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8. Does my Study Place have enough light? The amount of light you need depends on what you are doing. The important thing is that you can clearly see what you need to see without any strain or discomfort. 9. Does my Study Place have a comfortable temperature? If your Study Place is too warm, you might become sleepy. If it is too cold, your thinking may slow down and become unclear. Select a temperature at which your mind and body function best. Having a good Study Place is important for good studying.
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Review your notes from the previous class session before you come to class. This will help you remember what was covered and get you ready to understand new information your teacher provides. Complete all assigned readings before you come to class. Your teacher will expect that you have done this and will use and build upon this information. Bring all notetaking materials with you to class. Have several pens and pencils as well as your notebook.
Keep your attention focused on what your teacher is saying. Listen for signal statements that tell you that what your teacher is about to say is important to write in your notes. Examples of signal statements are The most important point and Remember that . . . Be sure to include in your notes information that your teacher repeats or writes on the chalkboard. Write quickly so that you can include all the important information in your notes. Do this by writing abbreviated words such as med for medicine, using symbols such as % for percent, and writing short sentences. Place a ? next to information you write in your notes, but about whose meaning you are not sure.
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Rewrite your notes to make them more complete by changing abbreviated words into whole words, symbols into words, and shortened sentences into longer sentences. Make your notes more accurate by answering any questions you had when writing your notes in class. Use your textbook and reference sources to obtain the information you need to answer your questions. If necessary, ask your teacher or other students for help. Check with other students to be sure you did not leave out important information.
Having good class notes will help you to be better prepared for tests.
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Test Anxiety
WHAT IS TEST ANXIETY? Too much anxiety about a test is commonly referred to as test anxiety. It is perfectly natural to feel some anxiety when preparing for and taking a test. In fact, a little anxiety can jump start your studying and keep you motivated. However, too much anxiety can interfere with your studying. You may have difficulty learning and remembering what you need to know for the test. Further, too much anxiety may block your performance during the test. You may have difficulty demonstrating what you know during the test. HOW DO I KNOW IF I HAVE TEST ANXIETY? You probably have test anxiety if you answer YES to four or more of the following: 1. I have a hard time getting started studying for a test. 2. When studying for a test, I find many things that distract me. 3. I expect to do poorly on a test no matter how much or how hard I study. 4. When taking a test, I experience physical discomfort such as sweaty palms, an upset stomach, a headache, difficulty breathing, and tension in my muscles. 5. When taking a test, I find it difficult to understand the directions and questions. 6. When taking a test, I have difficulty organizing my thoughts. 7. When taking a test, I often draw a blank. 8. When taking a test, I find my mind wandering to other things. 9. I usually score lower on a test than I do on assignments and papers. 10. After a test, I remember information I couldnt recall during the test. WHAT CAN I DO ABOUT TEST ANXIETY? Here are some things you can do before, during, and after a test to reduce your test anxiety. 1. Use good study techniques to gain cognitive mastery of the material that will be covered on the test. This mastery will help you to approach the test with confidence rather than have excessive anxiety. Employ the tips we provide at Preparing to Study.
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2. Maintain a positive attitude as you study. Think about doing well, not failing. Think of the test as an opportunity to show how much you have learned. 3. Go into the test well rested and well fed. Get enough sleep the night before the test. Eat a light and nutritious meal before the test. Stay away from junk foods. 4. Stay relaxed during the test. Taking slow, deep breaths can help. Focus on positive self-statements such as I can do this. 5. Follow a plan for taking the test such as the DETER strategy we describe at A Strategy for Taking Tests. Dont panic even if you find the test difficult. Stay with your plan! 6. Dont worry about other students finishing the test before you do. Take the time that you need to do your best. 7. Once you finish the test and hand it in, forget about it temporarily. There is nothing more you can do until the graded test is returned to you. Turn your attention and effort to new assignments and tests. 8. When the graded test is returned to you, analyze it to see how you could have done better. Learn from your mistakes and from what you did well. Apply this knowledge when you take the next test. You have to know the material to do well on a test. You have to control test anxiety to show what you know.
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You can form your own abbreviation for just about any word. Here are three ways you can do this. 1. Write just the beginning of a long word. Here are some examples of long words that have been abbreviated by writing just the beginning of the word:
Word different incorporated elementary molecular division Abbreviation diff inc elem molec div Word feminine population ambiguous separate hippopotamus Abbreviation fem pop ambig sep hippo
2. Leave out the vowels when writing a word. Here are some examples of words that have been abbreviated by leaving out the vowels when writing the word:
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3. For words that have just one syllable, write just the first and last letter of the word. Here are some examples of words that have been abbreviated by writing just the first and last letter of the word:
Word quart tick girl night link Abbreviation qt tk gl nt lk Word land round pack field heart Abbreviation ld rd pk fd ht
Use common abbreviations of words whenever you recognize them. For other words, form abbreviations by using one of the three ways you just learned. Use the way that best fits the word for which you are writing an abbreviation. Do not try to abbreviate every word you write in your notes. Abbreviate those words that are important and for which you can quickly form an abbreviation. REMEMBER: YOU MUST BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE THE COMPLETE WORD FROM ITS ABBREVIATION. Knowing the context in which you wrote the word will help you recognize the complete word from its abbreviation. Using abbreviations for words will help you take good notes more quickly. Having good notes will help you do better on tests.
