Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfish, are a family of mostly marine fish that includes many of the world's most venomous

species. As the name suggests, scorpionfish have a type of "sting" in the form of sharp [2] spines coated with venomous mucus. The family is a large one, with hundreds of members. They are widespread in tropical and temperate seas, but mostly found in the Indo-Pacific. They should not be confused with the cabezones, of the genus Scorpaenichthys, which belong to a separate, though related family, Cottidae. ome types, such as the lionfish, are attractive as well as dangerous, and highly desired foraquaria. In addition to the name scorpionfish, informal names for family members include "firefish", "turkeyfish", "dragonfish", and "stingfish", usually with adjectives added. General characteristics of family members include a compressed body, ridges and/or spines on the head, one or two spines on the operculum, and three to five spines on the preopercle. The dorsal fin will have 11 to 17 spines, often long and separated from each other, and thepectoral fins will be well-developed, [3] with 11 to 25 rays. The spines of the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins all have venom glands at their bases. Most species are bottom-dwellers that feed on crustaceans and smaller fish. Many inhabit shallow waters, [2] but a few live as deep as 2,200 metres (7,200 ft). Most Scorpionfish, such as the stonefish, wait in disguise for prey to pass them by before swallowing, while lionfishoften ambush their prey. When not ambushing, lionfish may herd the fish, shrimp, or crab in to a corner before swallowing. Scorpionfish feed by opening their mouth, then their gills a fraction of a second apart, creating suction. Stripers, grouper, bass, snook, frogfish, toadfish, sculpin, etc., also feed this way, but the scorpionfish, toadfish and sculpins are the only members of this group that have jaw teeth.

Staying Alive
The Amazing Survival Strategies of Marine Creatures Story and photos by Marty Snyderman

Somewhere around the time most of us began to see cartoons on television

we became aware of the hunting skills and fierce reputations of some of the oceans" more notable predators, creatures such as great white sharks, tiger sharks, killer whales, giant squid and barracudas. As we grew older and our knowledge of marine life expanded we became aware of hundreds of other species that survive alongside the oceans" "biggest and baddest," and we realized that creatures lower on the food chain do not live their lives completely at the mercy of the appetites of the top-end predators. Every species has its own bag of survival tricks, adaptations that empower at least some members of each species to live long enough to reproduce before ending up in the bellies of predators in the real-life game of staying alive. As you spend more and more time diving, you will inevitably learn about the natural history of various marine creatures you encounter, and you will become increasingly aware of the amazing variety of adaptations they use to

avoid predation. Even though there are far too many predator-avoiding methods to list, much less discuss in a single article, learning the ways that marine animals avoid predation will help you gain insight into the lives of the many creatures you are likely to see when you dive. Survival Strategies Let's start by examining some methods fishes use to avoid predators. Many fishes, a group that includes silversides, mackerels, anchovies, herrings, tunas, jacks and snappers, and many other species, live in large schools. Several theories support the advantage of schooling. First, there is the concept of safety in numbers, meaning that the odds of a single fish getting captured by a hungry predator are less when a fish schools than if that same fish swims alone in a predator-filled sea. Many specialists suggest that a position nearest the center of a school maximizes the protective benefit of schooling. Second, in schools there are a lot more eyes and other sensory systems on the lookout for possible predators. Third, some specialists also believe that a school might be seen by some predators as a being bigger than the predators. Attacking a single creature that appears to be as big as the school would mean taking too big of a risk. Form and Function Of course, not all fishes live in schools. Solitary species use other ways to help them avoid predators. For example, when danger threatens thin-bodied species such as angelfishes and butterflyfishes, their thin bodies allow them to escape into the narrow cracks and crevices of reefs, places that their thicker-bodied predators cannot enter. When feeling threatened, razorfishes disappear into the sand, while species such as jawfishes, tilefishes and a variety of blennies seek shelter in their self-made burrows. Flatfishes such as flounders, halibut, turbots and sanddabs camouflage themselves to go sight unseen by predators and prey alike. These amazing

