. FULL FRAMING (taking a walk around your view-finder)- Scan the top, sides and bottom of your view-finder.

Your main subject should nearly touch these boundaries. If it doesn't, move closer to the subject. 2. SUNNY 16- On a bright sunny day, set your aperture on 16 and your shutter speed as close as possible to your films ISO rating. This will produce properly exposed pictures with all films and all film speed ratings. 3. FULL MOONEY 11- For proper exposure of a full moon, set your aperture on 11 and your shutter speed as close to your films ISO rating as possible. HALF MOONEY 8- Use the above rule for shutter speed and use an aperture of 8 for pictures of a half moon. QUARTER MOONEY 5.6- Use the above rule for shutter speed and use an aperture of5.6 for pictures of a quarter moon. 4. SUNSETS - Meter the area of sky directly above sun and use this setting as the basis for exposure. Using one f-stop less light will produce the effect of a picture taken one half hour later. 5. PHOTOGRAPHIC GRAY CARD- When the camera meters a mid-tone the scene will be properly exposed. 6. FILM SPEED- Use the lowest film speed (ISO) you can to preserve sharpness, color saturation and reduce grain. 7. FLASH FILL - For flash use outdoors, place the ISO setting for the film you are using on your camera meter. Double this number and place it on the flash ISO dial. Meter the scene with the camera and select an f-stop. Match this f-stop requirement with the automatic flash color mode controls. Shadows will be filled with flash lighting and appear one stop darker than the fully illuminated subject. 8. BRACKETING - Expose for a mid-tone then adjust exposure to +1 and -1. For extreme lighting go one exposure step more each way. 9. "RULE" OF THIRDS - Place your center of interest, vertically or horizontally, at the 1/3 and 2/3 points in your viewfinder for a stronger compositon. 10. COMPOSITION - When the word rule is used, substitute un-rule, for there are no rules, only considerations. 11. CLEANING FILTERS AND LENSES- A well washed 100% cotton T-shirt is softer and more scratch resistant than photographic lens tissue. To clean filters and lenses simply "HUFF" (breathe on the lens until it fogs) and wipe clean. 12. PROTECTIVE FILTER- Always leave this filter on for lens protection. 13. SHUTTER SPEED WITH FLASH- Always use 1/60 second. 14. LOW SHUTTER SPEED- To prevent camera movement blur when hand holding the camera use a shutter speed which most closely matches the millimeters of the lens you are using. 15. DEPTH OF FIELD- Use f/16 for maximum depth-of-field and f/2 for minimum depth-of-field. 16. FILM- Establish the amount of film that you think you will use, then multiply by a factor of two. When working for a client multiply by a factor of three. 17. PALM READING- To select an average tone exposure reading, "read" the palm of your hand with your thumb extended. Then, using your thumb up reminder, open up your aperture (smaller number) one stop. 18 FOCUS- Focus 1/3 of the way into the picture and use f-16 for the greatest depth of field. 19. FILTERS- When using an 80A blue (outdoor to indoor) filter, open 2 stops when using a hand-held exposure meter. 20. PHOTOGRAPHING A CAR - A three-quarter front view makes the most effective photograph for selling a car (Paul Douglas, photographer). 21. PHOTOGRAPHING LANDSCAPES - Assume that a dramatic "photogenic" effect will rarely last more than one hour. 22. BUY A DURABLE CAMERA - If you want a durable camera, you should buy the simplest camera in the highest price range you can justify (Robert B. Yepson, Jr., editor The Durability Factor). 23. FREE-LANCE RULE OF TWO - If you want a merely adequate return on an untried free-lance photography project, decide what you think you can get away with charging, and then double it. The final expense and aggravation will exceed your original estimate by a factor of two. 24. FREE-LANCING - Free-lance photographers should expect to put in one un-billable hour for every billable hour. 25. SHOOTING FILM - One good shot per roll of film is a good take. 26. TAKING PICTURES UNDER WATER - Most leaks in an underwater camera housing show up at very shallow depths. If no leaks appear within 15 feet of the surface, there is a 95 % chance that none will appear at greater depths (Flip Schulke, underwater photographer). 27. EXPERIMENTAL PHOTOGRAPHY - It takes three tries to get a new process or effect right. The first try reveals any obvious shortcomings, and the second try cleans these up so you can see what you really need to do. 28. TAKING PICTURES INTO THE SUN - When back-lighting is apparent, open the aperture an extra one and a half stops. 29. SETTING YOUR RATES - Free-lance artists should determine their hourly rate by dividing their annual income requirements by one thousand (Mike Rider, art director). 30. BETTER EXPOSURES - If you are using negative film and can't take several exposures, overexpose the metered value by one stop. You will

have a better chance of recording your information. 31. THRESHOLD BLACK - You should expose your prints in the darkroom just long enough to get a black through the clear edge of the film. When exposure is very near solid black or at the threshold of black, your good negatives will look good and the bad ones will look bad. 32. SUPER BLACK - The observable difference between the apparent solid black look of threshold black and super black is the addition of one f-stop of light. 33. DARKROOM GREMLINS - In every first quarter photography class, 25% of the students will have unexplainable results occur 50% of the time. During these times increases in light will produce lighter pictures and decreases in light will produce darker pictures. 34. DOUBT - When in doubt open your aperture one stop. When in serious doubt open two stops. 35. GOOD COMPOSITION - Mentally divide your view-finder into four areas. Look into each area and eliminate anything that isn't necessary. 36. HEADS - Look at the top of your view-finder and ask yourself if heads are included. If you don't ask yourself this, then 50% of the time heads will be partially or totally missing. 37. FEET - Look at the bottom of your view-finder and ask yourself if feet are included. If you don't ask yourself this, then 50% of the time feet will be missing. 38. HORIZON LINE - A picture taken at a slight angle to the horizon will look out of balance somewhat like a painting which isn't hung straight on a wall. Look in your view-finder and ask yourself if the horizon line is parallel to the top and bottom of your view-finder. If you don't do this, the horizon line in your pictures will be tilted 90% of the time. 39. WILDLIFE - Final image size and sharpness will decrease proportionately as the desirability for the picture increases. To reverse this effect, look through the view-finder and ask yourself how many times you could stack your subject on top of itself, moving from the the bottom of the frame to the top. If the number is greater than four your picture will lack impact. Move closer to your subject or use a stronger lens. 40. CENTER - There is a natural tendency to place all subjects in the center of the picture, known as the "bulls-eye syndrome." Place the main subject or center of interest anywhere but the center of the picture. The center is a very important place in a picture; however, when the subject is placed in the center it becomes so powerful that nothing else can compete with it (Roger Baker, art teacher, Clark College). 41. GOOD COMPOSITION - When cropping a print, use four sheets of typing paper, one for each side of the print. Move the paper to eliminate unwanted parts of the picture. The result will be good composition. 42. CLEANING LENSES - A well washed cotton T-shirt is softer and more scratch resistant than photographic lens tissue. 43. BLUE SKY - A clear north blue sky is a middle tone. An exposure reading using the blue sky as a source will produce a proper daylight exposure. 44. WATERFALLS - Use an average exposure reading as a base then reduce the exposure by one f-stop for detail in bright sunlit water. 45. FOCUS - If your subject has eyes, focus on them. 46. GOOD PICTURES - Twelve significant photographs in any one year is a good crop (Ansel Adams, photographer). 47. PHOTOGRAPHIC SEEING- Seeing simply is seeing significantly ( Jack Wilkinson, artist). 48. PORTRAITS- When taking portraits, squint, look at your subject and ask yourself if you still see detail in the shadows around the eyes. If you do, shoot. If not change the lighting or have the subject change position. 49. CHROMOGENIC FILMS- Chromogenic films contradict most rules of black and white photography. This film is a dye based film which is processed as a color negative film (C-41 process) and produces black and white images. ISO settings may be varied between 50 and 800 for different lighting conditions. Exposure at high ISO ratings produce very fine grain results. 50. SOLAR/LUNAR- The size of the sun/moon will cover one half of your little finger nail when your hand is held at arms length. 51. IMAGE SIZE - When using a 50 mm lens, the image height of a subject, as seen in your view-finder, will increase one height of the original image for each additional 50 mm that is added to the lens. Thus a 100 mm lens will double the image height. 52. MORE LIGHT - When you want to add light to make your final print or slide look lighter, use the following rule: WHEN YOU WANT MORE SUN MOVE TOWARDS ONE. This rule applies to the camera numbers that affect the aperture, shutter speed, and film speed. 53. REDUCTIVE VIEWING - A more appropriate term for photographic squinting, used to increase the contrast in a