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Study Groups
A study group can be helpful when you are trying to learn information and concepts and preparing for class discussions and tests. Read to learn about the benefits of a study group. Then read on to learn about how to start a study group and the characteristics of a successful study group. Finally, be sure to read about the possible pitfalls of a study group. Benefits of a Study Group A study group can be beneficial in many ways. Here are the most important benefits: 1. A support group can pick you up when you find that your motivation to study is slipping. The other group members can be a source of encouragement. 2. You may be reluctant to ask a question in class. You will find it easier to do so in a small study group. 3. You may become more committed to study because the group members are depending on your presentation and participation. You will not want to let them down. 4. Group members will listen and discuss information and concepts during the study sessions. These activities add a strong auditory dimension to your learning experience. 5. One or more group members are likely to understand something you do not. They may bring up ideas you never considered. 6. You can learn valuable new study habits from the other group members. 7. You can compare your class notes with those of the other group members to clarify your notes and fill in any gaps. 8. Teaching/explaining information and concepts to the other group members will help you reinforce your mastery of the information and concepts. 9. Lets face it studying can sometimes be boring. Interacting with the other group members can make studying enjoyable.
Getting a Study Group Started Study groups dont just happen. Here is what you should do to get a study group started:
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1. Get to know your classmates by talking with them before class, during breaks, and after class. When selecting a classmate to join your study group, you should be able to answer YES for each of the following questions: o Is this classmate motivated to do well? o Does this classmate understand the subject matter? o Is this classmate dependable? o Would this classmate be tolerant of the ideas of others? o Would you like to work with this classmate?
2. Invite enough of these classmates to work with you in a study group until you have formed a group of three to five. A larger group may allow some members to avoid responsibility, may lead to cliques, and may make group management more of an issue than learning. 3. Decide how often and for how long you will meet. Meeting two or three times a week is probably best. If you plan a long study session, make sure you include time for breaks. A study session of about 60 to 90 minutes is usually best. 4. Decide where you will meet. Select a meeting place that is available and is free from distractions. An empty classroom or a group study room in the library are possibilities. 5. Decide on the goals of the study group. Goals can include comparing and updating notes, discussing readings, and preparing for exams. 6. Decide who the leader will be for the first study session. Also decide whether it will be the same person each session or whether there will be a rotating leader. The leader of a study session should be responsible for meeting the goals of that study session. 7. Clearly decide the agenda for the first study session and the responsibilities of each group member for that session. 8. Develop a list of all group members that includes their names, telephone numbers, and email addresses. Make sure each group member has this list and update the list as needed.
Characteristics of a Successful Study Group Once started, a study group should possess the following characteristics to be successful: 1. Each group member contributes to discussions. 2. Group members actively listen to each other without interrupting. Only one group member speaks at a time.
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3. The other group members work collaboratively to resolve any concern raised by a group member. 4. Group members are prompt and come prepared to work. 5. The group stays on task with respect to its agenda. 6. Group members show respect for each other. 7. Group members feel free to criticize each other but keep their criticisms constructive. This can encourage group members to reveal their weaknesses so that they can strengthen them. 8. Group members feel free to ask questions of each other. 9. At the end of each study session, an agenda including specific group member responsibilities is prepared for the next session. 10. Above all, the positive attitude that we can do this together is maintained.
Possible Pitfalls of a Study Group A study group can be a very positive learning experience. However, there are pitfalls to be avoided. Here are some cautions: 1. Do not let the study group get distracted from its agenda and goals. 2. Do not let the study group become a social group. You can always socialize at other times. 3. Do not allow group members to attend unprepared. To stay in the group, members should be required to do their fair share. 4. Do not the let the session become a negative forum for complaining about teachers and courses. 5. Do not allow one or two group members to dominate the group. It is important that all members have an equal opportunity to participate. The information you just read will help you decide when a study group is appropriate for you and will help ensure its success.
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Read the test directions very carefully. Ask your teacher to explain anything about the test directions you do not understand. Only by following the directions can you achieve a good score on the test. If you do not follow the directions, you will not be able to demonstrate what you know.
