complex numbers preserves all the rules of exponentiation!) 3. e23i = e2 e3i = e2 (cos(3) + i sin(3)) = e2 cos(3) + ie2 sin(3) 7.32i 1.04i