Marine Structures 5 (1992) 151-164

Flexible Riser Installation

Douglas R. A. Johnston
Comex 0dK) Ltd, Bucksburn House, Howes Road, Bucksbum, Aberdeen AB2 9RQ, UK

ABSTRACT The purpose of the paper is to define the primary considerations affecting flexible riser installation and to determine further and highlight which areas of product specification may be addressed with a view to improving the economics of installation operations. The paper first defines flexible riser characteristics and identifies the necessary installation hardware prior to providing commentary on the methods of installation. A basic cost model is introduced to illustrate the major cost elements of the installation process. Areas of potential hazard and risk are briefly highlighted and a summary of conclusions is provided. Key words: flexible riser installation, installation methods, bending stiffness, installation economics.

1 INTRODUCTION
The installation of flexible risers presents a series of practical problems, some of which are of sufficient note to be of importance to the designer and to the end user. Their flexibility may easily be brought into question as soon as the installation contractor begins to handle the end product. Without the benefits of the manufacturing plant, machinery and conditions it soon becomes obvious that the material is often far from flexible and that what flexibility it possesses only creates problems for the contractor.
Present address: Comex Norway A/S, Norsea Base, Dusavik, PO Box 549, 4001 Stavanger, Norway. 151 Marine Structures 0951-8339/92/$05.00 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed in Great Britain.

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Whilst the contractor is in the business of overcoming these problems, it is of obvious benefit to all parties that the relevant direct experience be fed back into the design cycle. This then allows the designer, manufacturer and end user to assess and interpret any benefits that may be achievable by alteration in the specification or design parameters. To date, the manufacturers have often been left largely to their own devices and conscience with regard to specification, design and construction. They have expended finance, resources and time in large quantities on the research and development of their products. The end products they have created are considered fit for their purpose by the relevant authorities and end users. The products fill a market requirement and have assisted in pushing forward the technical innovations of subsea developments. The majority of their R&D work is of a confidential and commercially sensitive nature. The installation of the end product is an area in which independent installation contractors have been, and will continue to be, involved, often in association with the manufacturer. It is, however, not immediately apparent that full use is made of the accumulated experiences gained during installation operations. This is not to say that the current end product is in any way deficient or that large scale improvements are possible, only that as part of the expansion of the subject knowledge it is important to consider the products' inherent installation problems.

2 CHARACTERISTICS The detailed specifics of materials and the methods of construction of a flexible riser are not in themselves relevant to the installation operation. They do, however, determine the riser characteristics which govern the methods of installation. Some of these are so basic that the main reason to mention them here is to ensure they are not ignored.

2.1 Length
The continuous length of the riser product is a characteristic of obvious importance. The length required is an outcome of the riser system design for its specific application and will depend intrinsically on the water depth, the motion characteristics of the permanent topside vessel and the design's weather criteria for the site. The length required is therefore normally a physical necessity which is independent of any installation considerations. The riser length affects the overall riser weight and the dimensions of

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the reels and winches necessary. There is no definable maximum limit on the length of riser that can be installed. However, it is self-evident that the shorter the length then the more easily it may be installed. Generally, there would be no anticipated difficulties with a riser length up to 1000 m. Over this length the weight may become a limiting factor, particularly ifa riser system such as a Lazy- or Steep-S is being installed as these will require ancillary mid-water and gravity bases to be carried. The installation time does not increase in direct proportion to the riser length, but it does increase. If multiple riser systems are being installed then the overall installation time will increase dramatically if additional vessel trips are required because of deck loading constraints.

2.2 Diameter
The internal diameter of a riser is effectively a feature of the flow requirements. The external diameter is a design and manufacturing feature necessary for the specified internal diameter and flow requirement. The external diameter is a characteristic which impacts installation in several ways. The riser diameter affects the overall riser weight and the dimensions of reels and winches: this has a bearing on vessel selection. The diameter also affects the weight/unit length, the minimum bending radius and the bending stiffness, all of which are of primary concern to the installation contractor as they dictate the handling characteristics of the riser. Generally, experience indicates that whilst a 6 in (1 in = 25.4 mm) diameter riser is relatively easy to handle, an 8 in may be difficult.