scene. (Ken O'Connell, Chairman, University of Then, There Was Low Light Here's the kind of moody scene you can record if you're ready to experiment with low light photography. Later on in this series, we'll show you how to make photos like this. You, the photographer, position the softened spotlight at the right angle to illuminate your subject's face-creating a picture worth framing. Of course, in a studio, where everything is controlled, lighting is just a matter of positioning. But, out in the stubborn, unpredictable nocturnal world, distant lamp lights streak yellows and golds sloppily onto the streets; your favorite sports team appears as a mirage on an island of darkness; cars on a highway are reduced to ribbons of color. When taking pictures with little light, the importance of being able to manipulate your available light to your lens' advantage becomes evident. Here's a low light photo where timing is everything. We see a dramatic cityscape that hinges partly on good luck (you need a great sunset), good timing, and good exposure. All three are part of low light photography. Now, imagine a sky bursting with stars making the foliage below glimmer, or a dazzling cityscape with a rainbow of intensely sharp neon colors, or even a close-up of your daughter kicking the soccer ball into the goal-so clear that your lens captures her ecstatic smile. Taking low light (or available light, as it is often called) photographs is not always easy. In fact, it can be quite difficult. Over the next few months, we will explore the possibilities and procedures for taking low light photography. With some guidance and practice, you will be prepared to venture into the nocturnal world and make it come to life. First, A Look BackWith the technological advancements of the last 100 years, it's easy to forget that in the beginning there was only low light. Electricity was not invented until the 1890's, and it wasn't in mass use until the early 1900's. Photography came years before and so was created to work with the little light available. It is a field, which was built upon by many artists and inventors, all adding to the advancements of their predecessors. Though there was one whose name stuck-before Darwin, Newton, Ford, and Lindbergh, there was the French artist Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre. Daguerre was born near Paris in 1787. A successful commercial artist by 1825, he also promoted the giant theater, the Diorama, which encased huge 22 x 14m. paintings of historical, allegorical, and picturesque scenes lit to simulate movement. With the assistance of Joseph-Nicephore Niepce, Daguerre developed a method of making photographs, which excited commercial success. He called his invention "The Daguerreotype." By beginning with a plate of silver upon copper, polishing the plate with steatic calcareous stone, and iodizing the surface to create a pale yellow tint, the novice photographers had their first materials to create replications of their physical world. The plate then goes into the camera obscura (a small box with a hole in it), the lens is directed onto the object, and the rest depends entirely on the lighting. By 1839, the French government had made the Daguerreotype public by publishing Daguerre's process of photography for the entire world to learn. In a matter of days, everything that related to the making of a Daguerreotype-iodine, lens, copper-was emptied from the opticians' and chemists' stores in Paris. To the cartoonists and satirists, it was nothing short of "Daguerreotypomania." In Daguerre's era, photos of buildings often took half an hour or more to record. People walking past, along with dogs, carriages and other moving objects, didn't appear unless they stood still for a long period of time. Today, one way to record modern architecture is by taking photographs at night, such as was one with this photograph. We'll analyze how it was done in a later part of this series. The Fever is ContagiousThis fever to create photographs spread rapidly overseas and took hold in America. The daguerreotype excited the appetite for adventure of the Western pioneers, the artistic sensibilities of the eastern painters; and in everyone, it touched deeply a desire to place the temporal world into small, silver-plated portraits, which could literally be held outside of time. One of the most novel aspects of the first camera was that it had not been patented or licensed. So, anyone from the wealthy to the farm hands could get their portrait taken or even construct their own daguerreotype. It truly was a new communication medium, and it created a similar frenzied productivity and excitement that today surrounds the World Wide Web. By 1843, an explosive portrait industry had emerged. Low light mixed with bright lights makes for streaks, something that can add or detract from a low light photo. For rides in an amusement part, these combination can show us things we can't see with our eyes. To the men and women of the 1830's and 1840's, life's possibilities at once seemed boundless. Though, in truth, for daguerrotypists and their subjects, the restrictions placed on their cameras were grossly apparent. The difficulties surrounding the portraiture process depended entirely on the lighting. This was a world that relied solely on the natural embers of light from a fire or the blast of rays from the sun. To capture light, and do so in a way that accented the photograph, was an arduous, if not pain-staking, process. Many daguerreotypists put their studios on rooftops in an attempt to manipulate the light to please the camera. Initially, the exposure time could take from ten to thirty minutes. Then with great improvements in the lenses, apparatus, and chemistry of exposures, the subject's sitting time was shortened to 1-2 minutes. Regardless of the advancements, those posing for a portrait still had to remain motionless until the camera had made its full exposure. Luckily, photographers had a tool to help keep their subjects still. Anxious models ready to pose for the camera had to first place their necks into a clamp. Though this sounds strange and unusual to us, you have to remember that it took 1-2 minutes for the light to filter through the lens and imprint the image onto the silver-copper plate. If the subject moved slightly within that time frame, the image was blurred. Here's a common low light problem. Professional sports stadiums have bright, expensive lighting that makes night games easy to photograph. What can you do when your subject is high school sports and the lighting is lousy? Naturally there are limits, but we'll tell you about the state of the art in a later installment. Today, we still confront the importance of good lighting. Whether indoors without a strong light source or outside at night with a canopy of stars, oftentimes our pictures turn out blurred or too dark. Thankfully, much has changed since the days of the daguerreotype, and it is possible to not only take aesthetically pleasing photos with little light but also to create photographs that stand alone artistically because of their emphasis on lighting. Low light

doesn't just mean nighttime. A good dreary winter day also qualifies. Low light is in the eye of the beholder, just waiting to be captured by the photographer. For the true revolution of low light photography, another one hundred years would pass. Next month we will explore the modern techniques of taking low light and night photography. Take an opportunity to visit www.daguerre.org to see their timeless collection of the old-fashioned daguerreotype photographs. Lauren Ragland Low Light Part-II The Right Equipment for the Right Results In understanding low-light photography, last month <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight1201.php> we looked at the history of photography and how the art form evolved out of the daguerreotype. In the pre-Edison, pre-light bulb days of the daguerreotype, photographing by available light was the only choice, and the constraints of slow film and lenses made working in low light impossible. In this installment, we're going to look at the present-day techniques and equipment, which separate night from day in terms of low-light photography. Next month, we'll discuss different scenarios to help you find the light during the precarious night. In the glistening daylight, you've clearly identified your subject and simplified the fore and background. The angle you've chosen captures the subject and the photograph as a whole in the most telling light. But now imagine the sun having sunk below the hills, city, or living room window and trying to find that right angle appears elusive. It's hard to see what you're doing, let alone capture what you see on film. This picture was made in low light and in the cold as well. Taken in a park in Chicago by NYI Student Julius Pizarras as part of his Unit Three Photo Project, all we can tell you is that he used ISO 100 slide film and a 35-105 zoom lens. It looks pretty cold out there, but then it's always cold in Chicago in the winter. Low-light photography lies in a class by itself, reflecting the different techniques and equipment needed to capture this other world. While it's still enormously important to apply the Three Guidelines to all your photography, the challenge of working in low light requires more of the individual photographer. Outside of the particular equipment and approach, low-light photography also requires a different mindset-that of the nocturnally deprived soul who expects the unexpected and answers the call of spontaneity that springs out of the gloom of night. Film Knowing what you'll need when you venture out into the night or simply dim the interior lights will greatly increase the quality of your photography, as well as decrease your frustration level. First, let's look at the film speed you'll need. With low light, it's usually necessary to load your camera with speedier films. Sometimes light sources at night will be intensely bright, like a whitelighted statue, other times very dim, like a buttery moon. For color photos, use ISO 800 or 1600 films. In black-and-white, you can use T-Max 3200 ISO, or use our special formula for pushing Tri-X (ISO 400) to ISO 5000. Click here <mailto:TriX@nyip.com> if you don't have it and we'll e-mail it to you. There's no hard-and-fast rule that says you have to use fast film in low light, but most of the time it will make the job easier. If you do use a medium-speed or slow film, you'll probably have to use a tripod for all your photography. We'll get to that in a minute. Camera and Lens Here's a low light shot taken with an SLR, 200 speed Kodachrome film and no tripod. Camera reads small lights wrapped around columns of the New York Stock Exchange and sets exposure of 1/8 @ /3.5, the maximum aperture on the 28-80 zoom lens used to take this photo. NYI Dean Chuck DeLaney told us that when he uses a lightweight automatic SLR at this kind of shutter speed he takes several frames and finds that one is usually sharp. For the photo on the right he rotated the camera as he pressed the shutter. To round out the collection he also took a tight shot and a wider one. The favorite cameras among professional photographers for shooting night and low-light scenes are 35mm SLR or rangefinder models. These cameras accept the widest selection of film, including all the fast films, and large-aperture lenses are readily available. The primary concern is the speed of the lens-either fast or slow depending on the size of its maximum lens settings. A fast lens is one that has a maximum aperture of /2.8 or larger. Many medium-range zoom lenses that come with SLRs, such as a 28-80 lens, usually have a maximum aperture of /3.5. Zoom lenses that have a steady /2.8 maximum aperture through their entire range of focal lengths can be quite expensive. Fixed focal length lenses, such as the 50mm or 55mm lens that used to be sold with an SLR twenty years ago usually have larger maximum apertures. It was common to see fixed focal length lenses in the 50mm range /2 or even /1.8 as a maximum aperture. If you're interested in low light photography and only have a mid-range zoom lens, you might want to look around and see if you can find a fixed focal length lens that would be compatible with your camera. Older fixed focal length lenses may not have the automatic features that are common in newer SLRs, but you can probably work around those limitations. Wide angle and telephoto lenses can also be used for low light photography. With a telephoto lens you will definitely need a tripod. Here's a nice low-light time exposure of fireworks taken when there was still enough light in the sky to give definition to the cityscape. We're looking at Calgary in Alberta, Canada. Notice the streaks of the shells near the ground. See suggested exposure in the chart below. Tripod and Cable Release or Self-Timer If you've used one, you know that a tripod can be cumbersome and carrying it around is a hassle. But, for very low-light scenes, a tripod is an absolute must. In photographing a subject that requires a slow shutter speed, over perhaps a long time exposure of a minute or more, the tripod stabilizes the camera, preventing pictures that are blurred from camera shake. When shopping for a new tripod, look for one that locks tightly, especially if you intend to move from horizontal to vertical framing. Your tripod should have an adjustable top or a pan hand for adjusting the camera angle. It's also a good idea to buy a tripod with legs that are long enough that you can use it at eye level without having to extend the tripod's center column, which usually is less stable. It's important to realize that when you depress the camera's shutter for a long exposure, your camera may shake slightly and that could distort the image. To avoid this unpleasant occurrence, you can use a cable release. For some cameras, you can find an inexpensive release that screws into the cable-release socket in your camera. Some automatic models don't accept the standard cable release screw and you need to purchase a special electronic release. There's

