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Example
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Noise in time and frequency
Noise is an important concept in communications systems, including
LANS.
While noise usually refers to undesirable sounds, noise related to
communications refers to undesirable signals.
Noise can originate from natural and technological sources, and is
added to the data signals in communications systems.
Even though noise cannot be eliminated, its effects can be minimized if
the sources of the noise are understood.
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Noise in time and frequency
There are many possible sources of noise:
Nearby cables which carry data signals
Radio frequency interference (RFI), which is noise from
other signals being transmitted nearby
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is noise from
nearby sources such as motors and lights
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Narrowband Interference and White Noice
Narrowband Interference
White Noice
White noice affects all transmission frequencies.
Narowband interference only affects small ranges of frequencies.
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Signals and Noise
Compare and contrast noise levels on various types of cabling.
Define and describe the affects of attenuation and impedance
mismatch.
Define crosstalk, near-end crosstalk, far-end crosstalk, and power sum
near-end crosstalk.
Describe how crosstalk and twisted pairs help reduce noise.
Describe the ten copper cable tests defined in TIA/EIA-568-B.
Describe the difference between Category 5 and Category 6 cable.
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Signaling over coper and fiber optic cabling
On copper cable, data signals
are represented by voltage
levels that represent binary
ones and zeros.
The zero-voltage reference is
called the signal ground.
If the transmitter and the
receiver volt reference point are
equal, they are said to be
properl y grounded.
Fiber optic cable is used to
transmit data signals by
increasing and decreasing the
intensity of light to represent
binary ones and zeros.
Optical signals are NOT affected
by electrical noise, and optical
fiber does NOT need to be
grounded.
As price decrease and speed
increase, optical fiber is more
and more popular.
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Coaxial
Coaxial cable consists of a
solid copper conductor
surrounded by insulating
material, and then braided
conductive shielding.
10Base-2: (thinnet)
Ethernet 10 Mpbs, 185 m,
BNC connector, 50 .
10Base-5: (thicknet)
Ethernet 10 Mbps, 500 m,
50 .
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STP and ScTP (FTP)
STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair)
cable contains an outer
conductive shield that is
electrically grounded to
insulate the signals from
external electrical noise. STP
also uses inner foil shields to
protect each wire pair from
noise generated by the other
pairs. Connector: shielded
RJ45, 100m, 150 .
ScTP (Screened Twisted-
Pair) or FTP (Foiled Twisted-
Pair) is similar with STP, with
exeption that there is no inner
foil shields. Connector:
shielded RJ45, 100m, 100 .
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UTP
UTP (Unshielded Twisted-
Pair) has no shield. This is
the most popular cable used
in LAN.
Connector: RJ45.
100 m.
100 .
There are several categories:
Cat-1, Cat-2, Cat-3, Cat-4,
Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7,
...
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Attenuation and insertion loss on copper media
Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over the
length of a link.
Long cable lengths and high signal frequencies contribute
to greater signal attenuation.
good original signal attenuation
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Impedance
Impedance is a measurement
of the resistance of the cable
to alternating current (AC)
and is measured in ohms ().
If the cable is improperly
installed, there may happen
an situation called impedance
discontinuity or impedance
mismatch, which causes
reflection.
The combination of the effects
of signal attenuation and
impedance discontinuities on
a communications link is
called insertion loss.
good original signal reflection
dispersion
jitter
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Twisted-pair Cable
TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a
cable requires testing for a variety
of types of noise.
In twisted-pair cable, a pair of
wires is used to transmit one
signal. The wire pair is twisted so
that each wire experiences similar
crosstalk.
Twisting wires also helps to
reduce crosstalk or noise from an
adjacent wire pair. Higher
categories of UTP require more
twists on each wire pair in the
cable to minimize crosstalk at high
transmission frequencies. When
attaching connectors to the ends
of UTP cable, untwisting of wire
pairs must be kept to an absolute
minimum to ensure reliable LAN
communications.