2.3 Weight
The weight/unit length of a flexible riser is determined by the design, materials and construction and is dependent on the diameter required and the service application. The greater the weight/unit length, the more difficult the handling problems associated with overboarding, laydown and pull-in. The overall weight of the complete riser affects deck loading, seafastening and craneage requirements. Generally, any weight-saving possible, either overall or per unit length, will have a consequent benefit towards ease of handling and vessel requirements during installation. Table 1 presents typical weight/unit length values for various diameter risers. The values are dependent on design factors such as service conditions and operating pressures.

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TABLE 1 Typical Values for Flexible Risers Used in Production Systems External diameter (in-) Weight/unit length (kg/m) MBR (m) 4 15 0.70 6 22 1.00 8 75 1.75 10 150 2.10

2.4 Minimum bending radius

The minimum bending radius (MBR) is a primary characteristic of a flexible riser and it is governed by the design, materials and construction of the product. The MBR is a definitive radius to which the riser may be bent without damage. It has been suggested that safety factors should be incorporated and further that a factor of 1.5 should be used for installation purposes except when the riser is to be bent and supported permanently. Table 1 presents typical MBR values for various diameter risers. The MBR of a riser defines the storage drum and winch dimensions necessary. It also controls the dimensions of any gutter used to feed the riser over the deck edge. It is used as a governing criterion for analysis of the catenary and its seabed touchdown point. Effectively, it is the main characteristic that must be monitored during installation operations. A large MBR in excess of 2 m, must be accommodated by design, analysis and careful preparation of the installation procedures. The handling and monitoring requirements increase and the installation time increases. Note that using the suggested safety factor of 1-5 entails the installation contractor attempting to maintain the actual bend radius in excess of 3 m. During laying operations, this is simply a matter of adjusting the parameters of length paid out and/or vessel position. However, during seabed handling operations for pull-in and tie-in, it is difficult if not impossible to ensure that this is maintained.
2.5 Maximum allowable tension

The maximum allowable tension that can be applied to a flexible riser itself is normally so high as to be irrelevant to the installation. However, there may be a lower maximum allowable tension that should not be exceeded for the riser to end fitting connection. Effectively, if the catenary self-weight for the water depth can be applied on the end fitting then this is most unlikely to be exceeded by pull-in loads. Typical values for the actual tensile strength of various riser diameters are given in Table 2 together with their maximum allowable tensions using a safety factor of 2.

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TABLE 2

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Typical Values for Riser Tensile Strength

Riser diameter (in)

4 6 8

Tensile strength (tonnes)

55 79 90

Max. allowable (tonnes)

27.5 39-5 45.0

Tensions during installation operations need to be fully analysed; however, typically for a 6 in riser, being installed in 120 m water depth, these would need to be maintained below 15 tonnes.

2.6 Bending stiffness

The bending stiffness of a flexible riser is a characteristic which has a major impact during installation, particularly on handling operations subsea. It is often not included as standard datum and the information is not always made available to the installation contractor. The bending stiffness affects the lifting and manoeuvring of the riser on the seabed during laydown and during pull-in operations. Typically bending stiff nesses in excess of 90 kN m 2 will result in handling difficulties during laydown, pull-in and tie-in operations.

3 INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT The equipment requirements for the installation of a flexible riser are dictated by the riser characteristics.

3.1 Winches
A suitable main winch is required to safely deploy a flexible riser. It is possible that this may take the form of a base and motor which engages into a separate and removable drum, thus allowing the change out of a whole drum complete with the individual riser stored on that drum. If this is not possible then it is necessary to transfer the riser from a delivery or storage drum on to the main installation winch. A complete riser length will be a considerable weight which will be dependent on its characteristics and the weight of its ancillary end fittings. For a Lazy-S system in a 120 m water depth this will be in the region of 40 tonnes for a 4 in riser and up to 80 tonnes for an 8 in riser.

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With the MBR of a riser being of the order of 1-75 m, and this governing the drum diameter, it can be appreciated that this necessitates a dimensionally large a n d powerful winch. Generally, hydraulic winches are utilised offshore and they will be capable of providing upwards of 15 tonnes line pull at variable speeds up to 25 m/min. Actual laying speeds will be in the region 10-15 m/min. As the flexible riser and pipe market is relatively small, there is a very limited element of choice in the selection of winches. Whilst there may be a requirement to optimise winch design, it is not viewed as economically justified. For safe deployment, it is necessary that the winch be provided with a positive braking mechanism.
3.2 Gutters

In order to deploy safely a flexible riser over the side of a vessel deck it is necessary to utilise a gutter or chute arrangement to lead the riser safely and ensure that a safe bending radius is maintained both over the deck edge and at either side on entry and exit. Depending on the vessel shape, an angle in excess of 90 may be required to be radiused to ensure that the riser does not contact any sharp or sudden edge in the event of the vessel backing up on the catenary.