another way to avoid any shake that could be caused by the pressure of your finger on the shutter release, and that's by using your camera's self-timer. This gizmo, usually used to allow the photographer to get into family photos, has the benefit of triggering the shutter without pressure from the photographer's finger. Mirror Lock While we're on the subject of minimal camera vibration that could harm a long exposure, we're sure someone will take us to task if we don't mention the fact that there are certain SLRs, generally more expensive ones, that have a feature that allows you to lock up the mirror that is used to direct the image entering the lens up into the viewfinder. When you press the shutter on an SLR, this mirror has to move up and out of the way before the image entering the lens can be focused onto the film in the back of the camera. Even in an SLR featuring superb craftsmanship, the mirror will cause some vibration when it pops up out of the way prior to exposure. Locking the mirror up before you open the shutter eliminates this source of vibration. Of course, once you lock the mirror up, you better have your picture planned and your angle selected, since you won't be able to see anything through the viewfinder until you put the mirror back down. Selecting Exposure and Using a Light Meter Your most important tool for correct exposure will be your light meter. There are generally two kinds of low light situations first where it's dim in the entire scene, and second, when there is a small bright object, such as a light, the moon, the setting sun, or some street lights. Be careful in the latter situation because the bright light may confuse your meter, particularly if the bright light falls into the center area where you camera's metering system is usually concentrated. Today's auto exposure SLRs are often very good at taking low light readings, and many times the shutter speeds available go up to 4, 8, 15 or even 30 seconds. With such a camera, it's possible to take photographs in very low light situations using auto exposure. However, if there's a bright light in the scene, particularly near the center of the scene, it's usually best to get a meter reading by pointing your camera to an area where there are no bright lights. To get detail in shadow areas, meter a dark area, or take the reading from your hand and shoot at two, three, or four times more than the indicated exposure. So, for example, if your hand gives a reading of 1/8 of a second at /2.8, twice as much exposure would be 1/4 second at /2.8, and four times as much exposure would be 1/2 second. Bear in mind however, that you don't want to make the shadow areas so light that they look unnatural. Shadow areas should be dark. If you're using an older camera and you want to do a lot of low light photography, you may want invest in a separate handheld meter, either a reflected light meter that reads the light coming off the subject, or an incident meter that reads the light that's falling on the scene. With a little practice, either type will give good results in low light situations. Bracket Most of the time, your low light subjects will be landscapes or still life settings of some sort. It's not that often that you'll be trying to photograph action, or moving subjects in low light. Since your subject isn't moving, or not moving very fast, the key to getting the right exposure, and learning what constitutes the right exposure in low light situations, lies in bracketing your exposure. As you may know, bracketing means to take several different pictures of the same scene, giving each a little more or less exposure, hopefully with the result that one of the exposures turns out to be the best for the overall scene. That is to say that you take the meter's suggested best exposure and bracket it with some exposures that capture more light and some that capture less. To learn the most about how exposure renders low light scenes, we suggest that you pick what you believe to be the right exposure and take the picture, then make two exposures with less light, perhaps one stop and two stops less light, or even one stop and three stops less light, and then make two exposures with more light, either one stop and two stops more light, or one stop and three stops. Can you feel the rumble as the train pulls into the station? It's always low light in the subway, and Keith Moffett used the converging lines of the platform and the fluorescent light bank to call attention to the incoming train. You can almost hear the dripping of water on the walls. Notice the greenish color of the lighting in the station. When you start working in low light, it is essential that you study each image that you create. Study the underexposed ones, and see how the detail in the shadows disappears. How serious is the drop off? What about overexposed images? Chances are, you'll lose detail in the highlight areas, but does that matter? What about the increased detail in the shadow areas? How quickly does it increase? Too many photographers spend too much time looking only at the successful images. Remember, there's always a lot to be learned by studying the photos that don't work, or the exposures that seem less than ideal. What if you don't have a meter, or if you can't get close enough to the subject to make the meter reading the way you would like it? Here are some suggested exposures for common low light subjects with ISO 400 film. You could use the same settings for ISO 200 film, and then bracket by giving one stop more exposure as well. Subject close to candle lit only by the candle: 1/15 at /2 Home interior with regular lights: 1/30 at /2 Indoor and outdoor Christmas lights: 1/15 at /2 Bright lights such as New York's Times Square: 1/60 at /4 Bonfires, burning buildings: 1/60 at /4 Sports arena with lighting: 1/125 at /2 Moon on a clear night: 1/250 @ /16 after all, it's being lit by the sun! Fireworks: keep shutter open for time exposure, set aperture to /16 You're Equipped Almost! Now that you've got your tripod, light meter or exposure strategy, appropriate lens and film, what about those necessary items that make your journey into the world of low-light photography that much easier? First, if you've got everything thrown into your camera bag willy-nilly, take everything out and organize your bag. With little light and little time (sometimes) to capture the fleeting images of the night, it's important to know exactly where your equipment is when you need it. For instance, make sure to separate the color from the black-and-white film. Only pack the things that you think you'll actually use. Then pack special items, such as cable releases and special effect filters, in specific places for ready access. An absolute necessity, which is sometimes overlooked, is a plentiful light source-a small penlight or pocket flashlight for reading meters, camera settings, and film data sheets. And the very last item you'll need is a watch with a face that lights up. This way you can time those long exposures. If you don't have one, get a cheap $20-dollar model with a button that lights up the face of the watch. It will make that thirty-second exposure by moonlight a lot easier! Congratulations! Your bag is organized and you're ready to begin photographing the nocturnal world before you. Sometimes astonishing,

unexpected images will emerge when light from nebulous sources swirl, erupt, or highlight your subject. Next month, we'll look at how best to utilize your camera and equipment for low-light photography. Lauren Ragland Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. Low Light Part-III In Part One <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight1201.php> of Low Light Photography we looked at the history of photography and how the art form evolved out of the daguerreotype. In the pre-Edison, pre-light bulb days of the daguerreotype, photographing by available light was the only choice, and the constraints of slow film and lenses made working in low light impossible. In Part Two <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight0102.php> we explored the present-day techniques and equipment, which separate night from day in terms of low-light photography. In this installment, we'll discuss different scenarios to help you find the light during the precarious night. Now, that you've got all the equipment you need for low-light photography, it's time to bring to light the shimmering, mystical, beautiful night just beyond your front door. Let's start with the most accessible subjects. The most traditional and loved form of available-light photography is just before sunrises and just after sunsets. The effect of minimal light upon these settings can be very dramatic. With each moment, the view before you changes; with different lens length, shutter speed and f-stop, you can greatly manipulate the appearance of the natural world. If you're anxious to begin photographing the reverent glow inside a church, the spotlighted moves of football players, or the silhouette of a friend, we suggest holding off. First getting a grasp on the most traditional form of low-light photography will prepare you for more demanding settings. Walking down a city street or driving home from work, you happen to glance up and see a beautiful pink and gold tinted sunset. It may only last a short while. You may try to follow it with your eyes before it's vanished behind a building or the tops of trees. The trick is to place your photograph. The first step is to find the perfect location. That is of key importance. The place may be your backyard, on the side of the road, on a rooftop or if you're lucky, by the beach. Find a view that can be easily simplified. If you're going to photograph from your backyard, you don't want to include too much in the photo. Nothing should interfere with the camera and the sunset or sunrise, unless it draws greater attention to your subject, such as a silhouette of a lone tree against the horizon. Often, people associate the magnificent views of a sunset with the beach because the horizon is entirely unobstructed. It appears infinite, resting at the end of the earth and so creates an ideal setting. Most of us don't have immediate access to an attractive beach. Fear not, and find that special place where the entire landscape draws attention to the vibrant sky. City lights, trees, a mountain, or bridge can complement the horizon perfectly. Once you've identified that perfect location, get there a half an hour before the sun is to rise or sink into the horizon. Remember that you'll need to organize your equipment in advance so that when the sun rises or falls to the perfect angle, you only need worry about photographing it. The setting will change appearance from minute to minute so it's important to take a bunch of pictures, capturing this kaleidoscope of colors before you. To get the best exposure use a separate light meter for measuring the ambient level of light. Either take an incident-light reading, or take a graycard reading. To be on the safe side, take a number of bracketed shots at different exposures. Bracketing can create a more interesting and imaginative photo. To do so, if your meter tells you to expose the scene at 1/60 of a second at f/8, then make the photograph and then take another frame at 1/60th at f/5.6 and another at 1/60th at f/11. This way, you have taken frames with more and less exposure than that which the meter indicates. Experimenting with different f-stops will possibly give you dazzling results, using your camera to alter the actual landscape and creating something truly dreamlike. If your camera doesn't have a separate meter or a way to control the aperture and shutter speed, it's still possible to get different exposure settings using a little ingenuity. First, point your camera at the sunset and take the indicated exposure, and then, point it at the ground where it's darker. Lock the exposure, recompose on the sunset, and take another exposure. Now, turn around and point the camera at the sky, lock the exposure, turn around, recompose on the sunset, and take another photograph.This is an easy way to get one photo with more exposure and one photo with less. It's an easy, somewhat casual way of bracketing, but it works. Remember that when photographing the sun, you'll need to use a 200mm to 400mm or longer lens to produce a large, glowing orb. With this understood, don't look directly into your lens until the sun is low enough to have turned red. Otherwise, the sun's beauty may backfire right into your eyes - ouch! Almost any film will do. We recommend ISO 200 or 400. What will your composition look like? Remember the rule of thirds. When looking through your camera, visually divide the picture area into thirds both horizontally and vertically. The intersection of these imaginary lines creates a guideline for the placement of your subjects. Putting the horizon in the middle makes for a boring landscape. This photo by NYI student Diane Lynch of Mount Ranier is great example of well-executed positioning. Over two-thirds of the photo is shared by the light blue sky and mountain. The shadowed foreground occupies just enough space to create a contrast to the snow-covered mountain and sky. The clouds and the mountain are the focus, and gain greater attention due to the simplified background and foreground. Just as the sun has a powerful effect on all that lies below it, water, in conjunction with the sun, creates a similar effect on all above it. The ocean, a lake, or a river acts as a strong reflector for the sky's rays. This makes your image more powerful, as is evident in Lyle Klinge's photo "Of the Sunrise," below. It's a radiant composition because of the two contrasting color and textual schemes. One, the pink and blue fluffy clouds are mirrored in the water below. This creates continuity and makes the image much stronger. The surrounding dark forest of trees makes for a nice border to the water. Notice how the treetops punctuate the horizon, drawing our eye towards the limitless sky. With sunrises and sunsets, you are the designer to interpret nature in your own way. A perfect way to do so is by using one or a few subjects, such as a rock, driftwood, or a tree, against the horizon. This can create an eerie or

