Quantum Mechanics for Mathematicians: The

Poincare Group and its Representations

Peter Woit
Department of Mathematics, Columbia University
woit@math.columbia.edu
March 31, 2013
In the previous chapter we saw that one can take the semi-direct product
of spatial translations and rotations and that the resulting group has innite-
dimensional unitary representations on the state space of a quantum free parti-
cle. The free particle Hamiltonian plays the role of a Casimir operator: to get
irreducible representations one xes the eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian (the en-
ergy), and then the representation is on the space of solutions to the Schrodinger
equation with this energy. This is a non-relativistic procedure, treating time and
space (and correspondingly the Hamiltonian and the momenta) dierently. For
a relativistic analog, we will use instead the semi-direct product of space-time
translations and Lorentz transformations. Irreducible representations of this
group will be labeled by a continuous parameter (the mass) and a discrete pa-
rameter (the spin or helicity), and these will correspond to possible relativistic
elementary particles.
In the non-relativistic case, the representation occurred as a space of solu-
tions to a dierential equation, the Schrodinger equation. There is an analogous
description of the irreducible Poincare group representations as spaces of solu-
tions of relativistic wave equations, but we will put o that story until succeeding
chapters.
1 The Poincare group and its Lie algebra
Denition (Poincare group). The Poincare group is the semi-direct product
P = R
4
SO(1, 3)
with double-cover

P = R
4
SL(2, C)
The action of SO(1, 3) or SL(2, C) on R
4
is the action of the Lorentz group on
Minkowski space.
1
We will refer to both of these groups as the Poincare group, with the
double-cover the meaning only when we need it because spinor representations
of the Lorentz group are involved. The two groups have the same Lie algebra,
so the distinction is not needed in discussions that only need the Lie algebra.
Elements of the group P will be written as pairs (a, ), with a R
4
and
SO(1, 3) and the group law is
(a
1
,
1
)(a
2
,
2
) = (a
1
+
1
a
2
,
1

2
)
The Lie algebra LieP = Lie

P has dimension 10, with basis

P
0
, P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, J
1
, J
2
, J
3
, K
1
, K
2
, K
3
where the rst four elements are a basis of the Lie algebra of the translation
group (note that we are following physicists in using the same notation for Lie
algebra basis elements and the corresponding operators in a representation of
the Lie algebra), and the next six are a basis of so(1, 3), with the J
j
giving
the subgroup of spatial rotations, the K
j
the boosts. We already know the
commutation relations for the translation subgroup, which is commutative so
[P
j
, P
k
] = 0
We have seen that the commutation relations for so(1, 3) are
[J
1
, J
2
] = J
3
, [J
2
, J
3
] = J
1
, [J
3
, J
1
] = J
2
[K
1
, K
2
] = J
3
, [K
3
, K
1
] = J
2
, [K
2
, K
3
] = J
1
and that the commutation relations between the J
j
and K
j
correspond to the
fact that the K
j
transform as a vector under spatial rotations, so for example
commuting the K
j
with J
1
gives an innitesimal rotation about the 1-axis and
[K
1
, J
1
] = 0, [K
2
, J
1
] = K
3
, [K
3
, J
1
] = K
2
To nd the Lie algebra relations between translation and so(1, 3) basis ele-
ments, recall that the Lie algebra commutators are related to the group multi-
plication by
[X, Y ] =
d
dt
(e
tX
Y e
tX
)
|t=0
Using the semi-direct product relation
(n
1
k
1
)(n
2
k
2
) = n
1

