Christian Socialists 26062013

A Document [Christian Socialists]
Christian Socialists
On 10th April, 1848, a group of Christians who supported Chartism held a meeting in London. People who attended the meeting included Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes. The meeting was a response to the decision by the House of Commons to reject the recent Chartist Petition. The men, who became known as Christian Socialists, discussed how the Church could help to prevent revolution by tackling what they considered were the reasonable grievances of the working class. Frederick Denison Maurice was acknowledged as the leader of the group and his book The Kingdom of Christ (1838) became the theological basis of Christian Socialism. In the book Maurice argued that politics and religion are inseparable and that the church should be involved in addressing social questions. Maurice rejected individualism, with its competition and selfishness, and suggested a socialist alternative to the economic principles of laissez faire. Christian Socialists promoted the cooperative ideas of Robert Owen and suggested profit sharing as a way of improving the status of the working classes and as a means of producing a just, Christian society. Maurice's biographer, Bernard Reardon, has argued: "In 1850 Maurice publicly accepted the designation Christian socialist for his movement.... He disliked competition as fundamentally unchristian, and wished to see it, at the social level, replaced by co-operation, as expressive of Christian brotherhood... Maurice held Bible classes and addressed meetings attended by working men who, although his words carried less of social and political guidance than moral edification, were invariably impressed by the speaker. But the actual means by which the competitiveness of the prevailing economic system was to be mitigated was judged to be the creation of co-operative societies." The Christian Socialists published two journals, Politics of the People (1848-1849) and The Christian Socialist (1850-51). The group also produced a series of pamphlets under the title Tracts on Christian Socialism. Other initiatives included a night school in Little Ormond Yard and helping to form eight Working Men's Associations. In 1850 Thomas Hughes, Edward Neale, Lloyd Jones, and other members of the group helped to establish the London Cooperative Store. Disagreements between members resulted in the Christian Socialists being inactive between 1854 and the late 1870s. The 1880s saw a revival of the movement and by the end of the century a variety of Christian Socialist groups had been formed including the Socialist Quaker Society, the
Roman Catholic Socialist Society, the Guild of St. Matthew, and the Christian Social Union. Christian Socialists also dominated the leadership of the Independent Labour Party formed in 1893. This included James Keir Hardie, Philip Snowden, Ben Tillett, Tom Mann, Katharine Glasier, Margaret McMillan and Rachel McMillan. The Christian Socialist movement also influenced many of the leaders of the American Socialist Party such as Norman Thomas and Upton Sinclair. On the outbreak of the First World War a large number of Christian Socialists joined the No-Conscription Fellowship (NCF), an organisation formed by Clifford Allen and Fenner Brockway, that encouraged men to refuse war service. The NCF required its members to "refuse from conscientious motives to bear arms because they consider human life to be sacred." Wilfred Wellock, a Christian Socialist, joined the Independent Labour Party. "As I moved about the country after 1920 it was next to impossible to secure a response to any kind of spiritual appeal... The only organisation that appeared to be advancing was the Independent Labour Party... The rapid march of the socialist movement in Britain at this time, with the Independent Labour party as its spearhead, owed its success to its essentially spiritual appeal. The ILP inherited the spiritual idealism of the early Christian Socialists and of the artist-poet-craftmanship school of William Morris... This was the only kind of socialism that appealed to me... I am a socialist, provided you give a spiritual interpretation to the term... I have only recently decided to enter practical politics since I have seen the possibility of making politics, through the introduction of spiritual considerations, a veritable means of social transformation." In 1921 Wellock published Christian Communism. He argued that is " our business is to create a Christian Communist consciousness, and to let the revolution, or what there be, come out of that... We must concentrate upon the ideal, preach and teach it everywhere, proclaim it in the cities, in the churches, at the street corners - go into the highways and the hedges and compel the people to see life anew, and in the light of a finer ideal to recreate the world." There was a revival of Christian Socialism after the outbreak of the Second World War. The writer, John Middleton Murry, argued for "socialistcommunities, prepared for hardship and practised in brotherhood, might be the nucleus of a new Christian Society, much as the monasteries were during the dark ages."
John Simkin, September 1997 - June 2013 http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REsocialism.htm
Can there be such a hybrid as Christian socialism? The very concept of Christian Socialism is difficult to define because it implies that there are other denominational species of socialism...Jewish socialism...Muslim socialism...Hindu socialism...well you get the idea. Where did this idea come from? It's not scriptural. So here is... A short history of socialism. The attempt to integrate man-made economic theory with Christian God-revealed religion began in the middle of the 19th century with the rise of the industrial revolution...when entrepreneurs produced goods and services on a large scale. This concentrated significant wealth in the hands of those creative people and companies. While the rest became workers producing and laying the vast miles of railroad track needed to move people and goods...or weaving the cloth that sewing factories would make into clothing...or importing tea or coffee or wine into countries that couldn't grow those things. And so on. Christian socialism appeared at the beginning of the industrial revolution and coincided with the publication in 1848 of Karl Marx's The Communist Manifesto. Then Anglicans and Catholics...unmoved by the centuries old rich-overlord/poor-serf relationship...developed troubled consciences that the rich-industrialist/poor-worker relationship was neither fair nor just according to...unspecified...Christian principles. And thus began religion's attempt to close the gap between the poor and the industrialists...on the theory that the
Can Christian Socialism Be Reconciled With The Ten Commandments?
effects of competitive private ownership of property...which is capitalism...undermined Christian ideals (not principles) of what economics should do to the rich and for the poor. So let's compare the two...
Christian socialism and the gospels

If the Christian ideal is to keep the covenant with God...and so it must be...then Christian socialism becomes a contradiction...and contradictions never represent truth...for they are always false. Here's why... Christian socialism can't replace or enhance Christian charity (Mt 6:1ff; 7:12; 10:42) because churches invite your charitable donation to the welfare of others. You may decline the invitation for any reason whatsoever. Charity is voluntary. Socialist welfare giving must be implemented by force through taxation policies of a ruling dictator or elite politicians. Your consent is not required and you are not free to decline. One important injustice inherent in Christian socialism is that Christian churches are exempt by law from contributing to the tax monies...that must be obtained from productive working people...to fund any socialist program. Such forced 'giving' has no spiritual merit even if it is called Christian socialism. Or even if such Christian socialism has the approval of some Christians. Baptizing something and naming it Christian socialism doesn't make it Christian. (For example...if you baptize a monkey...does that make it a Christian?) God's way with us is by mutual consent through covenants and never by force. Much of what is called Christianity is about social justice and helping the poor. Yet... The gospels do not indicate that Jesus came to save the world from poverty through Christian socialism
...but to save it from sin... which is violating the covenant with God. Yet...Jesus was not insensitive to the poor...and encouraged helping them (Mt 19:21). However...he does not view legitimately earned wealth as unfair to others (Mt 20 1-16). And he does not propagandize for a vague form of "social justice" that requires wealth transfer from society's producers to the non-productive through confiscation by unelected bureaucrats. That would be a contradiction (and contradictions are always false) because you cannot provide justice to one person or group by inflicting injustice on another. Every child understands this injustice when a parent forces one sibling to give her toys to a younger sibling. It's probably a good guess that most Christians have not read the tenets of socialism to understand ways Christian socialism is incompatible with God's Ten Commandments. And also to notice how many of the Manifesto's tenets are already in operation through socialist government programs. And so here are the Marxist commandments which underlie Christian socialism...