E = Examine
Examine the entire test to see how much you have to do. Only by knowing the entire task can you break it down into parts that become manageable for you.
T = Time
Once you have examined the entire test, decide how much time you will spend on each item. If there are different points for items, plan to spend the most time on the items that count for the most points. Planning your time is especially important for essay tests where you must avoid spending so much time on one item that you have little time left for other test items.
E = Easiest
The second E in DETER reminds you to answer the items you find easiest first. If you get stuck on a difficult item that comes up early in the test, you may not get to answer items that test things you know.
R = Review
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If you have planned your time correctly, you will have time to review your answers and make them as complete and accurate as possible. Also make sure to review the test directions to be certain you have answered all items required.
Using the DETER strategy will help you do better on tests and get better grades.
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Read
Read the entire paragraph to get an idea of what the paragraph is about. You may find it helpful to whisper the words as you read or to form a picture in your mind of what you are reading. Once you have a general idea of what the paragraph is about, go on to the next step.
Examine
Examine each sentence in the paragraph to identify the important words that tell what the sentence is about. Ignore the words that are not needed to tell what the sentence is about. If you are allowed to, draw a line through the words to be ignored. For each sentence, write on a sheet of paper the words that tell what the sentence is about.
Decide
Reread the words you wrote for each sentence in the paragraph. Decide which sentence contains the words you wrote that best describe the main idea of the paragraph. These words are the main idea of the paragraph. The sentence that contains these words is the topic sentence. The other words you wrote are the supporting details for the main idea.
Write
Write the main idea for each paragraph in your notebook. This will provide you with a written record of the most important ideas you learned. This written record will be helpful if you have to take a test that covers the reading assignment. Use REDW to help you understand the information in your reading assignments.
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each fact to be remembered. It can be a real word or a nonsense word you are able to pronounce.
Write the facts you need to remember. Underline the first letter of each fact. If there is more than one word in a fact, underline the first letter of only the first word in the fact. Arrange the underlined letters to form an acronym that is a real word or a nonsense word you can pronounce.
HOMES is an example of an acronym that is a real word you can use to remember the names of the five Great Lakes: Michigan, Erie, Superior, Ontario, Huron: In HOMES, H is the first letter of Huron and helps you remember that name; O is the first letter of Ontario, and so on. Telk is an acronym that can be used to remember the following animals: tiger, lion, elephant, kangaroo. Telk is not a real word, but you can easily pronounce it. You could also have used kelt as an acronym. Notice that in this example, you cannot form a real word using the first letter of each fact to be remembered. Sometimes two or more of the facts you must remember each begin with the same first letter. For example, the acronym capp can be used to remember the following fruits: pear, apple, peach, cherry. You can use the first letter p in the acronym to remember either pear or peach and the second letter p to remember the other.
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5. Summary context clue. The author makes a number of statements that help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, statements about being rude, showing no respect, having poor manners, and being impolite help the reader understand the meaning of impertinent. Andrea was a very impertinent young lady. She was so rude that she talked while her teacher was explaining a lesson. She showed no respect for other students. Her manners were very poor. Even her parents thought that Andrea was impolite. 6. Visual context clue. The author includes a picture, drawing, chart, graph, or other type of visual to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. For example, to help the reader understand that "exultant" means great joy, a picture of a girl with a joyful expression on her face might appear. A caption under the picture might read "She was exultant." Using the context clues provided by authors can help you learn the meaning of many new words.
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Record your school assignments with their due dates and your scheduled tests. Record your planned school activities. Record your known out-of-school activities.
Each Sunday before a school week, prepare a Weekly Schedule. Update it as the week goes on. Here is what to do to prepare a Weekly Schedule.
Record your daily classes. Enter things to be done for the coming week from your Term Calendar. Review your class notes from the previous week to see if you need to add any school activities. Add any out-of-school activities in which you will be involved during the week. Be sure to include times for completing assignments, working on projects, and studying for tests. These times may be during the school day, right after school, evenings, and weekends.
Each evening before a school day, prepare a Daily Organizer for the next day. Place a next to each thing to do as you accomplish it. Here is what to do to prepare a Daily Organizer.
Enter the things to do for the coming day from your Weekly Schedule. Enter the things that still need to be accomplished from your Daily Organizer from the previous day. Review your class notes for the day just completed to see if you need to add any school activities. Add any out-of-school activities in which you will be involved the next day.
Your Weekly Schedule should have more detail than your Term Calendar. Your Daily Organizer should have more detail than your Weekly Schedule. Using a Term Calendar, a Weekly Schedule, and a Daily Organizer will help you make the best use of your time.
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Use this word identification strategy whenever needed in your reading. You cannot understand what you read unless you can identify most or all of the words.
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Some More Prefixes Here are some more prefixes and their meanings. You can add these prefixes to many root words to form new words and expand your vocabulary.