4 INSTALLATION VESSELS The minimum vessel requirements are dictated by the necessary installation equipment and the riser characteristics.
4.1 Deck space

Flexible riser installation requires a large deck space particularly as it will usually be necessary to carry the various ancillary items that make up the complete riser system, such as a mid-water arch and gravity base structures. The installation winch itself will take up a large area of deck and there must be sufficient area of deck between the winch and the gutter to allow handling and rigging of end fittings and positioning of the riser system ancillary items. Riser systems may easily consist of three or more risers in a single group and these may be required to be installed simultaneously. The deck space requirements can easily stretch the limits of even large

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construction vessels. Effectively, the minimum deck space which would be considered feasible for the majority of operations would be 1000 m 2. With deck space and loading as primary requirements, the semisubmersible construction vessels offer the most viable solution.

4.2 Deck loading

As noted above, the installation vessel may be required to accommodate several complete riser systems on deck and all up deck loadings may be of the order of 700 tonnes. This may also be concentrated over relatively small areas necessitating a deck loading capacity in the region of 5 tonnes/ m 2. Attention must be paid to the positioning of the equipment and the seafastening requirements.

4.3 Craneage
Vessel craneage requirements vary greatly and it is often possible, though not advantageous, to proceed with limited capacity craneage. For an operation requiring installation ofa Lazy-S riser system in a water depth of 120 m or more, a relatively large capacity crane is required. An anticipated rating would be 100 tonnes or more, capable of a single fall operation to the seabed depth and maintaining in excess of 50 tonnes at a radius of 10-15 m from the vessels side. An adequate hoisting speed would be in the order of 10 m/min. Slewing and topping speeds are not critical. Vessel cranes will be used for handling and overboarding operations. It may be necessary to use the crane for lifting and handling drums complete with their spooled riser and this could easily require larger capacity craneage, dependent on available deck space and crane positions.

4.4 Diving capability

The diving capability required for a typical North Sea operation as outlined in Section 3.1 above would be anticipated as a 300 m rated diving system, capable of supporting 16 divers or more and with twin three-man bells. An air diving station would be advantageous to allow for potential shallow water intervention during overboarding operations. Additionally, a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) capability is necessary. An eyeball ROV is adequate but because deck space is at a premium it would be advantageous for the vessel to have a built-in system.

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4.5 Vessel motions

Flexible riser deployment operations will only be carried out in favourable weather conditions with a similar forecast. However, good vessel motion characteristics can increase the weather operating window which can have obvious advantages in the case of rapid and unexpected changes in weather and sea-state. Additionally, seabed pull-in and tie-in operations may be carried out in relatively adverse conditions and the motion characteristics can determine whether the vessel will be operating or on weather downtime. The advantages of a semi-submersible vessel are obvious.
4.6 Positioning

As the installation vessel should be capable of diving operations, this should in itself ensure that an adequate dynamic positioning (DP) system is available. It is extremely advantageous to have a long baseline acoustic array with real time video output in both the vessel DP control room and the dive control station, The output should have all major features on screen including the position of seabed structures.

5 INSTALLATION ANALYSIS A sequential analysis of the riser during critical periods of the installation is necessary to confirm that basic criteria determined from the riser characteristics are being met.
5.1 Criteria

The primary criteria to be monitored during riser installation are: (a) location of the touchdown point; (b) location of the vessel; and (c) length of catenary. These points, together with the riser basic data, will allow full analysis of the riser using standard catenary theory and hence ensure that adequate safety margins can be maintained for both bending radii and tensions.
5.2 Statics or dynamics

The use of standard catenary static analysis is the current practice for determination of geometry and forces during installation.