magical effect, as in "Silhouette Vista" by Mark L. Walker. Imagine this photograph without the trees. While it would remain an attractive image, it would lose much of its uniqueness that makes it so sublime. Mark's photo nicely balances the dark sky with the dark foreground, highlighting the vista of red, blue, and gold colors. In order to bring the foreground to light, one option is to fire your flash as Gail Baker did in this photo taken at Lake Powell in Utah. Using her flash, Gail makes an otherwise, uninteresting photo, infinitely more picturesque. Without the flash, this would be a pretty bland picture with just the dark mountain and gold tinted sky. No matter that the foliage is common in appearance, it lights up the picture, literally! For a different type of look, try the sun setting over a city skyline, or even a "moonscape." This photo by Kok Mun Wong looks like a tourist postcard. He positioned the camera so as to get an expansive vista without making it too busy. The reflection from the moon and the city lights tint the water and the sky similar shades of aquamarine. This creates balance, as well as beauty. The moon, the bridges, and the city lights all work together to give it a romantic quality. Cities are great subjects to photograph because each has its own personality, which shines the fullest in the night. Now, you should be well on your way to photographing the beautiful, always changing, mystical sunsets and sunrises. Not only do these scenes make for enjoyable and rewarding work, but also they can be wonderfully lucrative. This genre will always be in demand. On the cover of greeting cards, calendars, postcards, the mysterious look and majestic colors of a sunset or sunrise will never grow tired. Lauren Ragland Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. Low Light Part-III In Part One <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight1201.php> of Low Light Photography we looked at the history of photography and how the art form evolved out of the daguerreotype. In the pre-Edison, pre-light bulb days of the daguerreotype, photographing by available light was the only choice, and the constraints of slow film and lenses made working in low light impossible. In Part Two <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight0102.php> we explored the present-day techniques and equipment, which separate night from day in terms of low-light photography. In this installment, we'll discuss different scenarios to help you find the light during the precarious night. Now, that you've got all the equipment you need for low-light photography, it's time to bring to light the shimmering, mystical, beautiful night just beyond your front door. Let's start with the most accessible subjects. The most traditional and loved form of available-light photography is just before sunrises and just after sunsets. The effect of minimal light upon these settings can be very dramatic. With each moment, the view before you changes; with different lens length, shutter speed and f-stop, you can greatly manipulate the appearance of the natural world. If you're anxious to begin photographing the reverent glow inside a church, the spotlighted moves of football players, or the silhouette of a friend, we suggest holding off. First getting a grasp on the most traditional form of low-light photography will prepare you for more demanding settings. Walking down a city street or driving home from work, you happen to glance up and see a beautiful pink and gold tinted sunset. It may only last a short while. You may try to follow it with your eyes before it's vanished behind a building or the tops of trees. The trick is to place your photograph. The first step is to find the perfect location. That is of key importance. The place may be your backyard, on the side of the road, on a rooftop or if you're lucky, by the beach. Find a view that can be easily simplified. If you're going to photograph from your backyard, you don't want to include too much in the photo. Nothing should interfere with the camera and the sunset or sunrise, unless it draws greater attention to your subject, such as a silhouette of a lone tree against the horizon. Often, people associate the magnificent views of a sunset with the beach because the horizon is entirely unobstructed. It appears infinite, resting at the end of the earth and so creates an ideal setting. Most of us don't have immediate access to an attractive beach. Fear not, and find that special place where the entire landscape draws attention to the vibrant sky. City lights, trees, a mountain, or bridge can complement the horizon perfectly. Once you've identified that perfect location, get there a half an hour before the sun is to rise or sink into the horizon. Remember that you'll need to organize your equipment in advance so that when the sun rises or falls to the perfect angle, you only need worry about photographing it. The setting will change appearance from minute to minute so it's important to take a bunch of pictures, capturing this kaleidoscope of colors before you. To get the best exposure use a separate light meter for measuring the ambient level of light. Either take an incident-light reading, or take a graycard reading. To be on the safe side, take a number of bracketed shots at different exposures. Bracketing can create a more interesting and imaginative photo. To do so, if your meter tells you to expose the scene at 1/60 of a second at f/8, then make the photograph and then take another frame at 1/60th at f/5.6 and another at 1/60th at f/11. This way, you have taken frames with more and less exposure than that which the meter indicates. Experimenting with different f-stops will possibly give you dazzling results, using your camera to alter the actual landscape and creating something truly dreamlike. If your camera doesn't have a separate meter or a way to control the aperture and shutter speed, it's still possible to get different exposure settings using a little ingenuity. First, point your camera at the sunset and take the indicated exposure, and then, point it at the ground where it's darker. Lock the exposure, recompose on the sunset, and take another exposure. Now, turn around and point the camera at the sky, lock the exposure, turn around, recompose on the sunset, and take another photograph.This is an easy way to get one photo with more exposure and one photo with less. It's an easy, somewhat casual way of bracketing, but it works. Remember that when photographing the sun, you'll need to use a 200mm to 400mm or longer lens to produce a large, glowing orb. With this understood, don't look directly into your lens until the sun is low enough to have turned red. Otherwise, the sun's beauty may backfire right into your eyes - ouch!