The ten 'commandments' of Karl Marx

1
Marx: Expropriation of property in land and all rents of land to public purposes. Expropriation means taking by the state. This is a violation of God's Commandment "Thou shalt not steal". God makes this specific (Deut 2:3ff) where he tells Moses that even he may not take what belongs to others but must pay for everything he and the Israelites eat and drink with silver. And God tells Moses that he is not entitled to so much as foot of land belonging to others. By this Commandment God recognizes and affirms private property ownership. Marx: A heavy progressive or graduated income
tax. When Peter was confronted by the tax collectors to know if Jesus did NOT pay their tax...Peter agreed Jesus did NOT (Mt 17:24-25). Again Jesus is confronted with whether it is
lawful to pay Caesar's taxes (Mt 22:15-22) and Jesus looks at the coin with the emperor's image on it and says "Render to Caesar what belongs to him and to God what belongs to God." The word render does not mean "to give"...it means "to give back". Today (March 2009) there are reports in the news that various states are attempting to give back to Caesar federal reserve notes ...which have no instrinsic value... by not accepting his "stimulus package" (Google "states assert sovereignty") or by making gold and silver money the money in commerce (Google "Montana gold and silver dollars"). 3 Marx: Abolition of all rights of inheritance. Your children cannot inherit what was expropriated through coercion by the state. 4 Marx: Confiscation of all property of all emigrants and rebels. If you protest socialist government policies or try to leave the jurisdiction of the socialist government it will confiscate all of your property. This includes your body because...as you will see below...you have a liability to the state to enforced labor according to its dictates. This violates God's Commandment "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods." As above...in this Commandment God affirms the right to one's private property. 5 Marx: Centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly The private central bank has existed since 1913 as the Federal Reserve. All of the notes in circulation as paper money or as computer digits are borrowed and must be paid back at interest. Every time the Congress borrows...in your name...a billion here or there for a socialist program...your children and grandchildren will have to pay that back. That is the reason why the enforced labor provision...and the inability to escape it...is central to socialist government. (Google "US domestic army"). This amounts to stealing the labor and resources of future
generations in violation of God's Commandments about not stealing and about not coveting thy neighbor's property. 6 Marx: Centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State. This is already a practice through the FCC's control of the airwaves. Also...through the 501c3 application churches cannot express their lack of support for politicians who are morally degenerate or habitual liars. That is...such churches that have contracted to be supervised by the government cannot fulfill their moral obligation to enforce God's laws against bearing false witness or stealing or partial birth abortion in vioaltion of the Commandment "Thou shalt not kill". 7 Marx: Increase of factories and instruments of production owned by the State, the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan. The socialist government will control the means of production which will get rid of competitors from the private sector. Without private sector competition...the socialist government will determine the cost of everything. Currently (March 2009) the state is buying up banks (Google "bank bailouts") to fulfill the fifth of Marx's planks above. The socialist government will control the land and what is grown on it. That way the socialist government can manipulate the food supply keeping its subjects dependent on it for life's sustenance. By controlling the food supply and outlawing private farming (Google "private farms outlawed") state policy determines who gets to eat and who starves (refer to the "common", not "private", agricultural plan above). The ability to decide who eats and who starves potentially violates God's Commandment "Thou shalt not kill". 8 Marx: Equal liability of all to labor. Establishment of industrial armies especially for agriculture (see above). Almost a hundred years before Marx...the German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote that the highest morality
a person could participate in was his duty to the state. Nonsocialist Christians would hold that one's highest moral obligations are to God's laws which supercede socialist state laws. Kantianism and Marxism violate the First Commandment..."I am the Lord thy God...thou shalt not have stange gods before me". For Christians...the Ten Commandments dictate morality...not Kant and Marx who turn God into the state. 9 Marx: Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country, by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country. It was a characteristic of slavery that any individual slave...man...woman...or child could be taken from any place at any time and "distributed" somewhere else. Husbands...wives...children could be moved at will. This makes it impossible to fulfill God's Commandments "Honor thy father and thy mother" if you don't know who or where they are. And "thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife" if a government official can "redistribute" someone's wife to meet the allocation needs of a socialist government. (School busing was an early experiment in redistributing the population...and parents had nothing to say about it. It is reported that today there are more than 800 detention centers on American soil ready to redistribute dissenters. In the First Commandment God tells us he freed us from slavery to the state so that we could be free and willing participants in a beneficial contract with him. Google "detention centers"). 10 Marx: Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children's factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production, &c., &c Education in public schools makes it impossible for parents to pass on to their children God's Ten Commandments (especially since those children may be "redistributed" elsewhere). All children will be educated to socialist government propaganda in its schools. They may never
learn of the existence of God's laws (Google "Ten Commandments outlawed"). They will not be children of God...they will be children of state bureaucrats and will go to school part time and work part time where the government needs them in order to fulfill the other tenets of the socialist program. This violates the First Commandment..."I am the Lord they God...thou shalt not have strange gods before me." The comparison between God's law and socialist laws is made only to show that they are completely incompatible...and that Christian socialism is a contradiction. Many people the world over choose to live under socialism. And they know that's what it is. It is not Christian charity disguised as Christian socialism. There can be no such thing as "Christian Socialism" without redefining both words.
Irreconcilable differences between God and Marx

1
God...always invites us to be in a relationship with him through contracts or covenants. We can choose freely to be or not to be in a relationship with God. This covenant is a set of mutually agreed upon benefits. It is binding on each party by their consent. Socialism...is a relationship imposed by a ruling elite class of humans who enforce their will through law and physical force without consent (slavery). God...binds himself to act in certain ways guaranteed in the contract or covenant. (For example Mt 19:16ff...God promises eternal life...you promise to keep the Commandments.) Socialism...the ruling elite bind themselves to nothing...and only guarantee that those subject to their rule will act in certain ways with or without their consent (for example...school busing that redistributed children according to government directive). Anything
7 8
10
promised by a socialist government is a privilege...not a contractual right...and can be withdrawn on a whim. God...There is a penalty clause in every covenant starting with Adam and Eve. This is invoked only if the agreement is violated...by going back on one's freely given word to perform in a chosen manner. Socialism...penalties and punishments are meted out for failing to obey the arbitrary will of the ruling elite. People can be incarcerated without charges...without recourse to courts and without assistance of counsel. (For example "enemy combatants" held in Guantanamo). God...forgiveness for violating the contract with him is readily available. Socialism...does not seek repentence from those who violate its rules. It only seeks to punish. (For example...the fourth socialist plank above does not provide for return of confiscated property of those who dissent from...but later obey...the imposed rules.) God...you are free to live life as you choose as long as you abide by the covenant of the Ten Commandments. Socialism...all aspects of life are determined by the state.
As humans we have choice...without which there is no sin and no morality...and can choose who our master is to be. People can be children of God...or children of the state as defined in the Manifesto...but not of both. Christian socialism is still socialism even if it's not Christian. To establish a new religion and call it Christian Socialism is like trying to mix oil and water. The concoction may shimmer with irridescent color and please the eye...but the oil only covers the water...the oil does not blend with the water. And like many things in nature that look pretty...the mixture is poisonous. Who would...
drink water mixed with oil?... bathe in water mixed with oil?... fill a gas tank with water mixed with oil?... baptize with water mixed with oil? Mixing the life-giving water of Christianity with the oil of political economic theory cancels the meaning of both and results in a nullity. If ministry is as we have defined it...then it is difficult to see how ministers can ever bring themselves and the people closer to God through state-sponsored socialism...even if it is called Christian socialism. Return from christian socialism to separation of church and state to see how churches invite government interference in their affairs through contracts. Make sure your ministry is capable of bringing you and your congregation safely home to God. Start by making sure you're doing ministry for God according to the covenant, God's contract with us, and not for a worldly government. From here you can... http://www.boundaries-for-effective-ministry.org/christiansocialism.html
Christian Socialist Movement

The Christian Socialist Movement, or CSM, is a socialist society affiliated to the British Labour Party. The CSM was an amalgamation of the Society of Socialist Clergy and Ministers and the Socialist Christian League. R. H. Tawney made one of his last public appearances at the Movement's inaugural meeting on 22 January 1960. Donald Soper chaired the Movement until becoming its President in 1975. The movement fulfilled a need among political activists on Christian left in Britain for an organisation that would be politically engaged and theologically reflective at the same time. It affiliated to the Labour Party in 1988. The CSM was a volunteer organisation until 1994 when it appointed a coordinator, followed by an administrator. This followed interest in the
movement following the disclosure that the then Labour Leader John Smith was a member. Today the CSM has over 40 members in the House of Commons and House of Lords and the former prime minister Gordon Brown.[1] As of April 2009, its Director is Andy Flannagan; its Executive Committee Chair is Alun Michael; its Vice Chair is Helen Dennis. CSM is a member organisation of the International League of Religious Socialists.
Frederick Denison Maurice

John Frederick Denison Maurice, often known as F. D. Maurice (29 August 1805 1 April 1872), was an English theologian and Christian Socialist. Maurice was born at Normanston, Suffolk, the son of a Unitarian minister, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge in 1823,[1] though only members of the Established Church were eligible to obtain a degree. Together with John Sterling (with whom he founded the Apostles' Club) he migrated to Trinity Hall and obtained a first class degree in civil law in 1827; [1] he then came to London and gave himself to literary work, writing a novel, Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister , and editing the London Literary Chronicle until 1830 and also, for a short time, the Athenaeum. At this time Maurice was undecided about his religious opinions and he ultimately found relief in a decision to take a further university course and to seek Anglican ordination. Entering Exeter College, Oxford, he took a second class degree in classics in 1831. He was ordained in 1834 and, after a short curacy at Bubbenhall in Warwickshire, was appointed chaplain of Guy's Hospital and became a leading figure in the intellectual and social life of London. From 1839 to 1841, he was editor of the Education Magazine. In 1840 he was appointed professor of English history and literature at King's College London and to this post in 1846 was added the chair of divinity. In 1845 he was Boyle lecturer and Warburton lecturer. He held these chairs until 1853. In 1853 he published Theological Essays; the opinions it expressed were viewed by R. W. Jelf, principal of King's College, as being of unsound theology. He had previously been called on to clear himself from charges of heterodoxy brought against him in the Quarterly Review (1851) and had been acquitted by a committee of inquiry. He maintained with great conviction that his views were in accord with Scripture and the Anglican
standards, but King's College Council ruled otherwise and he was deprived of his professorships, although he received sympathy from friends and former pupils.[2] Despite this, a chair at King's College, the F.D. Maurice Professorship of Moral and Social Theology, now commemorates his contribution to scholarship. He resigned the chaplaincy at Guy's Hospital for the chaplaincy of Lincoln's Inn (18461860); later an offer to resign here was refused by the benchers. He held the incumbency of St. Peter's, Vere Street from 1860 to 1869, where a further resignation offer was refused.[2] He was engaged in a hot and bitter controversy [citation needed] with Henry Longueville Mansel (afterwards dean of St Paul's), arising out of the latter's 1858 Bampton Lectures on reason and revelation, The Limits of Religious Thought. His son Frederick Maurice edited "The Life of Frederick Denison Maurice Chiefley Told in His Own Letters" - Two volumes, Macmillan, 1884. Achievements[edit] Maurice (right) depicted with Thomas Carlyle in Ford Madox Brown's painting Work Maurice was involved with important educational initiatives. He helped found Queen's College for the education of governesses in 1848. He was the leading light and one of the promoters and founders of The Working Men's College (est. 1854), being its principal between 1854 and 1872.[3] With Frances Martin he set up the Working Women's College in 1874. [3] He strongly advocated the abolition of university tests (1853), and threw himself with great energy into all that affected the social life of the people. [citation needed] Certain abortive attempts at co-operation among working men, and the movement known as Christian Socialism, were the immediate outcome of his teaching.[citation needed] In 1866 Maurice was appointed Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at Cambridge, and from 1870 to 1872 was incumbent of St Edward's in that city. Many streets in London are named in F D Maurice's honour, including Maurice Walk, a street in Hampstead Garden Suburb. Maurice is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on April 1. Personal life[edit] 1854 portrait of Maurice by Jane Mary Hayward He was twice married, first to Anna Barton, a sister of John Sterling's wife, secondly to a half-sister of his friend Archdeacon Hare. His son MajorGeneral Sir John Frederick Maurice (1841-1912), became a distinguished soldier and one of the most prominent military writers of his time.
