The nature of viruses Viruses are very small obligate parasites.

This means that they cannot survive without taking over a host cell.

Tobacco mosaic virus

HIV

Bacteriophage

Infects plants

Infects Humans

Infects Bacteria

Structure of Viruses

DNA or RNA Protein Coat

Viruses contain DNA or RNA ( nucleic acid) surrounded by a coat which is usually protein. After a virus invades a host cell it forces the cell to replicate viral DNA/RNA, make copies of its protein coat and self-assembles resulting in the release of large numbers of viruses.

Invasion of a cell by a virus

DNA or RNA Protein Coat

2. Viral DNA replicated

Host Cell
1. Viral DNA is injected 3. Viral mRNA for protein coat transcribed by host

Host cell supplies virus with: Nucleotides Amino Acids ATP Enzymes

4. Virus protein coats translated by host ribosomes

5. Viruses self-assemble 6. Lysosome enzyme used to help virus burst out of cell

Nucleus with host DNA

Cellular response in defence in animals Any invading foreign particles are known as antigen. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi and cells foreign to the body. White bolld cells known as phagocytes engulf and digest antigen by the process of phagocytosis. The antigen is enclosed in a vacuole within the cell Lysosomes containing powerful protein digesting enzymes fuse with the vacuole The antigen is digested and the breakdown compounds diffuse into cytoplasm
WBC engulfs antigen trapping it in a vacuole

Lysosomes containing

Antigen

powerful protein digesting enzymes fuse with the vacuole

Phagocytotic WBC

Enzymes released into the vacuole

Antigen digested Digested parts diffuses into cytoplasm

Lymphocytes are a second type of white blood cell that recognise foreign antigen and produce special proteins called antibodies which bind with and destroy the antigen. The combined effects of phagocytes and lymphocytes is a particular problem during tissue transplantation. The foreign tissue is treated as an antigen and rejected by the body. It is necessary to use Donors which closely match tissue type of recipient Use immuno-suppressors which reduce inhibit immune system. TOP TIP - Try the data interpretation comparing primary and secondary responses to immunisation injections

Cellular defence mechanisms in plants. Plants dont have an immune system but must protect themselves from herbivores Plants can protect themselves by producing a variety of toxic compounds Tannins- These are acidic chemicals produced when a parasite such as insect or fungus penetrates the plant. They are produced inside swellings called galls which help isolate the parasite Cyanide Hydrogen cyanide is a poison which blocks a herbivores cytochrome system and is produced by some plants (e.g. white clover) in response to tissue damage. The production of hydrogen cyanide is known as cyanogenesis Nicotine This is a poison produced by tobacco plants which over stimulates the central nervous system of herbivores a) Plants can protect themselves by isolating injured areas using barrier substances such as Resins These are glassy substances such as amber which exude from plants and trees and help isolate possible routes by which the plant may be invaded e.g. xylem and phloem vessels Lignin Lignin is normally part of the xylem vessels but if a vessel is invaded by fungi extra lignin is produced to clog the vessel completely This photographs shows swellings called galls which are produced by the leaf after an insect lays eggs on it. This isolates the leaf from the egg. When the insect hatches it eats its way down towards the leaf but gets a mouthful of acidic tannins which help to stop it getting any further.