creatures use cells in their skin known as chromatophores to help them match the hue and pattern of their surroundings with remarkable accuracy. Other masters of camouflage, such as sculpins and stonefishes, use their coloration, patterning and facial appendages to blend with their surroundings. Frogfishes and leaffishes can resemble their surroundings and sit almost motionless for long periods, enabling them to go undetected. The greatly flattened shape of rays, skates and sharks such as angelsharks helps them blend with the substrate. Many flattened animals bury themselves in the substrate at times to go undetected by predators and prey alike. When frightened, balloonfishes and pufferfishes swallow water and inflate their bodies, increasing their apparent size and erecting numerous sharp spines that deter many potential threats. Some smaller fishes, such as horn sharks and Port Jackson sharks, possess sharp spines next to their dorsal fins that can be raised to puncture the mouths of animals that try to bite them. The spines of the juveniles are considerably sharper than those of the larger adults, and the juveniles are often spit out to live another day by predators that mistake them for an easy meal. Triggerfishes use a modified triggerlike dorsal fin to help them lodge into crevices when danger is present. Their dorsal fin contains three spines with the most forward being the largest. When the first spine is erected during a moment of fear, the second spine moves forward to "lock" the first spine into position, and the fish positions itself in a way that the erect spine prevents it from being pulled out of its hiding place. Venomous Defense Spines in the dorsal fins of scorpionfishes and stonefishes enable these fishes to deliver a painful, and in some cases toxic, puncture wound to would-be predators. The beautiful species commonly called lion or turkeyfishes are close relatives of the stonefishes and, not surprisingly, they too are armed with a venomous defense system. Being slow to give ground when approached and rather belligerent by nature, these fishes can inflict potent, poisonous stings with their long, dorsal spines. Other Adaptations Many species of parrotfishes are wary and very difficult to approach during the day. At night, however, they enter a sleep-like state known as torpor, zonking out on the sea floor. Sometimes they squeeze into cracks or crevices, but amazingly members of several species routinely "sleep" out in the open inside of self-spun cocoons created from the combination of sand

and their own mucus. The cocoons are believed to mask their odor, preventing predators such as moray eels that rely upon their olfactory system to find prey from detecting their presence. Some butterflyfishes use a false eyespot to fool predators. Near the tail, the false eyespot stands out prominently, while their eyes are often masked by facial stripes and other markings. Seeing the false eyespot, a predator might be deceived about which end of the butterflyfish is the head and which is the tail. The theory is that the predator will often think the butterflyfish will try to escape by going the opposite direction of the course it actually chooses. Anemonefishes are well-documented to hide among the potent, stinging tentacles of sea anemones. Anemonefishes are able to protect themselves from the powerful stings of their host anemones, but the bright colors and attention-getting antics of the anemonefishes can lure other fishes into a fatal trap, one that is believed to provide food for the host anemone and for the anemonefish. Fishes known as sharksuckers, remoras and many other small fishes either attach themselves or swim close to a larger animal such as a shark, turtle, grouper or barracuda. The idea here is that no other predator is likely to come close to their large predatory host, so these relatively small fishes only have to keep a watchful eye out for a single predator. Fishes Aren"t the Only Clever Ones Of course, it is not just fishes that are equipped with adaptations that enable them to foil predators. Octopuses and squids emit clouds of ink to evade predators. While the ink obscures the predator"s vision, anesthetizing the olfactory systems of predators such as moray eels is thought to be the ink"s primary purpose. Many species of nudibranchs are extremely colorful and stand out in their surroundings. Slow crawlers, nudibranchs seem easy prey. However, various species of nudibranchs secrete noxious chemicals that repel predators.