Prefix ante bi equi hypo neo poly semi Meaning before two equal under new many half Prefix auto circum im inter omni retro trans Meaning self around not between all backward across
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Multiple-Choice Tests
Many of the tests you take in school will be multiple-choice tests. Here are two types of items you will often find on multiple-choice tests.
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Sometimes, one of the answer choices is all of the above. In the following example, e is the correct answer choice because all of the foods shown are dairy products. Which of the following foods are dairy products? a. milk b. ice cream c. yogurt d. cream cheese e. all of the above Other times, one of the answer choices is none of the above. In the following example, b is the correct answer choice because Argentina is the only country listed that is in South America. For e to be correct, none of the countries listed could be in South America. is a country in South America. a. Russia b. Argentina c. Mexico d. Japan e. none of the above
7. Do not change your initial answer unless you are sure another answer choice is correct. More often than not, your first choice is correct. 8. Choose all of the above if you are certain all other answer choices in the item are correct. Do not choose all of the above if even just one of the other answer choices is not correct. 9. Choose none of the above if you are certain all other answer choices in the item are incorrect. Do not choose none of the above if even just one of the other answer choices is correct. Knowing how multiple-choice items are constructed and using these guidelines will help you improve your score on a multiple-choice test.
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Procrastination
What is Procrastination? Procrastination is putting off or avoiding doing something that must be done. It is natural to procrastinate occasionally. However, excessive procrastination can result in guilt feelings about not doing a task when it should be done. It can also cause anxiety since the task still needs to be done. Further, excessive procrastination can cause poor performance if the task is completed without sufficient time to do it well. In short, excessive procrastination can interfere with school and personal success. Why Do Students Procrastinate? There are many reasons why students procrastinate. Here are the most common reasons:
1. Perfectionism. A students standard of performance may be so high for a task that it does not seem possible to meet that standard. 2. Fear of Failure. A student may lack confidence and fear that he/she will be unable to accomplish a task successfully. 3. Confusion. A student may be unsure about how to start a task or how it should be completed. 4. Task Difficulty. A student may lack the skills and abilities needed to accomplish a task. 5. Poor Motivation. A student may have little or no interest in completing a task because he/she finds the task boring or lacking in relevance. 6. Difficulty Concentrating. A student may have too many things around that distract him/her from doing a task. 7. Task Unpleasantness. A student may dislike doing what a task requires. 8. Lack of Priorities. A student may have little or no sense about which tasks are most important to do.
How Do I Know if I Procrastinate Excessively? You procrastinate excessively if you agree with five or more of the following statements:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I often I often I often I often I often them. 6. I often
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put off starting a task I find difficult give up on a task as soon as I start to find it difficult. wonder why I should be doing a task. have difficulty getting started on a task. try to do so many tasks at once that I cannot do any of put off a task in which I have little or no interest.
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7. I often try to come up with reasons to do something other than a task I have to do. 8. I often ignore a task when I am not certain about how to start it or complete it. 9. I often start a task but stop before completing it. 10. I often find myself thinking that if I ignore a task, it will go away. 11. I often cannot decide which of a number of tasks I should complete first. 12. I often find my mind wandering to things other that the task on which I am trying to work.
What Can I Do About Excessive Procrastination? Here are some things you can do to control excessive procrastination.
1. Motivate yourself to work on a task with thoughts such as There is no time like the present, or Nobodys perfect. 2. Prioritize the tasks you have to do. 3. Commit yourself to completing a task once started. 4. Reward yourself whenever you complete a task. 5. Work on tasks at the times you work best. 6. Break large tasks into small manageable parts. 7. Work on tasks as part of a study group. 8. Get help from teachers and other students when you find a task difficult. 9. Make a schedule of the tasks you have to do and stick to it. 10. Eliminate distractions that interfere with working on tasks. 11. Set reasonable standards that you can meet for a task. 12. Take breaks when working on a task so that you do not wear down. 13. Work on difficult and/or unpleasant tasks first. 14. Work on a task you find easier after you complete a difficult task. 15. Find a good place to work on tasks.
Above all, think positively and get going. Once you are into a task, you will probably find that it is more interesting than you thought it would be and not as difficult as you feared. You will feel increasingly relieved as you work toward its accomplishment and will come to look forward to the feeling of satisfaction you will experience when you have completed the task.