Almost any film will do. We recommend ISO 200 or 400. What will your composition look like? Remember the rule of thirds. When looking through your camera, visually divide the picture area into thirds both horizontally and vertically. The intersection of these imaginary lines creates a guideline for the placement of your subjects. Putting the horizon in the middle makes for a boring landscape. This photo by NYI student Diane Lynch of Mount Ranier is great example of well-executed positioning. Over two-thirds of the photo is shared by the light blue sky and mountain. The shadowed foreground occupies just enough space to create a contrast to the snow-covered mountain and sky. The clouds and the mountain are the focus, and gain greater attention due to the simplified background and foreground. Just as the sun has a powerful effect on all that lies below it, water, in conjunction with the sun, creates a similar effect on all above it. The ocean, a lake, or a river acts as a strong reflector for the sky's rays. This makes your image more powerful, as is evident in Lyle Klinge's photo "Of the Sunrise," below. It's a radiant composition because of the two contrasting color and textual schemes. One, the pink and blue fluffy clouds are mirrored in the water below. This creates continuity and makes the image much stronger. The surrounding dark forest of trees makes for a nice border to the water. Notice how the treetops punctuate the horizon, drawing our eye towards the limitless sky. With sunrises and sunsets, you are the designer to interpret nature in your own way. A perfect way to do so is by using one or a few subjects, such as a rock, driftwood, or a tree, against the horizon. This can create an eerie or magical effect, as in "Silhouette Vista" by Mark L. Walker. Imagine this photograph without the trees. While it would remain an attractive image, it would lose much of its uniqueness that makes it so sublime. Mark's photo nicely balances the dark sky with the dark foreground, highlighting the vista of red, blue, and gold colors. In order to bring the foreground to light, one option is to fire your flash as Gail Baker did in this photo taken at Lake Powell in Utah. Using her flash, Gail makes an otherwise, uninteresting photo, infinitely more picturesque. Without the flash, this would be a pretty bland picture with just the dark mountain and gold tinted sky. No matter that the foliage is common in appearance, it lights up the picture, literally! For a different type of look, try the sun setting over a city skyline, or even a "moonscape." This photo by Kok Mun Wong looks like a tourist postcard. He positioned the camera so as to get an expansive vista without making it too busy. The reflection from the moon and the city lights tint the water and the sky similar shades of aquamarine. This creates balance, as well as beauty. The moon, the bridges, and the city lights all work together to give it a romantic quality. Cities are great subjects to photograph because each has its own personality, which shines the fullest in the night. Now, you should be well on your way to photographing the beautiful, always changing, mystical sunsets and sunrises. Not only do these scenes make for enjoyable and rewarding work, but also they can be wonderfully lucrative. This genre will always be in demand. On the cover of greeting cards, calendars, postcards, the mysterious look and majestic colors of a sunset or sunrise will never grow tired. Lauren Ragland Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. Low Light Part-IV From the last three installments of Low-Light Photography, (Lowlight <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight1201.php>, II <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight0102.php>, III <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_lowlight0302.php>) you've learned how it is a part of the rich beginnings of the entire craft; you've discovered what equipment is needed; and you now know how to capture magnificent, golden sunrises, and tourmaline-colored sunsets. But that is just the beginning. There is so much more to discover, to capture, and to uncover when the sunlight fades. While the rest of the world turns down their bedspreads, the crafty photographers of the world are adjusting their shutter speeds in preparation for the tricks that the night plays when the lights go out. So much can happen in a low-light situation, and with each setting there are considerations to make for the best results. This month, we're discussing the bright lights found in a cityscape and those from one specific building or object. The fascination with photographing a skyline is that each city seems to have a different personality. The challenge is capturing that character. Also, because of the nature of these concrete and glass ecosystems, the photographer has many exciting choices to make. First, what perspective to use to capture the city to the best effect? Then, how much light should be recorded in the image? To bring out more of the illuminated details in the picture, use a short exposure. On the other hand, use a long exposure to show more detail in the shadows. Let's first begin with cityscapes one of the most popular subjects for nighttime photography. This excellent photo by NYI student Rob Bowman demonstrates one of the most important aspects of cityscapes design! That is how all of the elements in the photo work together to achieve balance, function, and a strong aesthetic. The beaming lights, shades of blue or pink or gray in the sky, and the contrasting shapes of the buildings can present many options. From which angle do you photograph to capture the city's personality? Can it be captured with only one image? Firstly, try photographing many images from one angle, and then photograph one image from many angles. Each perspective can appear as though it was from a different city. The skyline can change that much. Try to figure out how the shapes of the buildings fit together. How they interact with the fore and background, creating a pattern, a design! In Rob's photo, we immediately notice the large black slash, which is the belly of the Brooklyn Bridge. It swoops above the skyline and breaks up the empty dark blue sky. It also adds to the great use of perspective. Obviously, Rob was under the bridge when he took the photo, which worked to his advantage. Ironically, we see more of the skyline than we may have otherwise. The darkly colored bridge acts as a roof to the lighted cityscape of old Lower Manhattan as it appeared before

the destruction of the World Trade Center. Image if the bridge was equally as lighted. It would compete for attention. Instead the bridge draws our focus more clearly to the lights. When taking cityscapes, as Rob's picture demonstrates, it's best to photograph at twilight. At this time, the sky is not entirely black. Instead it will have a spectrum of blue colors that will enliven the picture as a whole and add contrast to the dark buildings and white lights. In most cities, the lights turn on at dusk, before the sky turns completely dark. But when you're in Las Vegas, where the lights burn in every color imaginable, a jet-black sky will provide a good backdrop and help to simplify the picture. This is evident in NYI student Jacqueline Lynch's picture of that dazzling, hypnotic city. She took this picture in late September of 2001 while standing on the top of the Eiffel Tower at the Paris Hotel. We would never know it, but she held the camera through a gap in the fencing. To us it looks like a mecca of lights, and a tribute to the city that really never sleeps. With all the lights, why didn't they simply fuse together, ruining the picture, and creating a spotlight effect? When photographing a cityscape, it's important to use an exposure light meter. It's also important to be aware that a meter can be misleading. In all truth, it can out and out lie. Though don't blame the meter, it's not entirely its fault. First when there are great dark areas, coming from the sky, a mass of water, or a mound of treetops, the meter averages the darkness in ratio to the lightness. Oftentimes, it will overcompensate for the dark regions and instruct the user to expose for too long. Use a little common sense, and if your picture has ten times as many dark regions than light, take the meter reading and reduce it by two or three stops. Now, a vast sea of lighted buildings can be mesmerizing, but what about when you come across one set of curvaceous otherworldly buildings that look as though they were designed specifically to be photographed? You do what NYI student Jean-Christophe Bieselaar did photograph them! The buildings are illuminated with some type of high-intensity sodium vapor lamps. This gives them and the statue in the foreground the aqua-green tint. The effect is that they stand out as though they had just landed off a spacecraft. In the areas that the light is the brightest, the effect is that the buildings look crystalline. Against, the black night, these buildings really stand out. Notice that in the right hand side of the picture there is the faint trace of clouds. They act as a nice counterbalance to the futuristic looking structures. The clouds remind us that the buildings are within a natural setting. This building would look very different if it was photographed in daylight. Jean-Christophe's picture works mainly because it is a close-up. If the buildings were surrounded by a large sea of black, they may appear as a small beacon of light. As a result, the picture would have lost the artistic quality. His subjects appear larger than life not only because of their design but also because of his perspective. Imagine if they didn't occupy threefourths of the frame. As it stands, we may even imagine that those in the buildings are wearing uniforms, speaking and walking with robotic timing. The effect of Jean-Christophe's perspective and use of the sodium light is very dramatic. This picture shows that even an image that appears designed to be photographed can be made more illuminated, more sensational with the use of a camera and the photographer's eye. Next, NYI student Greg Brown creates a ghostly effect in his picture of a power plant taken at sunrise. The lights, the reflections from the water, and the emissions have all been enhanced for a number of reasons. Greg used slow film and a medium sized aperture, and the result was a very slow shutter speed, which made the beautiful contrasts evident. The exposure, which was 40 seconds, makes this picture so special and brings to it qualities that may have otherwise been lost. With the long exposure, we can see that the trails of emissions are moving. The colors in them become more real instead of fading into the background. As Greg's photograph demonstrates, exposure in low light settings can show motion that the naked eye can not see. The effect can be very strongtaking a theme and making it the focus of the picture. There is a dark, eerie, almost deathly feel that comes across in this picture and is impossible to ignore. The image, through the eyes of Greg, clearly represents what is unnatural and dangerous. In the above photographs, the photographers took the moving, still, lighted, darkened images before them and made them larger than life. When a cityscape or isolated building brilliantly lit up by the hands of man is contrasted with a dark sky amazing pictures can be produced. When objects or substances, such as emissions, moving through the nighttime are brought to light by a camera, new, beautiful images are created. In the hopes of creating more magnificent pictures, we're going to look at a handful of scenarios and look at how to approach each in the following Low-Light installments. Had you thought about the impact of motion on a low-light setting? Lights in motion can create beautiful effects, and the camera is the singular medium that can capture what our eye can't see. Just wait and you'll see. Then, we'll look at random events, such as lightning, and how you prepare for them. Finally, lights in a design and low-light interiors occupy a world into themselves. As the series progresses, we're going to enter that world. Now, you should be well on your way to photographing the beautiful, always changing, mystical sunsets and sunrises. Not only do these scenes make for enjoyable and rewarding work, but also they can be wonderfully lucrative. This genre will always be in demand. On the cover of greeting cards, calendars, postcards, the mysterious look and majestic colors of a sunset or sunrise will never grow tired. Lauren Ragland Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. Incident and Gray-Card Readings How do you meter a sunset? Or a flag backlit by the sun? Or a very dark-skinned subject? Or any other "tricky" exposure situation? One way is to point your camera with its built-in meter toward the subject...and pray a lot. The exposure you get may be right on the money, but it may be way off too. There's got to be a better way. And there is!