Frederick Barton Maurice was a British General and writer, and like his grandfather F.D. Maurice, principal of The Working Men's College (1922 1933). Those who knew Maurice best were deeply impressed with the spirituality of his character. "Whenever he woke in the night," says his wife, "he was always praying." Charles Kingsley called him "the most beautiful human soul whom God has ever allowed me to meet with." As regards his intellectual attainments we may set Julius Hare's verdict "the greatest mind since Plato" over against John Ruskin's "by nature puzzle-headed and indeed wrong-headed." While many "Broad Churchmen" were influenced by ethical and emotional considerations in their repudiation of the dogma of everlasting torment, Maurice was swayed by intellectual and theological arguments, and in questions of a more general liberty he often opposed the Liberal theologians. He had a wide metaphysical and philosophical knowledge which he applied to the history of theology. He was a strenuous advocate of ecclesiastical control in elementary education, and an opponent of the new school of higher biblical criticism, though so far an evolutionist as to believe in growth and development as applied to the history of nations. As a preacher, his message was apparently simple; his two great convictions were the fatherhood of God, and that all religious systems which had any stability lasted because of a portion of truth which had to be disentangled from the error differentiating them from the doctrines of the Church of England as understood by himself. The prophetic, even apocalyptic, note of his preaching was particularly impressive. He prophesied "often with dark foreboding, but seeing through all unrest and convulsion the working out of a sure divine purpose." Both at King's College and at Cambridge Maurice gathered a following of earnest students. He encouraged the habit of inquiry and research, more valuable than his direct teaching. As a social reformer, Maurice was before his time, and gave his eager support to schemes for which the world was not ready. The condition of the city's poor troubled him; the magnitude of the social questions involved was a burden he could hardly bear. Working men of all opinions seemed to trust him even if their faith in other religious men and all religious systems had faded, and he had a power of attracting both the zealot and the outcast. Not everyone however was appreciative of his sermons or company:
CARLYLE LETTERS, Vol 10: Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle ; 1 February 1838: The Maurices are also wearisome, and happily rare; all invitations to meet the Maurices I, when it is any way possible, make a point of declining. Yet this very night I am to dine with the Maurices in Stimabiledom, and again on Saturday night to meet the Maurices and Lady Lewis there,if mercy or good management prevent not. One of the most entirely uninteresting men of genius that I can meet with in society is poor Maurice to me. All twisted, screwed, wiredrawn; with such a restless sensitiveness; the uttermost inability to let Nature have fair play with him! I do not remember that a word ever came from him betokening clear recognition or healthy free sympathy with any thing. One must really let him alone; till the prayers one does always offer for him (purehearted, earnest, humane creature as he is) begin to take effect. CARLYLE LETTERS, Vol 9: Jane W Carlyle to John Sterling ; 1 February 1837 Mr Morris (sic) we rarely seenor do I greatly regret his absence; for to tell you the truth, I am never in his company without being attacked with a sort of paroxysm of mental cramp! he keeps one always with his wiredrawings and paradoxes as if one were dancing on the points of one's toes (spiritually speaking) And then he will help the kettle and never fails to pour it all over the milk pot and sugar bason [sic]! Oxford Book of Literary Anecdotes I went, as usual about this time, to hear F.D. Maurice preach at Lincoln's Inn. I suppose I must have heard him, first and last, some thirty or forty times, and never carried away one clear idea, or even the impression that he had more than the faintest conception of what he himself meant. Aubrey de Vere was quite right when he said that listening to him was like eating pea-soup with a fork, and Jowett's answer was no less to the purpose, when I asked him what a sermon which Maurice had just preached at the University was about, and he replied'Well! all that I could make out was that today was yesterday, and this world the same as the next. Writings[edit] The following are his most important workssome of them were rewritten and in a measure recast, and the date given is not necessarily that of the first appearance of the book, but of its more complete and abiding form:
Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister , a novel (1834) ; The Kingdom of Christ, or Hints to a Quaker, respecting the principles, constitution and ordinances of the Catholic Church (1838)Volume 1 Volume 2 ; Christmas Day and Other Sermons (1843) ; The Unity of the New Testament (1844) ; The Epistle to the Hebrews (1846) ; The Religions of the World and their relation to Christianity (1847) ; Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy (at first an article in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, 1848) Volume 1 Ancient Philosophy Volume 2 The Christian Fathers Volume 3 Mediaeval Philosophy Volume 4 Modern Philosophy ; The Church a Family (1850) ; The Old Testament: Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons for the Sundays from Septuagesima (1851) ; Theological Essays (1853) ; The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament: A series of sermons (1853) ; Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the first and second centuries (1854) ; The Doctrine of Sacrifice deduced from the Scriptures (1854) ; The Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament: a series of sermons (1855) ; The Gospel of St John: a series of discourses (1857) ; The Epistles of St John: a series of lectures on Christian ethics (1857) ; The Gospel of the Kingdom of Heaven : a course of lectures on the Gospel of St Luke (1864) ; The Commandments Considered as Instruments of National Reformation (1866) ; The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry (1868) ; The Lord's Prayer, a Manual (1870). The greater part of these works were first delivered as sermons or lectures. Maurice also contributed many prefaces and introductions to the works of friends, as to Archdeacon Hare's Charges, Charles Kingsley's Saint's
;
Tragedy, etc. See Life by his son (2 volumes, London, 1884 Volume 1 and Volume 2; a monograph by C. F. G. Masterman (1907) in Leaders of the Church 1800-1900 series; W. E. Collins in Typical English Churchmen, pp. 327360 (1902), and T. Hughes in The Friendship of Books (1873).
Charles Kingsley
Charles Kingsley (12 June 1819 23 January 1875) was a priest of the Church of England, a university professor, historian and novelist. He is particularly associated with the West Country and northeast Hampshire. He was a friend and correspondent with Charles Darwin.[citation needed] Life and character Kingsley was born in Holne, Devon, the first of two sons from the Reverend Charles Kingsley and his wife Mary Lucas Kingsley. His brother, Henry Kingsley, also became a novelist. He spent his childhood in Clovelly, Devon and Barnack, Northamptonshire and was educated at Helston Grammar School[1] before studying at King's College London, and the University of Cambridge. Charles entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1838, and graduated in 1842. [2] He chose to pursue a ministry in the church. From 1844, he was rector of Eversley in Hampshire. In 1859 he was appointed chaplain to Queen Victoria.[3] In 1860, he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge.[3] In 1861 he became a private tutor to the Prince of Wales.[3] In 1869 Kingsley resigned his Cambridge professorship and, from 1870 to 1873, was a canon of Chester Cathedral. While in Chester he founded the Chester Society for Natural Science, Literature and Art, which played an important part in the establishment of the Grosvenor Museum.[4] In 1872 he accepted the Presidency of the Birmingham and Midland Institute and became its 19th President.[5] In 1873 he was made the canon of Westminster Abbey.[3] Kingsley died in 1875 and was buried in St Mary's Churchyard in Eversley. Kingsley sat on the 1866 Edward Eyre Defence Committee along with Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, Charles Dickens and Alfred Lord Tennyson, where he supported Jamaican Governor Edward Eyre's brutal suppression of the Morant Bay Rebellion against the Jamaica Committee. One of his daughters, Mary St Leger Kingsley, became known as a novelist under the pseudonym of "Lucas Malet". Kingsley's life was written by his widow in 1877, entitled Charles Kingsley, his Letters and Memories of his Life.
