Mgt 540 Research Methods

Data Analysis

Additional sources
Compilation

of sources:

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/tseportal/datacollectionmethodologies/jin-tselink/tselink.htm http://web.utk.edu/~dap/Random/Order/Start.htm

Data

Analysis Brief Book (glossary) Data Analysis

http://rkb.home.cern.ch/rkb/titleA.html

Exploratory

http://www.drtomoconnor.com/3760/3760lect07.htm http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/eda.htm

Statistical

Data Analysis

http://itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/eda.htm http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/stat-data/topics.htm

Using

Excel for Data Analysis

2

http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/excel-help/about-statisticalanalysis-tools-HP005203873.aspx http://people.umass.edu/evagold/excel.html (using Excel)

3
Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E

FIGURE 12.1

Data Analysis

Get the feel for the data

Get

Mean, variance' and standard deviation on each variable See if for all items, responses range all over the scale, and not restricted to one end of the scale alone. Obtain Pearson Correlation among the variables under study. Get Frequency Distribution for all the variables. Tabulate your data. Describe your sample's key characteristics (Demographic details of sex composition, education, age, length of service, etc. ) See Histograms, Frequency Polygons, etc. 4

Quantitative Data
Each

type of data requires different analysis method(s):

Nominal
Labeling
No

Categorization

inherent value basis purposes only

Ordinal
Ranking,

sequence basis (e.g. age)

Interval
Relationship

Descriptive Statistics
Describing key features of data

Central
Mean,

Tendency
median mode standard deviation, range

Spread
Variance,

Distribution
Skewness,

(Shape )
kurtosis

Descriptive Statistics
Describing key features of data
Nominal
Identification

/ categorization only statistics

Ordinal (Example on pg. 139)

Non-parametric
Do
Frequency Averages

not assume equal intervals

counts (median and mode)

Interval
Parametric
Mean,

Standard Deviation, variance

Testing Goodness of Fit

Split Half

Reliability
Consistency / stability

Cronbachs alpha

Internal Consistency Convergent

Validity
Criterion, convergent, discriminant

Discriminant Factorial
8

Involves Correlations and Factor Analysis

Testing Hypotheses
Use

appropriate statistical analysis

T-test (single or twin-tailed)
Test

the significance of differences of the mean of two groups the significance of differences among the means of more than two different groups, using the F test. the variance explained in the DV by the variance in the Ivs
catterp.htm
9

ANOVA
Test

Regression (simple or multiple)

Establish

http://itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/s

Statistical Power
Claiming
Errors
Type

a significant difference
the null hypothesis when you should not. an alpha error

in Methodology
1 error 2 error

Reject

Called

Type
Fail

to reject the null hypothesis when you should. Called a beta error

Statistical
avoiding

power refers to the ability to detect true differences

type 2 errors
10

Statistical Power
see discussion at http://my.execpc.com/4A/B7/helberg/pitfalls/

Depends
Sample

on 4 issues

size The effect size you want to detect The alpha (type 1 error rate) you specify The variability of the sample
Too Too

little power
effect

Overlook Any

much power
difference is significant
11

Parametric vs. nonparametric

Parametric (characteristics referring to

specific population parameters)

Parametric

assumptions

Independent

samples of variance Data normally distributed Interval or better scale

Homogeneity

Nonparametric
Sometimes

assumptions

independence of

samples
12

t-tests

(Look at t tables; p. 435)

Used to compare two means or one observed mean against a guess about a hypothesized mean
For

large samples t and z can be considered equivalent

Calculate

Where S is the standard error of the mean, S/n and df = n-1

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/stat_t.php
13

t-tests
Statistical

programs will give you a choice between a matched pair and an independent t-test.
Your

sample and research design determine which you will use.

14

z-test for Proportions

(Look at t tables; p. 435)
Correspondence

of sample mean to population mean When data are nominal

Describe

by counting occurrences of each value From counts, calculate proportions Compare proportion of occurrence in sample to proportion of occurrence in population
Hypotheses

testing allows only one of two outcomes: success or failure

15

z-test for Proportions

(Look at t tables; p. 435) Comparing sample proportion to the population proportion
H0: H1:

= k, where k is a value k
between 0 and 1

z=p- = p- p ((1- )/n)

Equivalent

to 2 for df = 1
16

http://www.tutor-homework.com/statistics_tables/statistics_tables.html#normal

Chi-Square Test(sampling distribution) One Sample

http://ncalculators.com/math-worksheets/how-to-calculate-t-test.htm

Used for categorical data Measures sample variance

Squared

deviations from the mean based on normal distribution

Nonparametric Compare expected with observed proportion

H0:

Observed proportion = expected proportion df = number of data points

categories,

cells (k) minus 1

= (Oi E)
Ei

2
17

Univariate z Test
Test

a guess about a proportion against an observed sample;

eg.,

MBAs constitute 35% of the managerial population

H0: H1:

= .35(two-tailed test suggested) = or >.35

18

Univariate Tests
Some

univariate tests are different in that they are among statistical procedures where you, the researcher, set the null hypothesis. In many other statistical tests the null hypothesis is implied by the test itself.
19

Contingency Tables
Relationship between nominal variables

http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk28m.htm

Relationship between subjects' scores on two qualitative or categorical variables (Early

childhood intervention)