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Riser installation operations by their nature are limited to extremely good weather conditions in the region of sea-states 1 to 2. Unless a static analysis suggests that the load limits are being approached then the introduction of dynamic analysis does not seem to provide any specific benefits to the operational aspects. However, the time scheduled for the installation should also be taken into account and it may be considered beneficial to incorporate dynamics, particularly when multiple riser systems are being installed. 6 OPERATIONAL METHODS AND CONDITIONS Operational methods are initially defined by experience and analysis against the previously determined background of the riser characteristics and selected installation equipment and vessels. Only a general commentary on operational methods can be presented here and it is to be remembered that operational conditions may necessitate deviation from proposed methods. 6.10verboarding Overboarding of end terminations and ancillary systems such as midwater arches and gravity bases can present relatively complex rigging operations. Most overboarding operations utilise the vessel craneage but ancillary winches and stopper wires are often required. Chinese fingers are used when it is necessary to stop the riser or to attach holdback winches. It is to be noted that Lazy- and Steep-Wave configurations minimise overboarding and rigging requirements and significantly reduce both deployment times and risks associated with overboarding. 6.2 Deployment Deployment of the riser itself is relatively simple, requiring gradual payout of the installation winch in conjunction with vessel positioning. Deployment of the final end termination or other items to the seabed may require diver intervention to monitor final positioning and to derig lifting slings and attachments. 6.3 Pull-ins Subsea pull-in operations may necessitate divers working in adverse conditions of poor visibility and high tidal currents. They are in effect rigging problems which are aggravated by the fact that the lifting and

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moving of the end termination and riser lifted length cause mud movement which may reduce visibility to nil. For Lazy-Wave and Lazy-S riser systems, use of the vessel crane attached to the end fitting is the most commonly used method. Further pull-in wires will be attached to the seabed structure close to the fixed tie-in location, incorporating tirfors, or if necessary run to a surface constant tension winch. Lifting bags may be attached at intervals along the riser length to assist in reducing pull-in tensions and frictional resistance. For the Steep-Wave and Steep-S riser configurations, the riser end connection is required to be pulled down into its seabed riser base connector (RBC). The methods for carrying out this operation have yet to be optimised and have a tendency to exceed the pull-in times for Lazy riser configurations.

6.4 Alignments and tie-in

Final alignment and tie-in of a seabed flange can present one of the biggest and potentially most time-consuming aspects of installation of the Lazy riser configurations. A flexible riser must be laid correctly to the seabed with sufficient but not excess overlength to facilitate pull-in. If this is not the case then the result after pull-in may be significant misalignment of the flanges. It can then require a certain amount of persuasion to enable the flanges to mate successfully, particularly with large diameter flexibles that in practice demonstrate considerable rigidity and resistance to bending. Judicial use of dead man anchors, tirfor lines and lifting bags can be used, but pulling the riser length transversely across the seabed is far from easy as mud build-up will always occur in the area of the touchdown point. In the resulting poor visibility, the diver's spatial reference points disappear and it is impossible to achieve a clear and definite understanding of the riser position. Once alignment has been achieved, the tie-in becomes similar to that of a rigid pipe flange and provided that the access around the flange is easy then the operation can be achieved in a timely manner. For the Steep riser configurations the controlled pull-down to the RBC will positively guide and locate the riser end connection into place eliminating alignment times. 7 INSTALLATION ECONOMICS This section does not aim to provide an indication of the economic merits of subsea production nor to address the relative proportion of

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overall development costs which are attributed to installation. It is rather the intention to define the major cost elements inherent in the installation operation. 7.1 Operational costs Operational costs constitute the major proportion of the total installation cost. Operational costs may be split into various degrees of refinement but essentially consist of the following: (a) vessel costs -- inclusive of vessel day rate, fuel and lube and marine crew; (b) personnel costs -- inclusive of project personnel day rates, individual equipment and victualling; and (c) equipment costs -- inclusive of project specific equipment day rates. Inclusive costs for North Sea operations may be running in excess of 50 000 per day. With operational costs forming 75% of the overall budget there is a substantial incentive to reduce operational times to a minimum. 7.2 Engineering and preparation costs Because of the high costs associated with the operational aspects, it becomes the aim that all engineering and preparation works be targeted at reducing the operational time. Well considered, prepared and presented procedures will do much to reduce overall costs. Preparing the groundwork for logistics, and ensuring that all needs are foreseen prior to the operational requirement, are primary concerns. An increase in engineering resources is easily justifiable even if it results in minor savings in operational time. A smooth operation is a cost-effective operation. 7.3 Comparative costs for riser systems installation It is not possible to provide definitive costs for riser installation operations unless a specific project is fully assessed and this would not greatly assist during the initial design considerations of a project with different design criteria. However, a comparison of the relative costs is given in Table 3 and it is believed that this may prove useful as a guideline for initial cost assessment for the differing types of riser systems. The model is simplistic in approach but could be further refined to incorporate weighting for relative risk and factors to uplift for multiple or group installation.