k1
(n
2
)k
1
k
2
to compute the conjugation of a translation (a, 1) P by a Lorentz transfor-
mation (0, ) P one nds
(0, )(a, 1)(0, )
1
=(0, )(a, 1)(0,
1
)
=(0, )(a +
1
0,
1
) = (0, )(a,
1
)
=(a, 1)
2
Taking = e
tJ1
one nds
d
dt
a
|t=0
=
d
dt
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 cos t sin t
0 0 sin t cos t
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
_
_
_
_
|t=0
=
_
_
_
_
0
0
a
3
a
2
_
_
_
_
This is a relation on nite translations (a, 1), but it also hold for innitesimal
translations, so we have
[J
1
,
_
_
_
_
P
0
P
1
P
2
P
3
_
_
_
_
] =
d
dt
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 cos t sin t
0 0 sin t cos t
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
P
0
P
1
P
2
P
3
_
_
_
_
|t=0
=
_
_
_
_
0
0
P
3
P
2
_
_
_
_
which shows that the P
j
transform as vectors under innitesimal rotations about
the 1-axis, so
[J
1
, P
0
] = [J
1
, P
1
] = 0, [J
1
, P
2
] = P
3
, [J
1
, P
3
] = P
2
with similar relations for the other axes.
For boosts along the 1-axis, one does the same calculation with = e
tK1
to
nd
d
dt
a
|t=0
=
d
dt
_
_
_
_
cosh t sinh t 0 0
sinh t cosh t 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
_
_
_
_
|t=0
=
_
_
_
_
a
2
a
1
0
0
_
_
_
_
so
[K
1
,
_
_
_
_
P
0
P
1
P
2
P
3
_
_
_
_
] =
_
_
_
_
P
1
P
0
0
0
_
_
_
_
and in general one will have
[K
j
, P
0
] = P
j
, [K
j
, P
j
] = P
0
, [K
j
, P
k
] = 0 if j = k, k = 0
2 Representations of the Poincare group
We want to nd unitary irreducible representations of the Poincare group. These
will be innite dimensional, so given by operators (g) on a Hilbert space H,
which will have an interpretation as a single-particle relativistic quantum state
space. The standard physics notation for the operators giving the represen-
tation is U(a, ), with the U emphasizing their unitarity. To classify these
representations, we recall from the last chapter that irreducible representations
of semi-direct products N K are associated with pairs of a K-orbit O

in the
space

N and an irreducible representation of the corresponding little group K

.
3
For the Poincare group,

N = R
4
is the space of characters of the translation
group of Minkowski space, so functions

p
(x) = e
ipx
= e
i(p0x0p1x1p2x2p3x3)
labeled by a four-dimensional energy-momentum vector p = (p
0
, p
1
, p
2
, p
3
). The
Lorentz group acts on this R
4
by
p p
and, restricting attention to the p
0
p
3
plane, the picture of the orbits looks
like this
Unlike the Euclidean group case, here there are several dierent kinds of
orbits O

. Well examine them and the corresponding stabilizer groups K

each in turn, and see what can be said about the associated representations.
One way to understand the equations describing these orbits is to note that
the dierent orbits correspond to dierent eigenvalues of the Poincare group
Casimir operator
P
2
= P
2
0
P
2
1
P
2
2
P
2
3
This operator commutes with all the generators of the Lie algebra of the Poincare
group, so by Schurs lemma it must act as a scalar times the identity on an
4
irreducible representation (recall that the same phenomenon occurs for SU(2)
representations, which can be characterized by the eigenvalue j(j+1) of the Cas-
mir operator J
2
for SU(2)). At a point p = (p
0
, p
1
, p
2
, p
3
) in energy-momentum
space, the P
j
operators are diagonalized and P
2
will act by the scalar
p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
which can be positive, negative, or zero, so given by m
2
, m
2
, 0 for various
m. The value of the scalar will be the same everywhere on the orbit, so in
energy-momentum space orbits will satisfy one of the three equations
p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
=
_