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Setting Goals
A goal is something you want to achieve. A short-term goal is something you want to achieve soon. Examples of short-term goals are finishing your homework and doing well on tomorrows test. A long-term goal is something you want to achieve at some later date. Examples of long-term goals are writing a paper and passing a class. To set appropriate goals, you must know what is important for you to accomplish. Then you must set specific and clearly stated goals. If you do not have clearly stated goals, your effort will lack direction and focus. Write your goals to have a record of them. The Three Ws of Goals Each goal you set should state what you will do and when you will do it. For example, a goal relating to writing a research paper might be stated as follows: I will finish gathering information for my research paper by November 20. Characteristics of Appropriate Goals Your goals should be: 1. within your skills and abilities. Knowing your strengths and weaknesses will help you set goals you can accomplish. 2. realistic. Setting a goal to learn the spelling of three new words a day is realistic. Trying to learn the spelling of fifty new words a day is not realistic. 3. flexible. Sometimes things will not go the way you anticipate and you may need to change your goal. Stay flexible so when you realize a change is necessary you will be ready to make the change. 4. measurable. It is important to be able to measure your progress toward a goal. It is especially important to recognize when you have accomplished your goal and need to go no further. Failure to measure your progress toward a goal and recognize its accomplishment will result in effort that is misdirected and wasted. 5. within your control. Other than when working as part of a group, accomplishment of your goal should not depend on other students. You can control what you do, but you have little or no control over what others do. You may do what you have to do, but if others dont, you will not accomplish your goal. Many times your parents, teachers, and counselors will set goals for you. Be accepting when they do. These are people who know what is important for you and are very concerned with your success. They can also help you accomplish the goals they set.
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SET GOALS IN SCHOOL THAT PROVIDE YOU WITH DIRECTION AND LEAD TO SUCCESS.
See our other study skills resources at www.how-to-study.com and don't forget to check out the study skills programs at www.mangrum-strichart.com. Feel free to share the information we provide at this site. Please give credit to www.how-to-study.com when you do so. You must obtain our written permission for any use of the information for commercial purposes. Copyright How-To-Study.com.
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How to Study:
A Brief Guide
William J. Rapaport
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Department of Philosophy, and Center for Cognitive Science State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260-2000
Last Update: 14 May 2007, 2:45 p.m. If you are reading a printed version of this, you might be interested in the Web version, at http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html which has numerous links to other helpful Web sites (indicated in some printed versions by underlined phrases).
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1. Introduction
Everyone has a different "learning style". (A good introduction to the topic of learning styles is Claxton & Murrell 1987. For more on different learning styles, see Keirsey Temperament and Character Web Site, William Perry's Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development, Holland 1966, Kolb 1984, Sternberg 1999.)
Consequently, everyone has a different "studying style". But the way that you are studying right now might not be the best for you. How would you know? Easy: If your grades aren't what you'd like them to be, then you probably need to change how you study!
I am going to give you some suggestions on how to study efficiently. They worked for me when I was in high school, college, and graduate school. Not only that, but they worked equally well for me in humanities courses (like philosophy and literature) and in science courses (like math and computer science). But, given that everyone's learning style is different, some of my suggestions may not work for you, at least not without some individual modifications. Nevertheless, I urge you to try them. Most successful students use them (or some slight variation of them).
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If you have a "real" job after school that you do just for fun (or for some extra spending money), or if you participate in extra-curricular activities (whether school-related or not), keep your priorities in mind: Your education should come first!
If you must work (in order to make ends meet), you should realize the limitations that this imposes on your study time.
How much time should you devote to studying? A recent survey in the Chronicle of Higher Education suggested that students are not studying enough. So, how much is enough? If you assume that your education is a full-time job, then you should spend about 40 hours/week on it. Figure that 1 academic credit equals about 1 hour. So, if you're taking 15 credits, then you're spending about 15 hours in class. Subtracting that
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from 40 gives you 25 hours that you should be spending studying at home (or in the library). You should spread that out over the week. Suppose you decide to study Sunday through Thursday evenings, taking Fridays and Saturdays off (from studying, that is). Dividing that 25 hours by those 5 days gives you 5 hours of studying per night. If you think that's too much, then plan on studying in the afternoons, too, or some of Saturday. The above are just rules of thumb. If you're taking a 3-credit independent-study course, but you meet with your instructor only 1 hour/week, then you should add the extra 2 hours to your at-home study time. If you're working to earn some money, you should subtract your work hours from your free time, not from your study time! (If you don't want to do that, then you should consider quitting your job or reducing your course load.) If that still seems like a lot, consider the difference between high-school courses and college courses. The typical high-school course meets every day, for about 5 hours/week. But the typical college course meets only about 3 hours/week, yet is supposed to be more intensive than its high-school counterpart. That's because in college you're expected to put more of your own time into studying.
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Set yourself a grade goal. If you don't meet it, cut down on non-school activities. (If you can't, because you're working for a living, then consider dropping down to part-time schooling.)