Kingsley also received letters from Thomas Huxley in 1860 and later in 1863, discussing Huxley's early ideas on agnosticism. Influences and works Kingsley's interest in history is shown in several of his writings, including The Heroes (1856), a children's book about Greek mythology, and several historical novels, of which the best known are Hypatia (1853), Hereward the Wake (1865) and Westward Ho! (1855). Kingsley He was sympathetic to the idea of evolution and was one of the first to praise Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species. He had been sent an advance review copy and in his response of 18 November 1859 (four days before the book went on sale) stated that he had "long since, from watching the crossing of domesticated animals and plants, learnt to disbelieve the dogma of the permanence of species."[6] Darwin added an edited version of Kingsley's closing remarks to the next edition of his book, stating that "A celebrated author and divine has written to me that 'he has gradually learnt to see that it is just as noble a conception of the Deity to believe that He created a few original forms capable of selfdevelopment into other and needful forms, as to believe that He required a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by the action of His laws'."[7] When a heated dispute lasting three years developed over human evolution, Kingsley gently satirised the debate as the Great Hippocampus Question. Kingley's concern for social reform is illustrated in his classic, The WaterBabies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby (1863), a tale about a chimney sweep, which retained its popularity well into the 20th century. The story mentions the main protagonists in the scientific debate over human origins, rearranging his earlier satire as the "great hippopotamus test". The book won a Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1963. As a novelist his chief power lay in his descriptive faculties. The descriptions of South American scenery in Westward Ho!, of the Egyptian desert in Hypatia, of the North Devon scenery in Two Years Ago, are brilliant; and the American scenery is even more vividly and more truthfully described when he had seen it only by the eye of his imagination than in his work At Last, which was written after he had visited the tropics. His sympathy with children taught him how to secure their interests. His version of the old Greek stories entitled The Heroes, and Water-babies and Madam How and Lady Why, in which he deals with popular natural history, take high rank among books for children. Kingsley was influenced
by Frederick Denison Maurice, and was close to many Victorian thinkers and writers, including the Scottish writer George MacDonald. Kingsley wrote poetry and political articles, as well as several volumes of sermons. His argument, in print, with John Henry Newman, accusing him of untruthfulness and deceit, prompted the latter to write his Apologia Pro Vita Sua. Kingsley coined the term pteridomania in his 1855 book Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore.[8] Legacy A statue of Charles Kingsley at Bideford, Devon (UK) Charles Kingsley's novel Westward Ho! led to the founding of a town by the same name (the only place name in England which contains an exclamation mark) and inspired the construction of the Bideford, Westward Ho! and Appledore Railway. A hotel in Westward Ho! was named for him and it was opened by him. A hotel opened in 1897 in Bloomsbury, London, was named after Kingsley. The hotel was founded by teetotallers who admired Kingsley for his political views and his ideas on social reform. It still exists, and is now known as The Kingsley by Thistle.[9] Bibliography ; Saint's Tragedy, a drama ; Alton Locke, a novel (1849) ; Twenty-five Village Sermons (1849) ; Cheap Clothes and Nasty (1850) ; Yeast, a novel (1851) ; Phaeton, or Loose Thoughts for Loose Thinkers (1852) ; Sermons on National Subjects (1st series, 1852) ; Hypatia, a novel (1853) ; Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore (1855) ; Sermons on National Subjects (2nd series, 1854) ; Alexandria and her Schools (I854) ; Westward Ho!, a novel (1855) ; Sermons for the Times (1855) ; The Heroes, Greek fairy tales (1856) ; Two Years Ago, a novel (1857) ; Andromeda and other Poems (1858) ; The Good News of God, sermons (1859) ; Miscellanies (1859) ; Limits of Exact Science applied to History (Inaugural lectures, 1860)
Town and Country Sermons (1861) ; Sermons on the Pentateuch (1863) ; The Water-Babies (1863) ; The Roman and the Teuton (1864) ; David and other Sermons (1866) ; Hereward the Wake: "Last of the English" , a novel (London: Macmillan, 1866) ; The Ancient Rgime (Lectures at the Royal Institution, 1867) ; Water of Life and other Sermons (1867) ; The Hermits (1869) ; Madam How and Lady Why (1869) ; At Last: a Christmas in the West Indies (1871) ; Town Geology (1872) ; Discipline and other Sermons (1872) ; Prose Idylls (1873) ; Plays and Puritans (1873) ; Health and Education (1874) ; Westminster Sermons (1874) ; Lectures delivered in America (1875) Notes 1 ^ ODNB article by Norman Vance, Kingsley, Charles (1819 1875), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2006 [1], accessed 13 April 2008. 2 ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (19221958). "Kingsley, Charles". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3 ^ a b c d Christine L. Krueger, (2009), Encyclopedia of British writers, 19th century, page 194. ISBN 1438108702 4 ^ "Information Sheet: Charles Kingsley". Cheshire West and Chester. Retrieved 19 April 2010. 5 ^ Presidents of the BMI, BMI, nd (c.2005) 6 ^ Darwin 1887, p. 287. 7 ^ Darwin 1860, p. 481. 8 ^ Peter D. A. Boyd's Pteridomania 9 ^ The Kingsley by Thistle References ; Darwin, Charles (1860), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the
;
Struggle for Life, London: John Murray 2nd edition. Retrieved on 20 July 2007 Darwin, Charles (1887), Darwin, F, ed., The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter., London: John Murray (The Autobiography of Charles Darwin) Retrieved on 20 July 2007 Dawson, William James. "Charles Kingsley", in Dawson's The Makers of English Fiction, 2nd ed., (New York: F.H. Revell Co., 1905), on p. 179-190.
The Water-Babies
The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby is a children's novel by the Reverend Charles Kingsley. Written in 186263 as a serial for Macmillan's Magazine, it was first published in its entirety in 1863. It was written as part satire in support of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species. The book was extremely popular in England, and was a mainstay of British children's literature for many decades, but eventually fell out of favour in part due to its prejudices (common at the time) against Irish, Jews and Americans. Story The protagonist is Tom, a young chimney sweep, who falls into a river after encountering an upper-class girl named Ellie and being chased out of her house. There he drowns and is transformed into a "water baby", as he is told by a caddisflyan insect that sheds its skinand begins his moral education. The story is thematically concerned with Christian redemption, though Kingsley also uses the book to argue that England treats its poor badly, and to question child labour, among other themes. Tom embarks on a series of adventures and lessons, and enjoys the community of other water babies once he proves himself a moral creature. The major spiritual leaders in his new world are the fairies Mrs. Doasyouwouldbedoneby (a reference to the Golden Rule), Mrs. Bedonebyasyoudid, and Mother Carey. Weekly, Tom is allowed the company of Ellie, who drowned after he did. Grimes, his old master, drowns as well, and in his final adventure, Tom travels to the end of the world to attempt to help the man where he is being punished for his misdeeds. Tom helps Grimes to find repentance, and Grimes will be given a second chance if he can successfully perform a final penance. By proving his willingness to do things he does not like, if
they are the right things to do, Tom earns himself a return to human form, and becomes "a great man of science" who "can plan railways, and steamengines, and electric telegraphs, and rifled guns, and so forth". He and Ellie are united, although the book claims that they never marry. Interpretation In the style of Victorian-era novels, The Water-Babies is a didactic moral fable. In it, Kingsley expresses many of the common prejudices of that time period, and the book includes dismissive or insulting references to Americans,[1] Jews,[2] blacks,[3] and Catholics[4] particularly the Irish.[5][6] These views may have played a role in the book's gradual fall from popularity. The book had been intended in part as a satire, a tract against child labour, as well as a serious critique of the closed-minded approaches of many scientists of the day[7] in their response to Charles Darwin's ideas on evolution, which Kingsley had been one of the first to praise. He had been sent an advance review copy of On the Origin of Species, and wrote in his response of 18 November 1859 (four days before the book went on sale) that he had "long since, from watching the crossing of domesticated animals and plants, learnt to disbelieve the dogma of the permanence of species," and had "gradually learnt to see that it is just as noble a conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development into all forms needful pro tempore and pro loco, as to believe that He required a fresh act of intervention to supply the lacunas which He Himself had made", asking "whether the former be not the loftier thought."[8] In the book, for example, Kingsley argues that no person is qualified to say that something that they have never seen (like a human soul or a water baby) does not exist. How do you know that? Have you been there to see? And if you had been there to see, and had seen none, that would not prove that there were none ... And no one has a right to say that no water babies exist till they have seen no water babies existing, which is quite a different thing, mind, from not seeing water babies. In his Origin of Species, Darwin mentions that, like many others at the time, he thought that changed habits produce an inherited effect, a concept now known as Lamarckism.[9] In The Water Babies, Kingsley tells of a group of humans called the Doasyoulikes who are allowed to do "whatever they like" so gradually lose the power of speech, degenerate into gorillas, and are shot by the African explorer Paul du Chaillu. He also