In a "simple" lighting situation - for example, a portrait of your friend taken outdoors under the shade of a tree - the traditional aim-your camera-and-trust-the-meter method usually works just fine. But when the lighting is more complex, you often need to use a different method to get the right exposure. A method that involves reading the light hitting your subject, rather than reading the subject itself. You can do this in either of two different ways - either read the light off a gray card or take an incident reading. Either way should bring you the same result as the other. And both are simple, once you know how. Let's back up a bit first, and discuss how a light-meter - any meter, built-in or hand-held - determines the "right" exposure. For example, you want to determine the right exposure for your friend's face. You point your lens or a hand-held meter toward the face, and your meter tells you the "correct" exposure. Correct for what? Well, correct to produce a pleasing skin tone on color or B/W film. NYI Staff But how does the meter know what a "pleasing skin tone" is? It doesn't - and that is the problem. The meter doesn't know if you're pointing to a human face, a field of snow, or a lump of coal. All the meter knows is how to tell you what shutter speed-aperture combination to use to produce an 18% gray tone. Why 18% gray? Why not 25% gray...or 12% gray...or 99% gray? Because it has been determined that if the light in an average scene is averaged out, it will produce an 18% gray tone. So film - color and B/W - is formulated to produce proper exposure when it is exposed to produce an 18% gray tone. Immediately, some questions come to mind. What is an "average scene"? Is a ski slope average? A beach? A neon sign? And what is an average skin tone? Is it the skin of a Swedish blonde? Or a Nigerian black? Or a tanned California sunworshiper? The meter doesn't know or care. It will tell you how to produce an 18% gray tone no matter what you point it at! Knowing this, we can now proceed. If film - all regular film - is formulated to produce the best exposure when it is exposed to 18% gray light, why not read the light itself? Then, no matter what color your subject is - black, white, red, green, or anything else - if you read the light falling on it, you should come up with a "correct" exposure. And this is exactly what a gray-card reading or an incident-meter reading does. This is the such an important point, that we suggest your go back and read the last paragraph again (and again, if necessary) so that it is crystal-clear in your mind before you proceed. Method One is to take a gray-card reading. A gray-card is a piece of cardboard that is colored a precise tone that reflects 18% of the light that strikes it. This tone is 18% gray. NYI Staff You take a reading of a gray card using either your camera's built-in meter or a hand-held. Just make sure the card is tilted so that the light that falls on it is similar to the light that is falling on your subject. You already know that your meter is calibrated to give you a reading that will produce an 18%-gray tone on your film. This means the tone of the gray-card would be duplicated perfectly on the film. It also means that all other tones, lighter or darker, will be faithfully reproduced on the film too. So whether your subject is blonde or brunette, snow or coal, red or green, it will be faithfully reproduced and properly exposed on your film. Where do you get a gray card? There's one in the Kodak Professional Photo Guide, a valuable guidebook that sells for about $32. Or you can buy a Kodak gray-card by itself for $14.95 at your local camera store. Or, if you're an NYI student, you'll get one free as part of your Course when you come to the lesson on Exposure. An incident-reading with a hand-held meter gives you the same result. It reads the light, and tells you what exposure to use to reproduce an 18%-gray tone on your film. Unfortunately, the built-in meter on your camera does not have this capability. But most handheld meters do. To take an incident reading with a hand-held meter, you usually push a milkcolored plastic gizmo (dome) in front of the light-sensitive cell and point the meter away from the subject and toward the light source, like this: The milky plastic dome transmits only 18% of the light it sees. Result: The meter gives you a readout of an exposure that will produce a perfect 18%-gray tone on your film in that light. This should be exactly the same exposure readout that you would have gotten if you had read a gray-card under the same conditions. So once again, the reading will be correct in that light no matter what the coloration of your subject. Now you can see why we recommend that, when you are faced with "tricky" lighting, you use either a gray-card reading or an incidentmeter reading. We hope this explanation is clear. It is a very brief recapitulation of the much more detailed step-by-step explanation that is given to NYI students in their lesson on Exposure. Copyright 1998 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce content in any manner, see Notice on Home Page.

How to use Hyperfocal Distance to get the greatest possible Depth of Field If you haven't seen it yet, check out our Picture of The Month article. We think learning to use the hyperfocal technique is so important that we've analyzed this month's Picture-of-the-Month in terms of the use of this concept. You probably know that to get maximum depth of field with any lens, you should shoot using the smallest aperture the lens permits - that is, the highest f-number. For example, if the smallest aperture of your lens is f/16, use it to obtain maximum depth of field. If your lens shuts down to f/22, better still use it. Or f/32 or whatever is the smallest aperture of the particular lens. But this is just the start. The next question is: Where should you focus the lens? Should you focus on the horizon? In other words, should you focus on infinity? This is what most photographers do when they want to get maximum depth of field - they "shut down" to their smallest aperture, and they focus on infinity. But it's wrong! The problem with doing this is that, while this method gets distant objects in focus, it doesn't maximize the sharpness of foreground objects. (To best follow the discussion from here, we suggest you get out your camera and your favorite lens, and follow along with them as you read this.) As an example, suppose you want to capture a distant mountain vista, and you also want to add a sense of depth from near to far by framing the scene with the branches of the tree overhead. Nice idea, but how can you get the nearby branches in focus at the same time you keep the distant mountains in focus? You can accomplish this by using what is called the hyperfocal distance setting if your lens has a depth-of-field scale imprinted on it. This is an important "if" since many of today's lenses don't have a depth-of-field scale. This is a scale with a series of numbers coinciding with the apertures available on the lens. Each number is printed twice - once on the left of the center position, once on the right. So if your lens has apertures running from f/2 through f/16, you will find a "2" imprinted in the center and the number "16" printed at the left extreme and again at the right extreme. Here's how to use this scale to get the overhead branch in focus at the same time the mountain is in focus: Set your lens to its smallest possible aperture - say, f/16. Since your lens is set at f/16, find the "16" markings on the depth-of-field scale on the lens. Instead of the normal procedure of positioning the infinity distance mark at the center, position the infinity symbol above the "16" mark on the right. This brings infinity just within the depth-of-field at f/16. Now, you are no longer focusing directly on infinity. Depending on the lens, you are now focusing on a distance of around seven to ten feet. But everything will be within the depth of field now from the distance above the left-hand "16" marking - about three or four feet - and all the way to infinity. This setting is known as the "hyperfocal distance setting." It provides you with the maximum depth-of-field you can possibly get with the lens you are using. In other words, you now can have the overhead branch in focus as well as the mountains in focus - and everything in between! One final word. If your lens does not have a depth-of-field scale - and most of today's lenses don't - you might experiment. When you want to maximize depth of field, use the smallest aperture, set your distance for infinity...then back off the distance from infinity a little bit. How much? This depends upon the lens. So the operative word here is experiment! How to use Hyperfocal Distance to get the greatest possible Depth of Field If you haven't seen it yet, check out our Picture of The Month article. We think learning to use the hyperfocal technique is so important that we've analyzed this month's Picture-of-the-Month in terms of the use of this concept. You probably know that to get maximum depth of field with any lens, you should shoot using the smallest aperture the lens permits - that is, the highest f-number. For example, if the smallest aperture of your lens is f/16, use it to obtain maximum depth of field. If your lens shuts down to f/22, better still use it. Or f/32 or whatever is the smallest aperture of the particular lens. But this is just the start. The next question is: Where should you focus the lens? Should you focus on the horizon? In other words, should you focus on infinity? This is what most photographers do when they want to get maximum depth of field - they "shut down" to their smallest aperture, and they focus on infinity. But it's wrong! The problem with doing this is that, while this method gets distant objects in focus, it doesn't maximize the sharpness of foreground objects. (To best follow the discussion from here, we suggest you get out your camera and your favorite lens, and follow along with them as you read this.) As an example, suppose you want to capture a distant mountain vista, and you also want to add a sense of depth from near to far by framing the scene with the branches of the tree overhead. Nice idea, but how can you get the nearby branches in focus at the same time you keep the distant mountains in focus? You can accomplish this by using what is called the hyperfocal distance setting if your lens has a depth-of-field scale imprinted on it. This is an important "if" since many of today's lenses don't have a depth-of-field scale. This is a scale with a series of numbers coinciding with the apertures available on the lens. Each number is printed twice - once on the left of the center position, once on the right. So if your lens has apertures running from f/2 through f/16, you will find a "2" imprinted in the center and the number "16" printed at the left extreme and again at the right extreme. Here's how to use this scale to get the overhead branch in focus at the same time the mountain is in focus: Set your lens to its smallest possible aperture - say, f/16. Since your lens is set at f/16, find the "16" markings on the depth-of-field scale on the lens. Instead of the normal procedure of positioning the infinity distance mark at the center, position the infinity symbol above the "16" mark on the right. This brings infinity just within the depth-of-field at f/16. Now, you are no longer focusing directly on infinity. Depending on the lens, you are now focusing on a distance of around seven to ten feet. But everything will be within the depth of field now from the distance above the left-hand "16" marking - about three or four feet - and all the way to infinity. This setting is known as the "hyperfocal distance setting." It provides you with the maximum depth-of-field you can possibly get with the lens you are using. In other words, you now can have the overhead branch in focus as well as the mountains in focus - and everything in between! One final word. If your lens does not have a depth-of-field scale - and most of today's lenses don't - you might experiment. When you want to