If the columns are not contingent on the rows, then the rows and column frequencies are independent. The test of whether the columns are contingent on the rows is called the chi square test of independence. The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between row and column frequencies.
20

Correlations
A

statistical summary of the degree and direction of association between two variables Correlation itself does not distinguish between independent and dependent variables Most common Pearsons r
21

Correlations
You

believe that a linear relationship exists between two variables The range is from 1 to +1 R2, the coefficient of determination, is the % of variance explained in each variable by the other
22

Correlations
r = Sxy/SxSy or the covariance between x and y divided by their standard deviations Calculations needed

The

means, x-bar and y-bar from the means, (x x-bar) and (y y-bar) for each case The squares of the deviations from the means for each case to insure positive distance measures when added, (x - xbar)2 and (y y-bar)2 The cross product for each case (x xbar) times (y y-bar)
Deviations
23

Correlations
The

null hypothesis for correlations is H0: = 0 and the alternative is usually H1: 0 However, if you can justify it prior to analyzing the data you might also use H1: > 0 or H1: < 0 , a one-tailed test
24

Correlations
Alternative
Spearman
rranks

measures
rank correlation, rranks

and r are nearly always equivalent measures for the same data (even when not the differences are trivial)

Phi

coefficient, r, when both variables are dichotomous; again, it is equivalent to Pearsons r

25

Correlations
Alternative

measures

Point-biserial, rpb when

correlating a dichotomous with a continuous variable

If

a scatterplot shows a curvilinear relationship there are two options:

A Use

data transformation, or the correlation ratio, 2 (etasquared) SSwithin 1SStotal

26

ANOVA
For

two groups only the t-test and ANOVA yield the same results You must do paired comparisons when working with three or more groups to know where the means lie

27

Multivariate Techniques
Dependent

variable
in its various forms analysis

Regression MANOVA

Discriminant

Classificatory
Cluster

or data reduction

analysis Factor analysis Multidimensional scaling

28

Linear Regression
We

would like to be able to predict y from x linear regression with raw

Simple

scores
y x

sy = dependent variable = independent variable sx b = regression coefficient = rxy c = a constant term

The

general model is y = bx + c (+e)

29

Linear Regression

The statistic for assessing the overall fit of a regression model is the R2 , or the overall % of variance explained by the model R2 = 1 unpredictable variance
total variance

predictable variance total variance

= 1 (s2e / s2y), where s2e is the variance of the error or residual

30

10

Linear Regression

Multiple regression: more than one predictor

y

= b1x1 + b2x2 + c

Each regression coefficient b is assessed independently for its statistical significance; H0: b = 0 So, in a statistical programs output a statistically significant b rejects the notion that the variable associated with b contributes nothing to predicting y

31

Linear Regression

Multiple regression
still tells us the amount of variation in y explained by all of the predictors (x) together The F-statistic tells us whether the model as a whole is statistically significant Several other types of regression models are available for data that do not meet the assumptions needed for least-squares models (such as logistic regression for dichotomous dependent variables)
32

R2

Regression by SPSS & other Programs

Methods for developing the model

Stepwise: lets computer try to fit all chosen

variables, leaving out those not significant and reexamining variables in the model at each step Enter: researcher specifies that all variables will be used in the model Forward, backward: begin with all (backward) or none (forward) of the variables and automatically adds or removes variables without reconsideration of variables already in the model

33

11

Multicollinearity
Best

regression model has uncorrelated IVs Model stability low with excessively correlated IVs Collinearity diagnostics identify problems, suggesting variables to be dropped High tolerance, low variance inflation factor are desirable
34

Discriminant Analysis
Regression

requires DV to be interval or ratio If DV categorical (nominal) can use discriminant analysis IVs should be interval or ratio scaled Key result is number of cases classified correctly
35

MANOVA
Compare

means on two or more

limited to one DV)

DVs
(ANOVA

Pure

MANOVA via SPSS only from command syntax Can use the general linear model though

36

12

Factor Analysis

A data reduction technique a large set of variables can be reduced to a smaller set while retaining the information from the original data set Data must be on an interval or ratio scale E.g., a variable called socioeconomic status might be constructed from variables such as household income, educational attainment of the head of household, and average per capita income of the census block in which the person resides
37

Cluster Analysis

Cluster analysis seeks to group cases rather than variables; it too is a data reduction technique Data must be on an interval or ratio scale E.g., a marketing group might want to classify people into psychographic profiles regarding their tendencies to try or adopt new products pioneers or early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards

38

Factor vs. Cluster Analysis

Factor

analysis focuses on creating linear composites of variables

Number

of variables with which we must work is then reduced Technique begins with a correlation matrix to seed the process
Cluster

analysis focuses on

cases
39

13

Potential Biases
Asking the inappropriate or wrong research questions. Insufficient literature survey and hence inadequate theoretical model. Measurement problems Samples not being representative. Problems with data collection:

researcher biases respondent biases instrument biases

Data analysis biases:

coding errors data punching & input errors inappropriate statistical analysis

Biases (subjectivity) in interpretation of results.

40

Questions to ask:
Adopted from Robert Niles

Where did the data come from? How (Who) was the data reviewed, verified, or substantiated? How were the data collected? How is the data presented?

What Be

is the context?

Cherry-picking?

skeptical when dealing with comparisons

Spurious

correlations

41
Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E

FIGURE 11.2

14