(controversially, nowadays) likens the Doasyoulikes to the natives of Africa, by mentioning that one of the gorillas shot by Du Chaillu "remembered that his ancestors had once been men, and tried to say, 'Am I not a man and a brother?', but had forgotten how to use his tongue."[10] Richard Owen and Thomas Henry Huxley inspect a water baby in Linley Sambourne's 1885 illustration. The Water Babies alludes to debates among biologists of its day, satirizing the Great Hippocampus Question as the "Great hippopotamus test." At various times the text refers to "Sir Roderick Murchison, Professor (Richard) Owen, Professor (Thomas Henry) Huxley, (and) Mr. Darwin", and thus they become explicitly part of the story. In the accompanying illustrations by Linley Sambourne, Huxley and Owen are caricatured, studying a captured water baby. In 1892 Thomas Henry Huxley's fiveyear-old grandson Julian saw this engraving and wrote his grandfather a letter asking: Dear Grandpater Have you seen a Waterbaby? Did you put it in a bottle? Did it wonder if it could get out? Could I see it some day? Your loving Julian.[11] Huxley wrote back a letter that evokes the New York Sun's "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus" letter: My dear Julian I could never make sure about that Water Baby. I have seen Babies in water and Babies in bottles; the Baby in the water was not in a bottle and the Baby in the bottle was not in water. My friend who wrote the story of the Water Baby was a very kind man and very clever. Perhaps he thought I could see as much in the water as he did There are some people who see a great deal and some who see very little in the same things. When you grow up I dare say you will be one of the great-deal seers, and see things more wonderful than the Water Babies where other folks can see nothing.[11] Adaptations The book was adapted into an animated film The Water Babies in 1978 starring James Mason, Bernard Cribbins and Billie Whitelaw. Though many of the main elements are there, the movie's storyline differs substantially from the book, with a new sub-plot involving a killer shark and a kraken. It was also adapted into a musical theatre version produced at the Garrick Theatre in London, in 1902. The adaptation was described as a "fairy
play", by Rutland Barrington, with music by Frederick Rosse, Albert Fox, and Alfred Cellier.[citation needed] The book was also produced as a play by Jason Carr and Gary Yershon, mounted at the Chichester Festival Theatre in 2003, directed by Jeremy Sams, starring Louise Gold, Joe McGann, Katherine O'Shea, and Neil McDermott.[citation needed] The story was also adapted into a radio series (BBC Audiobooks Ltd, 1998)[12] featuring Timothy West, Julia McKenzie, and Oliver Peace as Tom. A 2013 update for BBC Radio 4[13] written by Paul Farley and directed by Emma Harding brought the tale to a newer age, with Tomi having been trafficked from Nigeria as a child labourer. Notes
1
4 5
^ When Tom has "everything that he could want or wish," the reader is warned that sometimes this does bad things to people "Indeed, it sometimes makes them naughty, as it has made the people in America." Murderous crows that do whatever they like are described as being like "American citizens of the new school." ^ Jews are referred to twice in the text, first as archetypal rich people ("as rich as a Jew"), and then as a joking reference to dishonest merchants who sell fake religious icons -- "young ladies walk about with lockets of Charles the First's hair (or of somebody else's, when the Jews' genuine stock is used up)". ^ The Powwow man is said to have "yelled, shouted, raved, roared, stamped, and danced corrobory like any black fellow," and a seal is described as looking like a "fat old greasy negro." ^ "Popes" are listed among Measles, Famines, Despots, and other "children of the four great bogies." ^ Ugly people are described as "like the poor Paddies who eat potatoes"; an extended passage discusses St. Brandan among the Irish who liked "to brew potheen, and dance the pater o'pee, and knock each other over the head with shillelaghs, and shoot each other from behind turf-dykes, and steal each other's cattle, and burn each other's homes." A character Dennis lies and says whatever he thinks others want to hear because "he is a poor Paddy, and knows no better." The statement that Irishmen always lie is used to explain why "poor ould Ireland does not prosper like England and Scotland." ^ Sandner, David (2004). Fantastic Literature: A Critical Reader. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 328. ISBN 0-275-98053-7.
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
^ The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search for Its Origins, Richard Milner, 1990, p.458 ^ Darwin 1887, p. 287. ^ Darwin 1860, p. 134 ^ "The Water-Babies, by Charles Kingsley; Chapter VI Page 12". Pagebypagebooks.com. Retrieved 2013-01-14. ^ a b Leonard Huxley, The Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley Volume 3, p. 256 ^ (BBC Audiobooks Ltd, 1998) ISBN 978-0-563-55810-1 ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01rfy5k. Missing or empty |title= (help)
References Kingsley, Charles (1863), The Water-Babies, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-282238-1 ; Darwin, Charles (1860), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, London: John Murray 2nd edition. Retrieved on 2007-07-20 ; Darwin, Charles (1887), Darwin, F, ed., The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter., London: John Murray (The Autobiography of Charles Darwin) Retrieved on 2007-07-20
Thomas Hughes
Thomas Hughes (20 October 1822 22 March 1896) was an English lawyer and author. He is most famous for his novel Tom Brown's School Days (1857), a semi-autobiographical work set at Rugby School, which Hughes had attended. It had a lesser-known sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford (1861). Biography Hughes was the second son of John Hughes, editor of the Boscobel Tracts (1830). Thomas Hughes was born in Uffington, Berkshire (now Oxfordshire). He had six brothers, and one sister, Jane Senior who later became Britain's first female civil servant. At the age of eight he was sent to Twyford School, a preparatory public school near Winchester, where he remained until the age of eleven. In February 1834 he went to Rugby School, which was then under Dr Thomas Arnold, a contemporary of his
father at Oriel College, Oxford, and the most influential British schoolmaster of the 19th century. Though never a member of the sixth form, his impressions of the headmaster were intensely reverent, and Arnold was afterwards idealised as the perfect schoolmaster in Hughes's novel. Hughes excelled at sports rather than in scholarship, and his school career culminated in a cricket match at Lord's Cricket Ground.[1] In 1842 he went on to Oriel College, Oxford, and graduated B.A. in 1845. At Oxford, he played cricket for the university team in the annual University Match against Cambridge University, also at Lord's, and a match that is still now regarded as first-class cricket.[2] He was called to the bar in 1848, became Queen's Counsel in 1869 and a bencher in 1870, and was appointed to a county court judgeship in the Chester district in July 1882. Hughes was elected to Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth (186568), and for Frome (186874). An avid social reformer, he became interested in the Christian socialism movement led by Frederick Maurice, which he had joined in 1848. He was involved in the formation of some early trade unions and helped finance the printing of Liberal publications, as well as acting as the first President of the Co-operative Congress in 1869 and serving on the Co-operative Central Board.[3] In January 1854 he was one of the founders of the Working Men's College in Great Ormond Street, and was the College's principal from 1872 to 1883. [4] He was a prominent figure in the anti-opium movement, and a member of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade.[5] In 1880, he acquired the ownership of Franklin W. Smith's Plateau City and founded a settlement in America Rugby, Tennessee which was designed as an experiment in utopian living for the younger sons of the English gentry, although this later proved largely unsuccessful. While his original intent was unsuccessful, Rugby still exists and is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. In 1847, Hughes was called to the bar, and married Frances Ford. They settled in 1853 at Wimbledon and while living there Hughes wrote his famous story Tom Brown's School Days, which was published in April 1857.
Statue of Thomas Hughes at Rugby School

Hughes also wrote The Scouring of the White Horse (1859), Tom Brown at Oxford (1861), Religio Laici (1868), Life of Alfred the Great (1869) and the Memoir of a Brother. His brother was George Hughes, whom the character of Tom Brown was based upon.