maximize depth of field, use the smallest aperture, set your distance for infinity...then back off the distance from infinity a little bit. How much? This depends upon the lens. So the operative word here is experiment! Back to Black-and-White This marks the beginning of a new www.nyip.com series designed to introduce a new generation of photographers to the possibilities that exist making and working with black-and-white photographs. We won't promise a new installment every month, but there will be regular chapters until we've covered the entire story. By the way, we are interested your suggestions and ideas for this series and we are open to proposals for installments to be written by our readers. Address your comments to Back to Black-and-White <mailto:info@nyip.com>. A Little History, Or, Who Killed Black-and-White the First Time Around? Before there was color photography, there was black-and-white photography. Before national magazines were published with nothing but color photos, they used to run a color photo on the cover and a few color photos sprinkled through the rest of the magazine. Everything else was blackand-white. Let's go way back: The shiny-and-dark image of the Dauguerreotype was essentially, a black-and-white image. So too, the brown-and-white albumen print, the muted tones of the calotype and even the murky image of tintypes. Most of the history of the first hundred plus years of photography was etched in monochromatic tones a photograph was a two-dimensional rendering of light and dark patches that created a black-and-white likeness of a real-world scene. Sometimes the dark portions were dark gray and black, other times dark brown and deep brown (sepia). Even in the past fifty years, there have been lots of reasons to use black-and-white film. Early color film, processing and printing was expensive much more expensive than black-and-white. Worse still, the quality of the images was often poor, particularly from low-cost labs used by amateurs. This was because the film wasn't so hot, the processing (except for very high-end magazine and advertising work) was shaky, and the volume wasn't there. For pros, only some jobs called for color images, the majority of photographs that were reproduced in print-even on television-were black and white. Color reproduction in magazines and books was usually poor right up to the 1970s or early 1980s. Sometimes it was downright lousy. Today, we live in a full-color world. For photo viewers, even the color photos in newspapers are pretty good. Color images in magazines, books, and gasp! television too, are usually crisp and well-balanced. For the makers of photographs, including the amateur photo enthusiast and even the family snapshot photographer, today's color films and prints are reasonably priced and better than ever. For the pro, almost every customer wants color, and the exquisite films and quality processing and printing that is available allows us to produce photos that drip with eye-popping color. When that's appropriate. The result of this full-color media world is that today many photographers shoot everything in color. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean Along the way to this full-color media world (starting around 1975-1980) there was an unintended consequence. The use of black-and-white film plummeted. There were many reasons: Manufacturers were offering better color film and processing at lower prices, while fewer and fewer commercial processors could do a good job processing black-and-white film. It even became hard to buy black-and-white film! The result? The creation of blackand-white images dropped precipitously. In little over a decade, black-and-white went from a basic photographic commodity to something that was a chore to purchase and tough to get processed. Lots of photographers, as we'll discuss in a moment, stuck with black-and-white in recent times and continue to produce fantastic work in that medium. The people who have suffered are the ones who got excited about photography in the past ten to fifteen years. If you took up photography since say, 1985, there's a danger you haven't really had the fun of working with black-and-white film and getting good results. That's a real loss. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean But it's an understandable situation. After all, if you have to work hard to buy black-and-white film, if you can't get someone else to process it, and if you can't easily buy the gear you would need to do the job yourself, then you would have to really be devoted to black-and-white images to learn how to make them and to keep making them. And, if you never learned how to do it in the first place, how can you keep the tradition alive? But that was then. Now there's a different direction: Black-and-white is back! That's why it's time for you to get: Back to Black-and-white! Black-and-white is back because it's part of the power of photography. Black-and-white is back in print advertising. In today's saturated-color manipulated-image world, black-and-white feels real. To many, it looks fresh. This is true even though, as we'll discuss in this series, it's as easy to manipulate b/w images digitally as color ones. NYI Student William B. Moody III Black-and-white is back because brides want to see blackand-white photos in their wedding albums. Black-and-white is back because it's still a great way to learn about how film "sees" light. That's why good photo educators have never abandoned teaching beginners how to work with black-and-white film and images. That's why we still teach how to expose, process and print black-and-white film in the NYI Complete Course in Professional Photography. The bottom line? Black-and-white photography is back because it's beautiful. As we mentioned, for pros and long-time serious photographers, black-and-white never left. The fine-art market in vintage photography has mushroomed in part because black-and-white silver halide images are long-lasting and resistant to fading. There are lots of smaller newspapers that still ask photographers to shoot black-and-white when they know the photos will run in black-and-white. Street photographers who still admire the seminal work of Henri Cartier-Bresson expose countless rolls of b/w film in search of the "decisive moment." For this type of imagery, color can be downright distracting. Black-and-white is educational. As we mentioned, black-and-white photography is a great way to learn about the photographic medium. Many would argue it is essential: Concepts of highlight and shadow detail, image contrast, film and exposure latitude and tonal range are all best understood by studying the black-and-white image. The traditional "wet"

darkroom is still a place where the magic of the black-and-white image appearing in a tray of developer under the pale red glow of a safelight captivates people who are new to photography. NYI Student Victoria F. Cross There's magic in the black-and-white darkroom. The color "wet" darkroom is a maze of chemicals (some quite harsh) and stringent temperature requirements. In truth, you have to be a glutton for punishment to process color in a home darkroom. For color, the computer's "electronic darkroom" excels. But the black-and-white home darkroom is a relaxing, informal place, where the rich black-and-white print can be pursued at a leisurely pace while listening to one's favorite music, sequestered from the light and the hustle and bustle of the "real" world. In fact, if the black-and-white "wet" darkroom were to disappear, the world will be diminished. The educational value of black-and-white film is not limited to making black-and-white images. In truth, color silver halide images are actually made out of three (or more) layers of black-and-white images that interact with color couplers to produce layers of color dye that when viewed together give the illusion of a full range of colors. Whether you're learning to control color film and prints, or even the different layers of a color image that has been scanned into a computer, the more you know about contrast, exposure latitude, and highlight and shadow areas of blackand-white images, the greater your mastery over color will be. In short, even if you're accomplished and comfortable working in color, you'll derive great benefit from learning about black-and-white photography. Black-and-white films. Part One: Traditional Films To choose from the full range of films for black-and-white, you'll have to visit a good camera store, either in your locality, by mail order, or on-line. Chances are, you won't find even a roll of black-and-white film, much less a decent selection at your local drug store or big discount store. This is one area where the specialty store shines. NYI Student Michael Haser, M.D. When you get to a good store, you'll find a variety of great black-and-white films in a variety of speeds. The most common traditional b/w films are: Kodak: T-Max 100, T-Max 400, T-Max 3200, Plus-X (125), Tri-X (400), Ilford: Pan F+ (50), FP4+ (125), HP5+ (400), Delta 100 Pro, Delta 400 Pro, Delta 3200 Agfapan 25, 100, 400 Fuji Neopan 400, 1600 In coming installments of Back to Black-and-White we'll discuss some of these films in detail. For now, just realize that the number that accompanies each film is its ISO, or speed. The higher the number, the "faster" the film, meaning that it is more sensitive to light. We have some films on this list that are particular favorites, and a few that we don't like that much. That's a discussion for another installment of this series. You can get lots of details about each of these films by visiting the manufacturer's Websites. There are distinctly different approaches in site design at work, but with a little clicking here and there, you'll get lots of information at www.kodak.com, www.ilford.com, www.agfa.com and www.fujifilm.com. The Kodak and Ilford sites offer technical sheets on each of these films in the form of downloadable PDF files. Cool. For most users, we recommend using a 400-speed film, and for low light situations we suggest you try one of the 1600 or 3200-speed emulsions. Other Black-and-White Film Stocks. In addition to these traditional black-and-white films, there are some unusual film stocks that you might want to consider: Kodak's TCN-400 and Ilford's XP-2super are 400-speed black-and-white films that can be processed in conventional color negative chemistry, a process technically known as C-41. These films have one drawback they're not as stable as traditional blackand-white emulsions. The benefit is that you can get decent processing at any photo store or one-hour lab. We'll discuss these films in detail in a later installment, but the benefit that the average one-hour lab can handle them is a big one. As we've mentioned, even the big processing outfits have been known to do a lousy job with black-and-white these days. We'll discuss your options for processing traditional film in a later installment, but if you have a lab that you love which does a great job with black-and-white, e-mail us with that information! Agfa makes Scala, a 200-speed film that produces blackand-white slides. This is a very interesting product with one major drawback-there are only a few labs in the entire country that can process the film. Nevertheless, it's such an interesting film that we'll devote a column to its potential. NYI Student John O'Grady Other unusual stocks include Kodak's Infrared film, Ilford's SFX 200, which features an extended red range that gives an infrared "look" without the hassle, and Kodak's high-contrast Techpan 25. In addition, don't overlook the fact that Polaroid makes a number of black-and-white film stocks that can be useful for making certain types of images. Despite the recent surge of interest in black-and-white, there is one recent casualty. A few years back Ilford introduced a black-and-white single-use camera. Sadly, it has been discontinued. Black-and-white in your Computer. While we're going to start our series with traditional film-based materials, bear in mind that you can convert any color photo to a black-and-white image in your computer. In computer language, such an image is called "grayscale," but don't let the tech-talk confuse you. We'll cover how to use the computer to make black-and-white images as well. By the way, as we write this, the news out of PMA includes a digital camera that allows users to capture images as black-and-white. How's that for a comeback? If you haven't read our PMA coverage, we encourage you to do so. In Closing... We hope this month's installment got you excited about black-and-white photography. Here's your assignment: Start looking for a film supplier and processor for your black-and-white work. We will be holding some "black-and-white only" photo contests a little later in the year. If you have any suggestions for what you would like us to cover in this series, send them to "Back to Black-and-White". Finally, we wouldn't be covering the subject of black-and-white photography if we didn't mention Mason Resnick, a hard-working photographer, journalist and Web designer who has been a staunch advocate of blackand-white photography for as long as we can remember. In fact, he has a site www.photogs.com/bwworld that is devoted to black-and-white photography. Check it out! Chuck Delaney, NYI Dean