_
m
2
m
2
0
Note that in this chapter we are just classifying Poincare group representa-
tions, not actually constructing them. It is possible to construct these represen-
tations using the data we will nd that classies them, but this would require
introducing some techniques (for so-called induced representations) that go
beyond the scope of this course. In later chapters we will explicitly construct
these representations in certain specic cases as solutions to certain relativistic
wave equations.
2.1 Positive energy time-like orbits
One way to get positive values m
2
of the Casimir P
2
is to take the vector
p = (m, 0, 0, 0), m > 0 and generate an orbit O
m,0,0,0
by acting on it with
the Lorentz group. This will be the upper, positive energy, hyperboloid of the
hyperboloid of two sheets
p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
= m
2
so
p
0
=
_
p
2
1
+p
2
2
+p
2
3
+m
2
The stabilizer group of K
m,0,0,0
is the subgroup of SO(1, 3) of elements of
the form
_
1 0
0
_
where SO(3), so K
m,0,0,0
= SO(3). Irreducible representations are classi-
ed by the spin. For spin 0, points on the hyperboloid can be identied with
positive energy solutions to a wave equation called the Klein-Gordon equation
and functions on the hyperboloid both correspond to the space of all solutions
of this equation and carry an irreducible representation of the Poincare group.
In the next chapter we will study the Klein-Gordon equation, as well as the
quantization of the space of its solutions by quantum eld theory methods.
5
We will later study the case of spin
1
2
, where one must use the double cover
SU(2) of SO(3). The Poincare group representation will be on functions on
the orbit that take values in two copies of the spinor representation of SU(2).
These will correspond to solutions of a wave equation called the massive Dirac
equation.
For choices of higher spin representations of the stabilizer group, one can
again nd appropriate wave equations and construct Poincare group represen-
tations on their space of solutions, but we will not enter into this topic.
2.2 Negative energy time-like orbits
Starting instead with the energy-momentum vector p = (m, 0, 0, 0), m > 0,
the orbit O
m,0,0,0
one gets is the lower, negative energy component of the
hyperboloid
p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
= m
2
satisfying
p
0
=
_
p
2
1
+p
2
2
+p
2
3
+m
2
Again, one has the same stabilizer group K
m,0,0,0
= SO(3) and the same con-
stuctions of wave equations of various spins and Poincare group representations
on their solution spaces as in the positive energy case. Since negative energies
lead to unstable, unphysical theories, we will see that these representations are
treated dierently under quantization, corresponding physically not to particles,
but to anti-particles.
2.3 Space-like orbits
One can get negative values m
2
of the Casimir P
2
by considering the orbit
O
0,0,0,m
of the vector p = (0, 0, 0, m). This is a hyperboloid of one sheet,
satisfying the equation
p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
= m
2
It is not too dicult to see that the stabilizer group of the orbit is K
0,0,0,m
=
SO(2, 1). This is isomorphic to the group SL(2, R), and it has no nite-
dimensional unitary representations. These orbits correspond physically to
tachyons, particles that move faster than the speed of light, and there is
no known way to consistently incorporate them in a conventional theory.
2.4 The zero orbit
The simplest case where the Casimir P
2
is zero is the trivial case of a point
p = (0, 0, 0, 0). This is invariant under the full Lorentz group, so the orbit
O
0,0,0,0
is just a single point and the stabilizer group K
0,0,0,0
is the entire Lorentz
group SO(1, 3). For each nite-dimensional representation of SO(1, 3), one gets
a corresponding nite dimensional representation of the Poincare group, with
6
translations acting trivially. These representations are not unitary, so not usable
for our purposes.
2.5 Positive energy null orbits
One has P
2
= 0 not only for the zero-vector in momentum space, but for a
three-dimensional set of energy-momentum vectors, called the null-cone. By
the term cone one means that if a vector is in the space, so are all products
of the vector times a positive number. Vectors p = (p
0
, p
1
, p
2
, p
3
) are called
light-like or null when they satisfy
|p|
2
= p
2
0
p
2
1
p
2
2
p
2
3
= 0
One such vector is p = (1, 0, 0, 1) and the orbit of the vector under the action
of the Lorentz group will be the upper half of the full null-cone, the half with
energy p
0
> 0, satisfying
p
0
=
_
p
2
1
+p
2
2
+p
2
3
The stabilizer group K
1,0,0,1
of p = (1, 0, 0, 1) includes rotations about the
x
3
axis, but also boosts in the other two directions. It is isomorphic to the
Euclidean group E(2). Recall that this is a semi-direct product group, and it
has two sorts of irreducible representations
Representations such that the two translations act trivially. These are
irreducible representations of SO(2), so one-dimensional and characterized
by an integer n (half-integers when one uses the Poincare group double
cover).
Innite dimensional irreducible representations on a space of functions on
a circle of radius r
The rst of these two gives irreducible representations of the Poincare group
on certain functions on the positive energy null-cone, labeled by the integer n,
which is called the helicity of the representation. We will in later chapters
consider the cases n = 0 (massless scalars, wave-equation the Klein-Gordon
equation), n =
1
2
(Weyl spinors, wave equation the Weyl equation), and n =
1 (photons, wave equation the Maxwell equations).
The second sort of representation of E(2) gives representations of the Poincare
group known as continuous spin representations, but these seem not to cor-
respond to any known physical phenomena.
2.6 Negative energy null orbits
Looking instead at the orbit of p = (1, 0, 0, 1), one gets the negative energy
part of the null-cone. As with the time-like hyperboloids of non-zero mass
m, these will correspond to anti-particles instead of particles, with the same
classication as in the positive energy case.
7
3 For Further Reading
The Poincare group and its Lie algebra is discussed in pretty much any quantum
eld theory textbook. Weinberg [3] (Chapter 2) has some discussion of the
representations of the Poincare group on single particle state spaces that we have
classied here. Folland [2] (Chapter 4.4) and Berndt [1] (Chapter 7.5) discuss
the actual construction of these representations using the induced representation
methods that we have chosen not to try and explain here.
References
[1] Berndt, R., Representations of Linear Groups, Vieweg, 2007.
[2] Folland, G., Quantum Field Theory: A tourist guide for mathematicians,
AMS, 2008.
[3] Weinberg, S., The Quantum Theory of Fields I, Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
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