Hughes died in 1896 aged 73, at Brighton, of heart failure; and is buried there. His daughter, Lilian, perished in the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. His other daughter, Mary, was a well known Poor Law guardian and volunteer visitor to the local Poor Law infirmary and children's home. A statue of Hughes (pictured) stands outside Rugby School Library. It has been observed that although the sculptor has meticulously crafted a row of buttons on the right hand side of the statue's jacket, there are no corresponding buttonholes on the left hand side. Local folklore has it that when this omission was pointed out to the sculptor, a known perfectionist who suffered from depression, he was so dismayed that he was driven to commit suicide. This is untrue. The sculptor was Thomas Brock, the statue was unveiled in 1899,[6] and Brock died of natural causes in 1922. Bibliography Fiction ; Tom Brown's School Days (1857) ; The Scouring of The White Horse (1859) ; Tom Brown at Oxford (1861) Non-fiction ; Religio Laici (1861) ; A Layman's Faith (1868) ; Alfred the Great (1870) ; Memoir of a Brother (1873) ; The Old Church; What Shall We Do With It? (1878) ; The Manliness of Christ (1879) ; True Manliness (1880) ; Rugby Tennessee (1881) ; Memoir of Daniel Macmillan (1882) ; G.T.T. Gone to Texas (1884) ; Notes for Boys (1885) ; Life and Times of Peter Cooper (1886) ; James Fraser Second Bishop of Manchester (1887) ; David Livingstone (1889) ; Vacation Rambles (1895) ; Early Memories for the Children (1899)
References ^ "Scorecard: Marylebone Cricket Club v Rugby School". www.cricketarchive.com. 18 June 1840. Retrieved 11 March 2013. 1 ^ "Scorecard: Oxford University v Cambridge University". www.cricketarchive.com. 9 June 1842. Retrieved 11 March 2013. 2 ^ Congress Presidents 18692002, February 2002, retrieved 18 October 2007 3 ^ J. F. C. Harrison ,A History of the Working Men's College (18541954), Routledge Kegan Paul, 1954 4 ^ Kathleen L. Lodwick (1996). Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874-1917 . University Press of Kentucky. pp. 5566. ISBN 978-08131-1924-3. Retrieved 23 May 2012. 5 ^ Public sculpture of Warwickshire, Coventry and Solihull By George Thomas Noszlopy, page 28-29 ; This entry incorporates some public-domain text originally from the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica but has been heavily edited. ; The Aftermath with Autobiography of the Author (John Bedford Leno published by Reeves & Turner, London, 1892)
Tom Brown's School Days

Tom Brown's School Days (sometimes also called Tom Brown's Schooldays) (1857) is a novel by Thomas Hughes. The story is set at Rugby School, a public school for boys, in the 1830s; Hughes attended Rugby School from 1834 to 1842. The novel has been the source for several film and television adaptations in the 20th century. The novel was originally published as being "by an Old Boy of Rugby", and much of it is based on the author's experiences. Tom Brown is largely based on the author's brother, George Hughes; and George Arthur, another of the book's main characters, is generally believed to be based on Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. The fictional Tom's life also resembles the author's in that the culminating event of his school career was a cricket match.[1]
Tom Brown's School Days was tremendously influential on the genre of British school novels, which began in the 19th century, and led to Billy Bunter's Greyfriars School, Mr Chips' Brookfield, St. Trinian's, and Hogwarts. It is one of the few still in print from its time. A sequel, Tom Brown at Oxford, was published in 1861 but is not as well known. Tom's principal enemy at Rugby is the bully Flashman. The 20th-century writer George MacDonald Fraser featured the grown-up Flashman in a series of successful historical novels. Plot summary Tom Brown is energetic, stubborn, kind-hearted, and athletic more than intellectual. He acts according to his feelings and the unwritten rules of the boys around him more than adults' rules. The early chapters of the novel deal with his childhood at his home in the Vale of White Horse (including a nostalgic picture of a village feast). Much of the scene setting in the first chapter is deeply revealing of Victorian England's attitudes towards society and class, and contains a comparison of so-called Saxon and Norman influences on England. This part of the book, when young Tom wanders the valleys freely on his pony, serves as a sort of Eden with which to contrast the later hellish experiences in his first years at school. His first school year is at a local school. His second year starts at a private school, but due to an epidemic of fever in the area, all the school's boys are sent home, and Tom is transferred mid-term to Rugby School, where he makes acquaintance with the adults and boys who live at the school and in its environs. On his arrival, the eleven-year-old Tom Brown is looked after by a more experienced classmate, Harry "Scud" East. Soon after, Tom and East become the targets of a bully named Flashman. The intensity of the bullying increases, and, after refusing to hand over a sweepstake ticket for the favourite in a horse race, Tom is deliberately burned in front of a fire. Tom and East eventually defeat Flashman with the help of a kind (though comical) older boy, Diggs. In their triumph they become unruly. In the second half of the book, Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historical headmaster of the school at the time, gives Tom the care of George Arthur, a frail, pious, academically brilliant, gauche, and sensitive new boy. A fight that Tom gets into to protect Arthur, and Arthur's nearly dying of fever, are described in loving detail. Tom and Arthur help each other and their friends develop into young gentlemen who say their nightly prayers, do not
cheat on homework, and play in a cricket match. An epilogue shows Tom's return to Rugby and its chapel when he hears of Arnold's death. Characters ; Tom Brown ; Harry "Scud" East ; Dr. Thomas Arnold ; Flashman ; Diggs ; George Arthur ; Martin ; Williams ; Brooke Major themes A main element of the novel is Rugby with its traditions and with the reforms instituted by Dr. Arnold. Arnold is seldom on stage, but is shown as the perfect teacher and counsellor and as managing everything behind the scenes. In particular, he is the one who "chums" Arthur with Tom. This helps them both become men. The central theme of the novel is the development of boys. The symmetrical way in which Tom and Arthur supply each other's deficiencies shows that Hughes believed in the importance of physical development, boldness, fighting spirit, and sociability (Tom's contribution) as well as Christian morality and idealism (Arthur's). The novel is essentially didactic, and was not primarily written by its author as an entertainment. As Hughes said: Several persons, for whose judgment I have the highest respect, while saying very kind things about this book, have added, that the great fault of it is 'too much preaching'; but they hope I shall amend in this matter should I ever write again. Now this I most distinctly decline to do. Why, my whole object in writing at all was to get the chance of preaching! When a man comes to my time of life and has his bread to make, and very little time to spare, is it likely that he will spend almost the whole of his yearly vacation in writing a story just to amuse people? I think not. At any rate, I wouldn't do so myself. Thomas Hughes, Preface to the sixth edition [2] Impact
Although there were as many as ninety stories set in British boarding schools published between Sarah Fielding's The Governess, or The Little Female Academy in 1749 and 1857,[3] Tom Brown's School Days was responsible for bringing the school story genre to much wider attention. Subsequent works directly inspired by the novel include J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, whose first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, has many direct parallels in structure and theme to Tom Brown's School Days.[4] The book contains an account of a game of rugby football, the variant of football played at Rugby School (with many differences from the modern forms). The book's popularity helped to spread the popularity of this sport beyond the school. References in other works ; The character of Flashman was adopted by the British writer George MacDonald Fraser as the narrator and hero (or anti-hero) of his popular series of "Flashman" historical novels. In the Flashman novel Flashman in the Great Game, the main character reads Tom Brown's School Days (achieving a remarkable degree of abstraction as Flashman, a fictional character, is portrayed reading a real book about himself). The novel's real popularity causes the fictional Flashman some fictional social troubles. The Flashman novels also include some other characters from the novel, for example: George Speedicut and Tom Brown himself (in the book Flashman's Lady). Flashman also encounters the character of "Scud" East twice, first in Flashman at the Charge, when both he and East are prisoners of war during the Crimean War, and again in Flashman in the Great Game at the Siege of Cawnpore during the Indian Mutiny of 1857. East is mortally wounded during the massacre and dies in Flashman's arms. However, in Tom Brown in Oxford, "Scud" East survived India (after suffering two bullet wounds, a broken arm and a gash in his side) and emigrates to New Zealand (see chapters XXI "The Intercepted Letter-Bag" and XLVIII "The Wedding-Day"). o In a second-order reference, one of Sandy Mitchell's Warhammer 40000 novels about Commissar Ciaphas Cain, a character largely based on Flashman, includes Commissar Tomas Beije, an old schoolmate of Cain, as a secondary character. Beije displays much of Brown's piety but, unlike Brown, is also petty, jealous, bitter and distrustful.
; ;
Tomkinson's Schooldays, the pilot episode for the TV series Ripping Yarns, is a parody of the novel. "The Tom Brown Question" in P. G. Wodehouse's Tales of St. Austin's (1903) has a schoolboy expressing the opinion that the second part, featuring Arthur, was written by an improving committee and not by the vigorous hand of Thomas Hughes. The argument is well developed. Terry Pratchett has confirmed that the section of his novel Pyramids set at the Assassin's Guild School is a parody of Tom Brown's School Days.[5]
References to actual geography The geography of Rugby has changed greatly since the period in which the book was set. Rugby has expanded enormously, industrialising in the late 19th century and later. For example, most of the named pools along the River Avon that the boys used for authorized swimming were obliterated when the British Thomson-Houston factory was built and the Avon through the new industrial area was straightened and deepened to prevent floods. The countryside where Tom Brown's adventures in the Avon river valley happened, is now an industrial area and terrace housing on the north slope of Rugby Hill and the flat land at its foot. In the book, Tom's first year at the school mentions no transport to Rugby except stagecoach, but the end part of Tom's last year mentions "the train". The London and Birmingham Railway was built through Rugby while he was at the school but none of his adventures mention the railway or its working, or the large rowdy noisy navvy-camp which would have been in the area while the railway was being built. County boundaries have been changed so that most of the Vale of White Horse is now in Oxfordshire, not Berkshire as the author says several times. Dramatic adaptations DVD cover of the 1940 film version, released in 2004 Tom Brown's School Days was adapted for film in 1916 (British), [6] 1940 (U.S.),[7] and 1951 (British).[8] In the 1940 U.S. version of Tom Brown's School Days, the role of Dr. Thomas Arnold as a reform-minded educator was given greater prominence than in the novel.[9] Arnold was portrayed by Cedric Hardwicke and the title role was played by Jimmy Lydon. The June 27, 1940, debut of the film version at New York City's Radio City Music Hall was chronicled in a photo spread by The New York Times, "showing
some of the pastimes, curricular and otherwise", as the fight scene between Tom Brown and Flashman was captioned.[10] The 1940 film version was released on DVD in 2004, with a cover illustration portraying Arnold lecturing the two dishevelled schoolboys following their fight. In the 1951 version Robert Newton portrayed Thomas Arnold and John Howard Davies portrayed Tom Brown. It has also been adapted for television, as a serial in 1971 by the BBC,[11] and as a two-hour ITV 2005 television movie that is now on DVD,[12] starring Alex Pettyfer as Tom and Stephen Fry as Dr. Arnold. The 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus: The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing Brown. A musical version with music by Chris Andrews and Book and Lyrics by Jack and Joan Maitland was presented at the Cambridge Theatre in London's West End in 1971 with Keith Chegwin, Roy Dotrice, Simon Le Bon, Tony Sympson, Richard Willis and Dougal Rose. The rights to that version were acquired in the late 1970s by Bruce Hertford of Orem, Utah, who had a composer named Mark Ogden flesh out the score. The result played for a sold-out run at Brigham Young University.