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For some websites on time management, take a look at: UB Student Affairs webpage on "Time Management" http://ub-counseling.buffalo.edu/studytime.shtml "Time Management Skills" http://www.mindtools.com/page5.html "Time Management for University Students" http://www.yorku.ca/cdc/lsp/tmonline/time.htm "How to Be Punctual" http://www.wikihow.com/Be-Punctual ... or do a Google search on "time management" for more ideas.
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Understanding can come later, when you review your notes. But if you have incomplete notes, it will be hard for you to learn what you didn't take notes on.
MEANING between concept could computation computational complete description function human ...ing (continuing) ...al (computational) language mean meaning ...tion (abbreviation) note/note well/nota bene proposition property about (from Latin) relation question ...er (computer) should something/sometimes (context should make it clear which you mean) statement thought with
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w/o wd wh & v
without would which and or (this is a symbol from logic) not/negation sign (this is a symbol from logic) possible/possibly (this is a symbol from logic) must/necessary/necessarily (this is a symbol from logic) all/for all/every (this is a symbol from logic) some/there is/there are/there exists (this is a symbol from logic)
A related idea is based on a system of shorthand called Speedwriting: There used to be ads in the New York City subway system that read something like this: if u cn rd ths, u cn lrn spdwrtg The key idea in abbreviating is to use abbreviations that will make sense to you. You can put an abbreviation key in the margin of your notebook for any abbreviations that you make up on the spot.
like this.
]
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By the way, if you have a question, especially if you need clarification of something that the teacher said or wrote (possibly because it was inaudible or illegible), ask it! Do not be embarrassed about asking it! I can guarantee you that there will be at least one other student in the class (and often many more) who will be extremely grateful to you for having asked the very same question that they were too embarrassed to ask, and they will come to view you as wise and brave for having asked it. (So will the teacher!)
Moreover, notes are often incomplete or sketchy; just reading such notes won't help. And a few days or months after you take them, they may very well be illegible or incomprehensible. Finally, if you don't do something active with your notes, you run the risks of having unorganized notes or of misplacing them. What I suggest is that you study your notes by re-writing them. For each class, buy a separate notebook from the one you take your notes in. I recommend a "composition" or spiral notebook, not a looseleaf notebook, for your "permanent" (i.e., re-written) notes. Then, as soon as possible after class (preferably that evening or the next), copy your notes into your permanent notebook. The main idea behind re-writing your "raw" class notes (besides making them more legible and organized) is that the very act of copying them is one of the best ways of studying them! Further study of your class notes can then be done from these "cooked" ones that are neater, more legible, more organized, and more complete. I will suggest ways to do this later. Use this opportunity to fill in gaps from your memory while they are still fresh in mind. You may find that you have questions, perhaps something you missed or don't
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understand, or even a "substantive" question. If so, good! Make a note of your question and ask it in class next time! Use this opportunity to (re-)organize your notes in a more logical or coherent fashion. You could write your permanent notes in an outline form if that seems suitable: You don't have to follow any "official" or formal outlining style (e.g., using the I.A.1.(a)(i) format or the (sometimes silly) rule that there must always be at least two subsections, never just one) -- after all, these are your notes. Personally, I like to number main ideas (and separate them with a line), using an "indented bullet" style for details:
1. Main idea 1 - detail 1 - detail 2 - further detail 2.1 - detail 3 - further detail 3.1 - further detail 3.2 Main idea 2 Main idea 3
2. 3.
etc.
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Bugeja, Michael J. (2007), "Distractions in the Wireless Classroom", Chronicle of Higher Education (26 January): C1,C4.
Study hard subjects first. Each night (or day) when studying or doing your homework, do those subjects first for which you need to be alert and energetic. Leave the easier, or more fun, subjects to later. Study in a quiet place, with as few distractions as possible. Do not listen to music or TV: It is virtually impossible to do two things at once if one of them is studying.
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If you read without thinking, I guarantee that your mind will eventually wander off, your eyes will eventually glaze over, and you will fall asleep--it's a form of self-hypnosis. So you must read actively. To use computer jargon, you must turn the inert medium of text on paper to an interactive medium, in which you have a "conversation" with the text, as you might if you could be talking to the author.
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The first step in reading actively is to read s-l-o-w-l-y. Here is an algorithm (i.e., a procedure) for how to read any text, in any subject, slowly and actively:
WHILE there is a next sentence to read, DO: BEGIN (* while *) Read it, SLOWLY; IF you do not understand it, THEN BEGIN (* if *) re-read the previous material, SLOWLY; re-read the incomprehensible sentence, SLOWLY; IF you still don't understand it, THEN ask a fellow student to explain it; IF you still don't understand it, THEN ask your Teaching Assistant (TA) to explain it; IF you still don't understand it, THEN ask me; IF you are in an upper-level course & you still don't understand it, THEN write a paper about it (!) END (* if *) END; (* while *)
Since there is no next sentence (because the Boolean test in the WHILE is false), you've understood the text! This algorithm has three major advantages: 1. It forces you to actively think about each sentence you read before you go on to read the next one. 2. It slows you down, so that you don't read past the point at which you don't understand. This is especially important in mathematical and scientific subjects.