GOOD connector
BAD connector:
wires are untwisted too long
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Cross Talk
Crosstalk involves the
transmission of signals from
one wire to a nearby wire.
Adjacent wires in the cable act
like antennas, receiving the
transmitted energy.
Crosstalk is more destructive
at higher transmission
frequencies.
When crosstalk is caused by a
signal on another cable, it is
called alien crosstalk.
Cable testing instruments
measure crosstalk by applying
a test signal to one wire pair.
The cable tester then
measures the amplitude of the
unwanted crosstalk signals
induced on the other wire
pairs in the cable.
Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the
effects of crosstalk in order to minimize noise.
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Types of crosstalk
There are three distinct types of crosstalk:
Near-end Crosstalk (NEXT)
Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT)
Power Sum Near-end Crosstalk (PSNEXT)
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Near-end Crosstalk (NEXT)
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is computed as the ratio of
voltage amplitude between the test signal and the crosstalk
signal when measured from the same end of the link.
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Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT)
Due to attenuation, crosstalk occurring further away from
the transmitter creates less noise on a cable than NEXT.
This is called far-end crosstalk, or FEXT.
The noise caused by FEXT still travels back to the source,
but it is attenuated as it returns.
Thus, FEXT is not as significant a problem as NEXT.
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Power Sum Near-end Crosstalk (PSNEXT)
Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT) measures the cumulative
effect of NEXT from all wire pairs in the cable.
PSNEXT is computed for each wire pair based on the
NEXT effects of the other three pairs.
The combined effect of crosstalk from multiple
simultaneous transmission sources can be very detrimental
to the signal.
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Cable testing standards
The ten primary test parameters that must be verified for a
cable link to meet TIA/EIA standards are:
Wire map
Insertion loss
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
Power sum near-end crosstalk (PSNEXT)
Equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT)
Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT)
Return loss
Propagation delay
Cable length
Delay skew
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Cable testing standards
The Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an
RJ-45 connector have a particular purpose.
A NIC transmits signals on pins 1 and 2, and it receives
signals on pins 3 and 6.
The wires in UTP cable must be connected to the proper
pins at each end of a cable.
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Cable testing standards
The wire map test insures that no open or short circuits
exist on the cable.
An open circuit occurs if the wire does not attach properly
at the connector.
A short circuit occurs if two wires are connected to each
other.
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Cable testing standards
The wire map test also verifies that all eight wires are connected to the
correct pins on both ends of the cable.
There are several different wiring faults that the wire map test can
detect.
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Time-based parameters
Testers measure the length of the wire based on the
electrical delay as measured by a Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) test, not by the physical length of the
cable jacket.
Since the wires inside the cable are twisted, signals
actually travel farther than the physical length of the cable.
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Testing optical fiber
Fiber links are subject to the optical equivalent of UTP impedance
discontinuities.
When light encounters an optical discontinuity, some of the light signal
is reflected back in the opposite direction with only a fraction of the
original light signal continuing down the fiber towards the receiver.
This results in a reduced amount of light energy arriving at the receiver,
making signal recognition difficult.
Just as with UTP cable, improperly installed connectors are the main
cause of light reflection and signal strength loss in optical fiber.
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Testing optical fiber
Absence of electrical signals.
There are no crosstalk problems on fiber optic cable.
External electromagnetic interference or noise has no affect on fiber
cabling.
Attenuation does occur on fiber links, but to a lesser extent than on
copper cabling.
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A new standard
On June 20, 2002, the Category 6 (or Cat 6) addition to the TIA-568
standard was published.
The official title of the standard is ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1.
Although the Cat 6 tests are essentially the same as those specified by
the Cat 5 standard, Cat 6 cable must pass the tests with higher scores
to be certified.
Cat6 cable must be capable of carrying frequencies up to 250 MHz and
must have lower levels of crosstalk and return loss.
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Summary