Frederick James Furnivall

Frederick James Furnivall (4 February 1825 2 July 1910), one of the co-creators of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), was an English philologist. Frederick Furnivall, 1825-1910 He founded a number of learned societies on early English Literature, and made pioneering and massive editorial contributions to the subject, of which the most notable was his parallel text edition of the Canterbury Tales. He was one of the founders of and teachers at the London Working Men's College and a lifelong campaigner against what he perceived as injustice. Life Frederick James Furnivall was born at Egham, Surrey, the son of a surgeon who had made his fortune from running the Great Fosters lunatic asylum. He was educated at University College London and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he took an undistinguished mathematics degree.[1] He was called to the bar from Lincoln's Inn in 1849 and practiced desultorily until 1870.
In 1862 Furnivall married Eleanor Nickel Dalziel (born ca. 1838 died 1937). Some authors[2] describe her as a lady's maid, which would have been a socially unusual match at the time, although her social status is disputed.[3] Some time before 1866, Furnivall lost a child, Eena, whom he described as "my sweet, bright, only child".[4] He lost his inheritance in a financial crash in 1867. When he was 58, he separated from Eleanor and their one surviving son to continue a relationship with a 21-year-old female editor named Teena Rochfort-Smith.[5] Two months after his formal separation from Eleanor, Rochfort-Smith suffered serious burns while burning correspondence in Goole and died in 1883. The Oxford English Dictionary Furnivall was one of the three founders and, from 1861 to 1870, the second editor of the Oxford English Dictionary. Despite his scholarship and enthusiasm, his stint as editor of the OED nearly ended the project. For a dictionary maker he had an unfortunate lack of patience, discipline and accuracy.[2][3] After having lost the sub-editors for A, I, J, N, O, P & W through his irascibility or caprice, he finally resigned.[2] Furnivall joined the Philological Society in 1847, and was its Secretary from 1853 almost until his death in 1910 at the age of 85. Literary societies Furnivall indefatigably promoted the study of early English literature. He founded a series of literary and philological societies: the Early English Text Society (1864), the Chaucer Society (1868), the Ballad Society (1868), the New Shakspere Society (1873), the Browning Society (1881, with Miss Emily Hickey), the Wyclif Society (1882), and the Shelley Society (1885).[3] Some of these, notably the Early English Text Society, were very successful; all were characterised by extreme controversy. The most acrimonious of all was the New Shakspere Society, scene of a bitter dispute between Furnivall and Algernon Charles Swinburne.[ These societies were primarily textual publishing ventures. Furnivall edited texts for the Early English Text Society, for the Roxburghe Club and the Rolls Series; but his most important work was on Geoffrey Chaucer. His "Six-Text" edition of the Canterbury Tales was a new conception. It has been described as containing full and accurate transcriptions, though some modern scholars disagree about his merits as an editor.[ His work, and that of the amateurs he recruited, was often slapdash, but it was substantial, and it laid the foundation for all subsequent editions. He was one of a small group of Victorian scholars
who have been credited with establishing the academic study of English literature.[ The Working Men's College In the 1850s Furnivall became involved in various Christian Socialist schemes and his circle included Charles Kingsley and John Ruskin. It was through this group that he became one of the founders of the Working Men's College, and although he later became agnostic he always retained a connection with the College. He conceived of the college as a classless, democratic community of learning. One biographer wrote that he formed there a conviction that "scholarship could be pursued by quite ordinary people in a spirit of good-humoured enthusiasm" that was to be the key to his later life.[3] Rowing Furnivall was always an enthusiastic oarsman, and till the end kept up his interest in rowing; with John Beesley in 1845 he introduced the new type of narrow sculling boat, and in 1886 started races on the Thames for sculling fours and sculling eights. In 1896 Furnivall founded the Hammersmith Sculling Club (now called Furnivall Sculling Club), initially for working-class girls, and he "entered into its activities with his usual boyish enthusiasm, for it brought together two of his favourite activities: vigorous outdoor exercise and enjoyment of the company of young women". [3] References 1 ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (19221958). "Furnivall, Frederic James". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2 ^ a b c Winchester, Simon (2003). The Meaning of Everything: the Story of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 3 ^ a b c d e Peterson, William S. (2004). "Furnivall, Frederick James (1825-1910)". In H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Unknown parameter |note= ignored (help) 4 ^ Furnivall, Frederick J. (1866). The Book of Quinte Essence. Oxford University Press. 5 ^ Thompson, Ann. "Teena Rochfort Smith, Frederick Furnivall, and the New Shakspere Society's Four-Text Edition of Hamlet".
Shakespeare Quarterly 49.2 (Summer http://www.jstor.org/stable/2902297.
1998):
125-139.
Adin Ballou
Adin Ballou (April 23, 1803 August 5, 1890) was an American prominent proponent of pacifism, socialism and abolitionism, and the founder of the Hopedale Community. Through his long career as a Universalist, and then Unitarian minister, he tirelessly sought social reform through his radical Christian and socialist views. His writings drew the admiration of Leo Tolstoy,[1] who sponsored Russian translations of some of Ballou's works. Biography Ballou was born in 1803 on a farm in Cumberland, Rhode Island to Ariel and Edilda Ballou. He was raised a Six-Principle Baptist until 1813 when his family was converted in a Christian Connexion revival. Ballou married Abigail Sayles in early 1822, the same year he converted to Universalism. His wife died in 1829, shortly after giving birth to a daughter. Later that year, Ballou suffered a life-threatening illness. He was nursed back to health by Lucy Hunt, whom he married a few months later. Hosea Ballou II performed the ceremony. Of four children born to Ballou, only Abbie Ballou reached adulthood. Ballou died in Hopedale in 1890. Lucy Ballou died the following year. Religious and social Issues Ballou traveled around New England lecturing and debating on Practical Christianity, Christian nonresistance, abolition, temperance, and other social issues. Practical Christianity Ballou believed that Practical Christians were called to make their convictions a reality; they should begin to fashion a new civilization. Restorationist In 1830, Ballou aligned himself with the Restorationists, who were upset with the views among some Universalists, that complete salvation and no punishment would follow death. Although Ballou served the Unitarian church, 18311842, Ballou continued to identify himself as a Restorationist. The Restorationists believed that the spiritual growth of sinners could be acclaimed only through God's justice, in the afterlife, before they could be restored to God's grace. As a Restorationist, Ballou
agreed to edit and publish the Independent Messenger. Ballou's views led to the loss of his pulpit in Milford, Massachusetts. In 1831, Ballou, along with seven other ministers, established the Massachusetts Association of Universal Restorationists. Christian pacifism Ballou converted to Christian pacifism in 1838. Standard of Practical Christianity was composed in 1839 by Ballou and a few ministerial colleagues and laymen. The signatories announced their withdrawal from "the governments of the world." They believed the dependence on force to maintain order was unjust, and vowed to not participate in such government. While they did not acknowledge the earthly rule of man, they also did not rebel or "resist any of their ordinances by physical force." "We cannot employ carnal weapons nor any physical violence whatsoever," they proclaimed, "not even for the preservation of our lives. We cannot render evil for evil... nor do otherwise than 'love our enemies.'" Starting in 1843, he served as president of the New England NonResistance Society. He worked with his friend William Lloyd Garrison until they broke over Garrison's support for violence in fighting slavery. In 1846 Ballou published his principal work on pacifism, Christian nonResistance. Ballou was also involved with the Universal Peace Union founded in 1866. During the American Civil War, Ballou stood by his pacifist views unlike other Christian pacifist leaders. Abolitionism In 1837, Ballou publicly announced he was an abolitionist. He made antislavery lecture tours in Pennsylvania in 1846 and in New York in 1848. Ballou's antislavery sentiments are exemplified in his 1843 Fourth of July address entitled "The Voice of Duty," in which he called on Americans to honor the foundations of the country by not being selective or hypocritical in their judgment of who should be free: "We honor liberty only when we make her impartial--the same for and to all men." Ballou also responded to those who claimed that abolitionists dishonor the U.S. Constitution, saying that he stood "on a higher moral platform than any human compact." Of the Founding Fathers Ballou stated: "I honor them with all my heart for their devotion to right principles, for all the truly noble traits in their character, for their fidelity to their own highest light. But because I honor their love of liberty, must I honor their compromises with slavery?"
Temperance Through the temperance movement, Ballou outlined "three great practical data in ethics": 1 That righteousness must be taught definitely, specifically, and practically to produce any marked results. 2 That adherents of a cause must be unequivocally pledged to the practice of definitely declared duties. 3 That such pledged adherents must voluntarily associate under explicit affirmations of a settled purpose to cooperate in exemplifying and diffusing abroad the virtues and excellences to which they are committed and not act at random in disorganized and aimless individualism.[2] Hopedale Community By 1840, Ballou was convinced his Christian convictions would not allow him to live in the worldly governments. In 1841, he and the Practical Christians purchased a farm west of Milford, Massachusetts and named it Hopedale. The community was settled in 1842. The practical end of the Community came in 1856 when two of Ballou's closest supporters, Ebenezer and George Draper, withdrew their 75% share of the community's stock to form the successful Hopedale Manufacturing Company. George claimed the community was not using sound business practices. The community, however, continued on as a religious group until 1867, when it became the Hopedale Parish and rejoined mainstream Unitarianism. December 15, 1873 the Trustees of the Community conveyed all right, title, interest and control over to Community Square. Ballou remained as Hopedale's pastor throughout its transformation and finally retired in 1880. Adin Street in the town of Hopedale, Massachusetts is named after him.