Other species are able to transfer the unfired stinging cells from soft corals and anemones into the cerata on their backs, and the nudibranchs use the stinging cells as part of their own defense. Sponges might appear to be an easy meal for an uneducated predator, but their tough, fibrous bodies are laced with sharp, silica-based spicules that once nibbled upon repel many fishes. Some species of sponges harbor zoanthids, small, stinging creatures described in the phylum Cnidaria that live on the sponges. Their presence helps to deter some fishes such as French angelfishes that have adapted to feed on the sponges. Colorful worms known as fire, or bristle, look harmless, but their coloration is a warning that packs a punch. The hairy-looking tufts that border their bodies are composed of numerous fiberglasslike bristles that can easily penetrate the skin of many animals that try to bite them, and once they penetrate, the bristles break off and cause significant pain (at least in the case of humans). In other instances the best defense is a quick retreat, and few species are as adept at retreat as tubeworms. When relaxed and not feeling threatened, tubeworms extend their featherlike gill plumes to trap food and to extract oxygen from the water. But the instant a tubeworm senses danger, the gill plumes are drawn into their tube, in acts that occur in the blink of an eye. Immobile animals and others that are rather poor swimmers face a significant problem when it comes to escaping predators and capturing food. With flight and pursuit being unavailable, animals such as corals, anemones, hydroids and jellyfishes need instant results. So it should come as no surprise that the legendary stings of these creatures are both potent and fast-acting. In fact, it is believed that the firing of their stinging cells is one of the fastest cellular responses in all of nature. The firing process is entirely mechanical, being caused by touch or pressure waves, and no thought process is involved. The echinoderms known as sea cucumbers are rather unattractive creatures. They might be considered an easy meal if sea cucumbers could not expel their stomachs. The sticky, foul organ can be regenerated, and in the short term when regurgitated it repels predators. I could go on and on listing and discussing various ways marine animals avoid and escape predators. While the adaptations mentioned in this piece certainly are not all-inclusive, I do hope that the variety provides you with valuable insights into the marine kingdom. It is an interesting exercise after a dive to consider the creatures you saw acquire food while avoiding being eaten. Understanding how that real-life game is played will add to your own appreciation of the clever ways of Mother Nature, the most amazing lady any of us will ever know.

Fly Away Several species of fishes known as flying fishes can glide over the surface of the sea to escape predators such as billfishes, dorado, tunas and sharks. Flying fishes have been documented to soar at speeds of up to 35 mph (56 kmph) for distances up to 750 feet (227 m) in a single glide. Flying fishes use the powerful side-to-side motion of their tails to propel themselves forward through the water, and once they break free of the water these fishes extend their enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins, using them to help the fishes glide over the surface. So, technically these fishes glide as opposed to having wings that enable them to fly. But when you see them gliding across the surface, the name flying fishes certainly seems apropos. Take That A number of invertebrates, most notably sea urchins, use sharp spines to defend themselves against predators. The barbed spines of most sea urchins lack venom, but create a formidable defense nonetheless. Known for eating corals, the crown of thorns sea star is another invertebrate that is armed with sharp, protective spines. Give A Little, Gain A Lot Over time, many sea stars can regenerate lost body parts, and "lost parts" can regenerate a new body in some instances as long as a portion of the animal"s central disc remains attached. So when attacked, sea stars often sacrifice one arm to escape, regenerate and live another day. http://www.oceansforyouth.org/whats-that/wt1104.html
http://www.dtmag.com/Stories/What%20About/04-06-whats_that.htm
In the marine world, one of the fundamental challenges for many creatures is to eat and

Early on in life most children learn that a variety of very capable apex predators such as that drop their guard.

sharks and barracudas roam the worlds oceans and that the oceans can be a dangerous pla

But as we grow older and learn more about the oceans and marine wildlife it becom

that there are a lot more marine creatures that are not top-end predators, yet their

continue to flourish. For any species to thrive over long periods, sufficient numbers

must live long enough to reach adulthood and reproduce. For this to occur those an more than to have them for their next meal.

be able to defend themselves from the onslaught of marine predators that would lik

In this piece I will examine some of the ways that various species of fishes defend t in a world filled with a variety of very capable predators.