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3. It can help you get help from your teacher, because you can show your teacher exactly where you got lost. It is always much better to show your teacher exactly what it is that you don't understand than it is to just say that you don't understand the material. 4. Note that it also provides you an opportunity to interact with your instructors and fellow students! For more information on slow reading, see: 1. Fletcher, Lancelot R. (1994), "Slow Reading Lists (and the Meaning of Slow Reading)"
o Note: If you scroll down about halfway on the above link, you'll reach the section called "What Do I Mean by "Slow Reading"?".
2. Daly, Robert (2003), "Slow Reading: Why it Matters, How to Do It, How to Teach It" 3. Waters, Lindsay (2007), "Time for Reading", Chronicle of Higher Education 53(23) (9 February): B6-B8.
A slightly less messy, but equally useless, technique is to use a pen or pencil to underline important or interesting passages. I guarantee that you will wind up underlining every sentence on every page, and you will have gained nothing.
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The technique that I suggest is also susceptible to this problem, but has a built-in way to overcome it, so that you can re-read the text, highlighting different passages each time. The trick is to highlight a passage by drawing a vertical line in the margin. I like to use the right margin and to make my line a right square bracket:
clear [exactly where the highlighted passage begins or ends,] you can use small square brackets in the text, as I did in this sentence, along with the vertical line in the margin. This way, even if you've slipped into the error of highlighting (i.e., vertical-lining) every sentence on every page, at least you haven't ruined the page. Moreover, when you re-read the text (note that I said 'when', not 'if' :-), you can then use a different highlighting technique (e.g., underlining) to highlight more important passages. Sometimes, I use double brackets in the margin for this second round of highlighting:
] and underlining
for a third round. (If you must, you could use yellow highlighter for a fourth round.)
(I, II, etc.), number each quoted passage (or stand-alone comment) with an Arabic numeral (1, 2, etc.), and letter (a, b, etc.) each comment associated with a quoted passage (or stand-alone comment). Then you can refer to each passage with an identifier (like XIV-7-b, i.e., comment b about quotation 7, which comment is located on notebook page XIV) that will enable you to find it later. See below.)
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6. Do Your Homework
It should go without saying that you should do your homework and do it on time.
Science and math courses (and some others, such as foreign-language courses) often require you to do homework exercises or problem sets. I strongly recommend that you do not simply do the problems and hand them in. Rather, do them on scrap paper, check them over, and then copy them neatly. Turn in the neat copy (and, of course, be sure that your name is on it!). You may even want to duplicate your work in case the teacher loses it (unlikely) or doesn't give it back in time to use it for studying for an exam (this should only happen in rare circumstances, usually just before an exam (when the teacher has a lot of things to do), but it is not unheard of).
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And don't just write down answers. Write down the problem and the complete solution showing how you arrived at your answer.
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Outline:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Manage your time Make a study outline Write sample essays & do sample problems Make "flash cards" Stop studying when you feel confident
DAY PART OF DAY Day 1 morning afternoon evening Day 2 morning afternoon evening Day 3 morning afternoon evening Day 4 morning afternoon evening Day 5 morning afternoon evening Day 6
WHAT TO DO study for exam #1 study for exam #2 study for exam #3 study for exam #1 study for exam #2 or #3 (or both) study for exam #1 study for exam #1 take exam #1 study for exam #2 study for exam #3 study for exam #2 study for exam #3 study for exam #2 take exam #2 study for exam #3 take exam #3
(McGraw-Hill) books are usually quite good in this regard). How will you know if your answers are correct? The best way is to form a study group of 2 or more fellow students: Solve the same problems and compare answers. If your answers agree, they're probably correct; if not, go to your Teaching Assistant (TA) or teacher. As with slow reading, it's always better when asking for help from a teacher to have a specific problem or question to ask.
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8. Take Exams
First, read the entire exam all the way through.