Francis Julius Bellamy

Francis Julius Bellamy (May 18, 1855 August 28, 1931) was an American socialist,[1][2] minister, and author, best known for authoring the American Pledge of Allegiance. Francis Julius Bellamy was born in Mount Morris, NY. His family was deeply involved in the Baptist church and they moved to Rome, NY when
Bellamy was only 5. Here, Bellamy became an active member of the First Baptist Church; which his father was minister of until his death in 1864. He attended college at the University of Rochester, in Rochester, NY and studied theology. As a young man, he became a minister, and wrapped up in the ferver of the Second Great Awakening, began to travel to promote his faith and help his community. Bellamy's travels brought him to Massachusetts. It was there that he penned the "Pledge of Allegiance" for a campaign by the "Youth's Companion;" a patriotic circular of the day. Bellamy married a Harriet Benton in Newark, NY in 1881. They had two sons, John who lived in California and David who lived in Rochester. His wife died in 1918 and he later married a Marie Morin (1920). Bellamy once ran for Governor of New York, but lost. His daughter-in-law Rachel (David's wife) lived in Rochester until Feb/Mar of 1989 when she died at the age of 93. No information is readily available on son John or his family in California or of any other relatives. David and Rachel were reportedly childless. Francis Bellamy spent most of the last years of his life living and working in Tampa, FL. He died there on August 28, 1931 at the age of 76. His cremated remains were brought back to New York where they were buried in a family plot in a cemetery in Rome. [3][4] The Pledge[edit] In 1891, Daniel Sharp Ford, the owner of the Youth's Companion, hired Bellamy to work with Ford's nephew James B. Upham in the magazine's premium department. In 1888, the Youth's Companion had begun a campaign to sell American flags to public schools as a premium to solicit subscriptions. For Upham and Bellamy, the flag promotion was more than merely a business move; under their influence, the Youth's Companion became a fervent supporter of the schoolhouse flag movement, which aimed to place a flag above every school in the nation. By 1892, the magazine had sold American flags to approximately 26,000 schools. By this time the market was slowing for flags, but was not yet saturated. In 1892, Upham had the idea of using the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus reaching the Americas to further bolster the schoolhouse flag movement. The magazine called for a national Columbian Public School Celebration to coincide with the World's Columbian Exposition. A flag salute was to be part of the official program for the Columbus Day celebration to be held in schools all over America.
The Pledge was published in the September 8, 1892, issue of the magazine, and immediately put to use in the campaign. Bellamy went to speak to a national meeting of school superintendents to promote the celebration; the convention liked the idea and selected a committee of leading educators to implement the program, including the immediate past president of the National Education Association. Bellamy was selected as the chair. Having received the official blessing of educators, Bellamy's committee now had the task of spreading the word across the nation and of designing an official program for schools to follow on the day of national celebration. He structured the program around a flag-raising ceremony and his pledge. His original Pledge read as follows: "I pledge allegiance to my Flag and to* the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all" (* 'to' added in October 1892). The recital was accompanied with a salute to the flag known as the Bellamy salute, described in detail by Bellamy. During World War II, the salute was replaced with a hand-over-heart gesture because the original form involved stretching the arm out towards the flag in a manner that resembled the later Nazi salute. (For a history of the pledge, see Pledge of Allegiance). In 1954, in response to the perceived threat of secular Communism, President Eisenhower encouraged Congress to add the words "under God," creating the 31-word pledge that is recited today.[5] Bellamy commented on his thoughts as he created the pledge, and his reasons for choosing the careful wording: "It began as an intensive communing with salient points of our national history, from the Declaration of Independence onwards; with the makings of the Constitution... with the meaning of the Civil War; with the aspiration of the people... "The true reason for allegiance to the Flag is the 'republic for which it stands'. ...And what does that last thing, the Republic mean? It is the concise political word for the Nation - the One Nation which the Civil War was fought to prove. To make that One Nation idea clear, we must specify that it is indivisible, as Webster and Lincoln used to repeat in their great speeches. And its future? "Just here arose the temptation of the historic slogan of the French Revolution which meant so much to Jefferson and his friends, 'Liberty, equality, fraternity'. No, that would be too fanciful, too
many thousands of years off in realization. But we as a nation do stand square on the doctrine of liberty and justice for all..." Bellamy "viewed his Pledge as an 'inoculation' that would protect immigrants and native-born but insufficiently patriotic Americans from the 'virus' of radicalism and subversion."[6] Political views[edit] Bellamy was a Christian Socialist[1] who "championed 'the rights of working people and the equal distribution of economic resources, which he believed was inherent in the teachings of Jesus.'"[6] In 1891, Bellamy was forced from his Boston pulpit for his socialist sermons, and eventually stopped attending church altogether after moving to Florida, reportedly because of the racism he witnessed there.[7] In "Cultural Movements and Collective Memory : Christopher Columbus and the Rewriting of the National Origin Myth," Timothy Kubal explains: Francis Bellamy was a leader in three related movement groups -- the public education movement, which sought to celebrate and expand public schools, the nationalist movement, which sough to nationalize public services and protect them from privatization, and the Christian socialist movement, which sought to promote an economy based on justice and equality. Bellamy had preexisting relationships with grassroots groups representing each movement and he united his diverse network for collective memory activism in 1892.[8] Francis Bellamy fused his participation in the Christian socialist movement and the nationalist movement. Francis began his career as a preacher, but after several years of service, he was ousted by a congregation that disliked his tendency to describe Jesus as a socialist. Bellamy was no simple preacher-turned-journalist, but the cousin of the most famous nationalist icon of the era. Edward Bellamy was the symbolic leader of the nationalist movement, which sought to nationalize public services and the economy to meet the needs of the masses rather than the few. Francis's cousin book -- a utopian tale of an advanced socialist society -- sparked more than one hundred grassroots nationalist organizations around the country called Bellamy Clubs. Edward protested against the name for his local group, and the others agreed to change the name to the Nationalist Club.[8] Francis Bellamy also drew from networks established by the Christian socialist movement. Early in the nineteenth century, the French philosopher Henri de Sain-Simon expounded a "new
Christianity" that sought to use scientific principles to help solve problems with the poor. Religion, science, and community were to be used to end the exploitation of the masses. By the end of the century, Bellamy and many of the "new St. Simonians," as they sometimes called themselves, saw nationalism (de-privatization) and public education as the policy solutions to meet the goals established by the Christian socialists, thus leading to a natural connection among the nationalist and Christian Socialist movements.[8] The Society of Christian Socialists, a grassroots organization, was founded in Boston 1889. Francis Bellamy served as founding vice president and wrote several articles for the Society of Christian Socialists' newspaper, the Dawn. The newspaper was run by his cousin Edward and Frances Willard, president of the Women's Christian Temperance Union. In one article, Francis Bellamy wrote that Christian socialists had the obligation to live out the golden rule, to act toward contemporary society as did Jesus. He quoted Bible passages that revered Moses and Jesus as denouncing the evils of greed and lust for money (ibid). Francis Bellamy (hereafter Bellamy) was also chairman of the Boston chapter of the Society of Christian Socialists' education committee.[8] To raise the stature of the organizations, bring in funds, and educate the public about Christian Socialism, Bellamy offered public education classes; for a fee participants joined courses with topics such as "looking Backward," Jesus the socialist," "What is Christian Socialism?" "The Subject of Labor in Light of the Bible," and "Socialism versus anarchy." This last lecture became particularly popular and Bellamy in 1891 was asked to turn it into a written piece for the Nationalist Club's newspaper, the Arena. Bellamy's essay distinguished anarchy from nationalism and socialism, and it declared the need for a strong government to protect the weak masses from the powerful corporations. He argued that the only socialist economy could produce work environments where both the worker and the owner could practice the golden rule (ibid). Through these experiences, Bellamy gained increasing experience with the media and with public relations. He used these tools to coordinate a massive Columbus Day campaign.[8] Bellamy's views on immigration and universal suffrage were somewhat less egalitarian. He wrote: "[a] democracy like ours cannot afford to throw itself open to the world where every man is a lawmaker, every dull-witted
or fanatical immigrant admitted to our citizenship is a bane to the commonwealth.[6] And further: "Where all classes of society merge insensibly into one another every alien immigrant of inferior race may bring corruption to the stock. There are races more or less akin to our own whom we may admit freely and get nothing but advantage by the infusion of their wholesome blood. But there are other races, which we cannot assimilate without lowering our racial standard, which we should be as sacred to us as the sanctity of our homes."[9] Martha Craven Nussbaum argues that Bellamy was afraid that new immigrants "could easily subvert the fabric of democracy that America has taken so long to build. ... Bellamy's argument was both anti-Catholic ... and above all, racist."[9]

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