Staying in School

Schooling is one of the primary ways many fishes help defend themselves from pred

80 percent of all fish species school as juveniles and roughly 20 percent school as a

ichthyologists say that the concept of safety in numbers plays a fundamental role

behavior. The adage big fish eat little fish is generally true, so to overcome the pr

caused by their diminutive size, many small fishes gather in schools. It is believed t

schools look like a single large creature, and many predators tend to leave large an

Another aspect of the safety in numbers theory revolves around the fact that even

predator attacks a school, the odds are low that any one fish will be the one the pre hiding among the school than it is to roam the waters alone.

captures. In essence, each member of the school operates under the premise that it

In a school each fish near the edge of the school serves as a lookout, thus helping t

rest of the school. Many schooling fishes are able to quickly react to the escape reac

fish, at least in part because of their lateral line system. Specialized receptors that r

sides of the body can detect minute changes in water pressure that might be caused

another nearby fish suddenly changes speed or direction. Anyone who has watched simultaneously react to the sudden movement of animals nearby.

fishes has seen the amazing speed with which all of the fish in a school can seeming

Blending In

Many fishes rely heavily upon their ability to blend into their surroundings so their p

might go undetected by predators. Certainly this is the case for flatfishes such as ha

flounders, turbots and soles. These fishes are masters of the art of cryptic color as t

routinely alter the hue and pattern of their skin to closely match that of their surrou

These fishes also often bury themselves in sand to further disguise their presence. O

such as sculpins and scorpionfishes can also alter the color and pattern of their skin

the surrounding reef or seafloor. In addition, the bodies of many sculpins and scorp the seafloor and other nearby organisms.

adorned with numerous fleshy appendages that break up their outline and help them

In California waters giant kelpfish do an amazing job of altering their color and patt

blend with the aquatic algae known as kelp. But when it comes to looking like and b that has fins, eyes and a snout.

kelp, Australias leafy sea dragon is the clear winner. This master of camouflage loo

Countershading is another oft-used form of camouflage. A wide range of species inc

variety of smaller mackerel as well as larger fishes such as manta rays have dark ba

whitish bellies. When viewed from above, their darkly hued backs help them blend w them blend with more lightly hued surface waters when seen from below.

hued bottoms or with the darkness of the abyss below, while their whitish underbel

Colors and patterns that break up the outlines of fishes serve as yet another form o fishes that live in or near beds of aquatic plants. The vertical stripes blend with the

camouflage. Vertical bars on the bodies of fishes are a common pattern often assoc

orientation of the plant stems, making the fishes hard to distinguish. Dark lateral ba

along the sides of many fishes are often seen in schooling fishes. Specialists theoriz next.

bands appear to run together, making it difficult for predators to distinguish one fis

Using Speed and Maneuverability

Reaction time and speed are extremely valuable assets for any fish trying to escape

While most people tend to think of sharks as predators they are also prey, especiall

are young and small. A burst of speed from a juvenile lemon shark, blacktip, blue or

species helps these fast swimmers escape predation from larger members of their o

as well as other sharks and fishes such as large sea basses that would like to consu both when hunting and when being hunted.

The same is true for small tunas, jacks and mackerels, species that use their swimm

Many reef fishes are highly maneuverable, a characteristic that enables them to mo

within the tight confines of reef communities. In addition, thin-bodied species such

angelfishes and butterflyfishes can quickly slide into hiding places when danger thr

Sticking it to Em

A variety of fishes use numerous sharp spines and armored scales to help fend off p

swallowing a lot of water when alarmed, balloonfishes and pufferfishes can inflate t unpleasant mouthful of nails and needles instead of an easy meal.

erecting a number of very sharp spines. The rigid and sharply pointed spines give an

Surgeonfishes are named for the strategically placed, often brightly colored, scalpe

spines near the base of their strong tail. Those spines and a quick beat of the tail ca warning sign.

serious injury to any predator. The bright color of the spines serves as a dont mes