For an essay question, do a "mind dump": Write down, on scrap paper, brief reminders (keywords) of everything that you remember about the topic of the question. Then develop an outline of your answer. Then write the essay. (With luck, much of the essay can be "copied from memory" from the sample essays you wrote when studying.) For an exam with problems to solve or proofs to write, do the easy ones first. When you are all done, review your answers carefully. And, when all of your exams are over, take heed...:-)
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Right about now, you're probably asking yourself whether you really have to do all of this. It seems like an awful lot of work. Well, of course, you don't have to do all of it at once. Try various of these suggestions to see what works for you. Try some variations that may better fit your learning style or personal circumstances. But, in the long run, there's no quick and easy road to studying. It is hard work and should take a lot of time. So, do you really have to do all of this? Yes (or things very much like them)--if you want to really learn the material (and get good grades). Finally, for what it's worth, here are some comments from students and others who have tried some of these methods:
"... this is the way you taught me to study years ago and it finally paid off last year!" (a college sophomore who went from high-school grades in the 70s to a 3.00 average in college) "Thank you for the guide. It has some great tips! I'm surprised that I use some of the techniques myself. (E.g., I abbrev. and cndnse my notes.) I have one suggestion, though: when reviewing for a test/exam, only study what you aren't familiar with. It reduces studying time and is helpful if you're a last minute person like me. :) Well, that may not work for you, but who knows?" "... encourage some study groups! Not 5 in a group, 'cause that will be a crowd, but study environment is as important as studying itself; change of environments is sometimes good to make you study better. Thank you for your helpful hints, and it does help me to notice some of my weaknesses in studying." "I'd like to pass along a bit of technique that worked well for me in just about all my courses. Thinking about the subject matter--often catalyzed
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by discussion with others--before delving into it was my key to success. After giving it some thought, I wrote out a series of logical, fundamental questions which I sought to answer that would clarify the subject matter. You know, make it perspicuous. I read/listened/watched with those questions in mind, noting as well other points an author/instructor was attempting to make. If my questions (which were fundamental to a clear understanding) went unanswered, I would seek the answers through other written, visual, or aural materials. Visiting an instructor during office hours or asking the question in class was often most helpful. Once I had the basics well in mind, building on them was easy and fun. Studying and learning in this way also helped me to prepare for exams. Clearly, if I could think of a question, there was a good chance one writing an exam might think of it too. The technique is not a panacea for all study-related problems; however, it does set forth a system to build upon in an individualized way. I also suggest a visit to the children's section of the library when revisiting or attempting to master the basics of certain things. Books written at that level, though often oversimplified, present ideas and concepts in a clear and easily understandable form usually lacking in primers written for adults. There's no substitute for laying a good foundation on which to build additional knowledge." -- Marc L. Ames "I would like to thank you for the effort made doing this guide.... But there is one thing I would like to suggest for ... future "upgrades" of this text: I think you have to mention that it is important to be in good physical condition as well, I mean: sleep 8 hours a day, eat well, .... What I would like to point is that, in my opinion, it would be good to tell students that they have to be in their best condition to study/take an exam/work." -Diego Fernndez Fernndez, E.U.I.T.I.O student (Computer Engineering), Oviedo (SPAIN). "I would like to thank you very much for the "How to Study" document I discovered on the net. It is very informative, and it will help me with my day to day activities. I only wish I had it while I was in high school!" -Joseph Di Lillo, Team Lead--SAP Service Desk. "Thanks so much for the great study guide. I am a high school counselor, and we have been teaching a freshmen study skills class for two years.... Your ideas have really inspired me, and there are many of the same theories that we have been presenting, but in a new way! Thanks for the great tips!" --Trinity Walsh, Guidance Counselor, Elder High School, Cincinnati, OH.
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The Harvard Guide to Happiness (reprinted from The New York Times (18 April 2001). http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/harvard.html Study Guides and Strategies http://www.studygs.net/ Blue, Ronald C., "How to Study" http://tep.uoregon.edu/resources/faqs/outsidehelp/study.html How to Study in High School and College: Effective Study Skills http://www.adprima.com/studyout.htm How to Study with howtostudy.com http://www.howtostudy.com/studtips.htm Keys to College Success http://www.sunysccc.edu/student/Advisement/keystosuccess.htm The Study Skills Help Page: Strategies for Success http://www.mtsu.edu/~studskl/ Hayes-Bohanan, James (2002), "The Not-the-13th-Grade Page: A FREE Online Guide to College Success" http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/NOT13TH/not13th.htm Good Study Habits http://www.study-habits.com/
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References
Adams, Dennis (2006), "Wireless Laptops in the Classroom (and the Sesame Street Syndrome)", Communications of the ACM 49(9; September): 25-27. Claxton, Charles S., & Murrell, Patricia H. (1987), Learning Styles: Implications for Improving Educational Practices, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education). Holland, John L. (1966), The Psychology of Vocational Choice (Waltham, MA: Ginn & Co.) Kolb, David A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall). Sternberg, Robert J. (1999), Thinking Styles (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Swerdlow, Joel L. (1999, August), "The Power of Writing", National Geographic 196(2): 110-133, 136. Copyright 1999-2007 by William J. Rapaport ( rapaport@cse.buffalo.edu) http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/howtostudy.html-20070514-2
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