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D R. A. Johnston TABLE 3 Relative Costs for Riser System Installation Free hanging Lazy-S Lazy-Wave
0-60 1.00 0-60

Steep-S Steep-Wave
1.00 1.00 1.00 0-80 1-00 0-80

Relative vessel days Relative vessel cost/day Relative cost of installation

0-40 0.75 0-30

0-80 1-00 0.80

To allow the designer and operator to put this into perspective against design and manufacturing costs: (1) Assume overall engineering costs as equivalent to 50% of the vessel cost per installation day. (2) Assume additional equipment costs as equivalent to one-third of the vessel cost per installation day. (3) Assume that installation of a free hanging catenary riser takes two days which is a realistic starting base. (4) Assume that an installation vessel capable of installing a free hanging riser system costs 35 000 per day (approximately 1990 cost). Relative installation costs would then be as detailed in Table 4. It is important to note that these are orders of magnitude only. The illustrated costs are for a single riser but costs would not be pro rata for multiple or group installation. Certain costs are not included, notably mob and demob costs. It is obviously of importance to review the uplifts for engineering and additional equipment as these are subject to prevailing market conditions. The model should only be used for indicative purposes. The model

TABLE 4 Relative Installation Costs for Riser Systems

Riser system

Installation cost (order of magnitude)

if)
Free Hanging Lazy-S Lazy-Wave Steep-S Steep-Wave 127 500 340 000 255 000 425 000 340 000

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should be reviewed, adjusted and revised as necessary for any specific application. The use of any cost model is not recommended as a replacement for cost analysis based on detailed schedules and defined resources. The potential for time and hence cost savings that have been previously discussed cannot easily be illustrated without a detailed cost analysis. 8 HAZARDS AND RISKS Heavy rigging operations in a marine environment hold inherent hazards for both personnel and equipment. Methods and procedures for the installation work should be specifically reviewed with regard to safety aspects and operational personnel must be aware of any potential risks. With regard to the flexible riser itself, there are two major mechanisms of potential damage: (1) Mechanical damage by over-tension or by bending. Correct implementation of procedures and monitoring during installation effectively negates the possibility of damage occurring, unless caused by vessel DP drive-offor during local rigging operations. It is impossible to guarantee safeguards against DP drive or other hazards throughout riser installation operations. The risks should, however, be assessed and contingency procedures prepared accordingly. Local rigging operations on the vessel deck or on the seabed must be carefully planned and controlled. (2) Coating damage by abrasion or impact. Whilst every effort will be made to reduce the possibility of coating damage it must be recognised that this is a problem inherent with the handling of a riser. There is a relatively high risk of minor coating damage occurring. Materials and repair procedures should therefore be available. Methods and materials for 'permanent' subsea repairs are understood not to be available and this aspect could be actively progressed. Meanwhile, it is essential that the criteria for acceptable/ unacceptable damage be predefined. 9 CONCLUDING REMARKS The basic parameters which determine the handling characteristics of a flexible riser are determined prior to the consideration of the installation aspects. This may be detrimental to the overall economics of the riser system.

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Specific areas which will result in the reduction of installation costs are shorter overall length, smaller overall diameter, lower MBR and lower weight/unit length. The areas which potentially require to be addressed further are the MBR and bending stiffness. Any reduction in the bending stiffness of the riser will have positive benefits throughout the installation and later maintenance operations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY American Petrolium Institute (API), Recommended Practice for Flexible Pipes API-RP 17B, API, Washington DC, USA, 1988. Cocks, P. J., Testing and Structural Integrity of Flexible Pipes. Engineering Structures, Oct 1989, Butterworth and Co. Veritec, Guidelinesfor Flexible Pipes, Rev. 2, Veritec A/S, Oslo, Norway, 1987.