A number of relatively small reef sharks including the horn sharks, Port Jackson sha the spines are especially sharp, and when erected make an unpleasant surprise for

crested bullhead possess a sharp spine toward the front of their dorsal fin. In young

such as a large sea bass or angelshark. Triggerfishes are also equipped with a stron

spine. Instead of using this spine to inflict injury, they erect the spine to help wedg triggerfishes out of their holes.

into tight cracks and crevices in reef communities, preventing predators from pullin

While not armed with sharp spines, boxfishes and sea horses possess armored scale is true for a variety of catfishes, many of which also possess sharp spines.

harden their bodies, making it more difficult for an attacker to injure or capture the

Stingrays, as many beach users know all too well, are equipped with one or more kn injuries to animals that try to harm the rays.

on their tails near the base. Capable of injecting powerful venom, these barbs can in

Poisons and Potions

Scorpionfishes, lionfishes and stonefishes are equipped with a pair of poison glands

of each of their many pectoral spines. When threatened these species can quickly lu to be the most highly venomous fish in the world.

and use these spines as venom-injecting needles to repel threats. The reef stonefish

Mimicry

A variety of fishes such as the foureye butterflyfish use a false eyespot to confuse p

The big, dark, conspicuous spot is on the back of the fishs body above, but near the

Specialists believe the eyespot is intended to trick predators into thinking that the f

actually its head so the predator is likely to attack the least vulnerable end of the bu attempts to evade the predator.

body, and the predator is likely to be fooled by the direction the butterflyfish swims

On the Fly

More than 50 species of flyingfishes use their ability to glide above the surface of th

escape predators such as tunas, billfish, sea lions, dolphins, sharks and more. Flying

able to jump out of the water and then glide through the air over considerable dis

When spread while airborne, their greatly enlarged pectoral creates an airfoil simila wings also have enlarged pelvic fins that provide additional lift.

airplane wing providing lift and enabling these fishes to glide. Those species that ha

Once flyingfish break the surface they spread their fins and beat their tail. The enla

lobe of the tail works like an outboard motor with the sideways motion of the tail en

fish to gain height and extend the duration of the flight. Flyingfish can glide for at le

(100 m), and they are occasionally seen as high as 10 feet (3 m) above the surface.

Safe at Home

Many fishes, including tilefishes, a variety of gobies and jawfishes, reside in self-ma to where these fishes retreat when they detect danger. In some cases the burrows opening and be ensured of cornering its prey.

elaborate and have several entrances and exits meaning that a predator cannot just

Razorfishes dont require a burrow. They can quickly bury themselves in sandy bott

variety of eels such as snake eels and cusk eels are also adept at quickly burying th

sand to escape harm. Many blennies live in sponges or in the vacated shells of barn the need arises.

mollusks. These small living quarters provide the blennies with superb places to ret

Shock and Awe

In comparison with other rays, electric rays are not fast swimmers. Nor are they ar

barbs like stingrays. But they are far from defenseless. As their name suggests, elec

equipped with specialized electricity-producing organs that can unleash powerful el

that help these rays protect themselves and stun prey. The rays do not have to com

contact with the creatures they shock. They just need to be sure the creature is wit

electrical field created when a ray unleashes a jolt of electricity. Electric rays canno the interim might have trouble warding off another attack.

electricity-producing ability frivolously. It takes time for them to store more electric

Fishes employ a variety of techniques and strategies to defend themselves. Learnin oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds and streams. http://makezine.com/craft/how_to_puffer_fish_puppet/ http://www.daniellesplace.com/html/under_the_sea.html

ways fishes protect themselves provides valuable insight into the inner workings of

Materials:

paper, paper plate, pencil and black marker

scissors or cutter glue

Instructions:

Draw a half circle with a marker on the edge of the plate.

cut a triangular mouth from the half circle area Glue the piece you cut out onto the back as a tail. Cut an eyeball out from construction paper (or use the template piece). Cut long triangles out from construction paper and glue them around the paper plate. Cut a fin shape out (or use the template piece) and glue it to the middle of the fish.