Back to Black-and-White Part 2 As we pointed out in the introduction of Installment One <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white.html> of Back to Black-and-White, (B2B&W) this will be a series devoted

to the enjoyment of all aspects of black-and-white photography. The first Installment taught us two things. First, the interest in the subject is tremendous. It generated the most hits of any article in the March edition of www.nyip.com. Second, our readers are prone to feedback. The most interesting comment we received from several readers marks the departure point for this installment.... Breathe This! Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean Several readers of B2B&W wrote to lodge a complaint regarding the comparison between the black-and-white and color darkroom. They actually argue that working in a color darkroom is a more pleasant, less toxic experience. More power to these brave souls. We hope they have great ventilation. It is true, as they point out, that color prints are usually processed inside a drum, rather than floating around in a tray, hence the surface area of liquid that can put off fumes in a tray-based darkroom is much greater than in a drum-processor environment. We'll hazard a guess that these people have never made a Cibachrome (yes, we know this disappearing product has been technically called Ilfochrome for the past decade or so) but to us it will always be Cibachrome. Drum or no drum, that's a nasty process. We're not here to talk about color, but it is pleasing to know that there are enough wet darkroom devotees out there to actually be able to provoke such a debate. Suffice it to say, we find standing around for two to five minutes in a lit room watching a little drum roll around about as interesting as watching paint dry. Part of the black-and-white darkroom is spending time in the peaceful low-stress environment swathed in pale red light, watching the photograph emerge on the print. And we like it that way. With that piece of business out of the way, let's turn to the key subject of this installment: What Subject Matter Makes Good Black-and-White Photographs? Mathew Brady Well, for a long time, any subject was fine for black-and-white photography because that was (for all practical purposes) the only type of photography there was. It is still fair to say that any subject can be photographed in black-and-white, and we're not out to dictate any rules. But, common sense suggests that you try to avoid working in black-and-white with subjects that have a natural affinity for color, such as autumn scenics, blue-eyed portrait subjects or butterflies and flowers. These are all examples of subjects where beautiful color has the potential to add a great deal to the power of a photograph. That's an aspect of NYI's Guideline Two for Great Photographs: How do you focus attention on your subject? If your subject is very colorful, then naturally calling attention to that color is a way to focus the viewer's attention. In fact, as a starting point in selecting subject matter for black-and-white photography, we suggest you consider subjects where just the opposite is true look for subject matter where color runs the risk of becoming a distraction to the subject and the photograph. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean For example, blood-and-guts accident and war photos don't necessarily benefit from vivid color. We know, (recalling Bertold Brecht's lyric from Three Penny Opera that "Aber Blut ist immer noch Rot." (Ah, but blood is always still red) without seeing it. So too, gritty poverty, human suffering and anguish, as well as pictures with brooding emotion often benefit from the understatement of black-and-white. Sometimes large areas of color don't add to a photo, but rather create a powerful color field that can pull the viewer's attention away from the intended subject. The bright blue shirt may divert attention from the sad eyes of the child in an orphanage. Remember, whether our goal is to capture reality or create an illusion, all photographs are at best a representation of reality. We live in a three-dimensional world, where sound, smell, touch and the passage of time contribute to our experience. All photographs are flat, two-dimensional renderings on paper, in print or on a computer screen. Space, time and other aspects of our real-life experience have been eliminated. In a black-and-white photograph, our sense of color has also been eliminated. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean That doesn't make a black-and-white representation less meaningful. A large body of work known as street photography, including photographs by masters such as Henri Cartier-Bresson and Sabastiao Salgado, derives its power from the photographer's ability to use black-and-white, along with the form and placement of the subject, to control the viewer's experience. We see the intended subject without the risk of getting lost in a bright blue sky or some colorful object in the background. Another point about perception: Color imagery can show us the difference between the dark green leaves on the apple tree and the red skin of the apple. In black-and-white, these dark tones may be reproduced as very similar tones of gray. The black-to-gray-to-white continuum has the potential to conceal many things. Sometimes this works for the photographer and adds power to the image, other times it can create problems. In a later installment of this series, we'll show you how to use color filters with black-and-white film to solve the apple/apple leaf problem described above. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean OK, so we have blood, guts, grit and street photography. Want some other subject areas? How about sex? Forget about the men's magazine pictorials and the busty women that seem to adorn the cover of virtually every magazine about anything these days. The desire for illusion and fantasy that is part of those subjects is ideal for color. But pick up any current fashion magazine whether it's aimed at men or women and look at large number of fashion advertisements that run in black-and-white. Years ago, black-and-white magazine ads were cheaper for the advertiser than color ones, but nowadays that's not really an issue. Advertisers choose black-and-white ads for impact. Take for example, all the underwear and perfume ads run by Calvin Klein over the years. Whether it's a topless Kate Moss appearing in a men's briefs ad, or a host of other models, including the questionable under-18 vampy kid ads that were withdrawn after much protest a few years ago, many Calvin Klein campaigns are in black-and-white for a reason. There's an intensity and emphasis on form that works well in advertising that's inherent in black-and-white. Chuck DeLaney, NYI Dean This isn't something that Calvin Klein and his advertising staff discovered. Look at the nudes of Edward Weston for powerful use of black-and-white imagery based on human forms. Beyond sex, what about just plain portraiture? When the subject

is a person, portrait photographers often seek to keep the background and surrounding area subdued to place emphasis on the person who is the portrait subject. Often photographers working in color will use dark backgrounds to make the person dominate the image. Working in black-and-white, the power of the person is often accentuated more readily. Look at the large body of black-and-white portraits created by contemporary photographers such as Richard Avedon or Robert Mapplethorpe to seek what kind of power can be building into black-and-white subjects. We could go on and on with regard to great contemporary photographers working in black-and-white--Robert Frank, Larry Fink, Lilo Raymond, Lisette Model and Danny Lyons spring to mind. We could also discuss various types of subject matter-buildings, bad weather, dramatic interiors and fantasy subjects-but we're not out to create exhaustive lists. What we do want to do is give you a sense that the possibilities are limitless. There's no subject that's taboo for black-and-white! For example, those colorful flowers we discussed earlier can be reduced to a study in form and arrangement in black-and-white. You'll have to work harder to make lighting and composition carry the image, but it's not impossible. In fact, it's a challenge if you want to take it on. Heads up: This month in our contest section we give first notice of our upcoming WWW contest for blackand-white images. The time to get started is now! As we've stated repeatedly, we're looking for your feedback and suggestions. Don't hesitate to give us a shout at B2B&W any time, day or night, we'll keep the safelight burning! As we pointed out in the first two installments <http://www.nyip.com/sub_idx_pgs/referidx/ref_technique_idx.html>of Back to Black-and-White, (B2B&W) this is a series devoted to two things: The enjoyment of all aspects of black-and-white photography, and helping all photographers increase their knowledge about black-and-white. In Installment One, we covered the rationale for this series. In Installment Two, we described a few ideas for kinds of subjects that make good black-and-white photos. In this month's column, we'll take a look at how easy it is to make a decent exposure of a blackand-white negative, even without a light meter. Back to Black-and-White Part 3 Exposure made easy! NYI Student Paul Plihal In short order we'll be looking at different types of black-and-white film, but before we take up that subject, it makes sense to provide an easy-to-use guide for exposing black-and-white film, based on two simple assumptions: ISO 400 and the "Sunny 16" Rule. Ever wish you didn't need a built-in light meter or the know-it-all autoexposure system in your camera? Well, with most black-and-white films, you don't. All you need to learn is a few simple settings and you'll be able to expose most black-and-white films under all kinds of basic lighting conditions. In fact, as well cover in later installments, traditional black-and-white negative films have a great tolerance for over exposure, and it can be fun to play with black-and-white in any camera, including old, totally non-automatic models. Let's discuss the two basic items. ISO 400 Film. There are lots of ISO 400 black-and-white films, including our favorite, Kodak Tri-X, the two chromogenic films-Kodak's TCN 400 and Ilford XP-2, as well as Ilford's HP-5 and Delta 400 pro, Kodak T-Max 400, Fuji Neopan 400, and Agfapan 400. If you learn a few basic exposure settings, you can almost always decide on the right combination of shutter speed and f-stop to give good exposure to an ISO 400 black-and-white film. (For that matter, although it is outside the scope of this column, the same feeling for ISO 400 film will allow you to do the same with color negative ISO 400 film. Slide film can be a little trickier, but once you learn the basic settings for ISO 400, you can really exposure any negative film and get great results. The "Sunny 16" Rule. Rule. This merely says that any film can be exposed under sunny conditions by setting your camera to f/16 and using a shutter speed this is the reciprocal of the ISO. Has it been a while since you studied fractions? Well, as a reminder, remember that a reciprocal is 1/over a given number. Hence, the reciprocal of 400 is 1/400. That means that if you have a subject illuminated by sun and you're using an ISO 400 film, correct exposure would be 1/400 at f/16. Now, except for a few of those fancy electronic shutter cameras, old manual cameras offer you shutter speeds of 1/250th of a second and 1/500th. There is no 1/400. In this situation, we opt for giving the film a little more exposure rather than a little less. outdoors, selecting from six basic exposures: Bright sun - 1/250 @ f/16, or any other identical combination. That means, if you're using a long lens and want to use a faster shutter speed, open up one stop and expose at 1/500 @ f/11. Bright sun and extremely bright setting, such as sun on sand, snow, ice or water, you can give one stop less exposure at use either 1/250 @ f/22, or if your lens doesn't go that high, try 1/500 @ f/16. Light cloud layer, so subject is illuminated by overcast sunlight, we open up one stop from our sunny recommendation to 1/250 @ f/11. If it is overcast, or the subject is in open shade, open up another stop to 1/250 @ f/8 If storm clouds are brewing or if the subject is in deep shade, open another stop to 1/250 @ f/5.6 If it starts to rain, get under cover and open up one more stop to 1/250 @ f/4 These six settings, each giving one stop more exposure than the one before, will cover all outdoor daylight settings. To recap: 1/250 @ f/22: bright sun and extreme reflective conditions 1/250 @ f/11: light over cast clouds 1/250 @ f/8: cloudy, or open shade 1/250 @ f/5.6: very dark clouds 1/250 @ f/4 rain or snow storm With these six settings, you can photograph outdoors all day with ISO 400 film without having to think much about exposure, as long as you pay attention to the type of light falling on your subject. Once you start using this formula, you'll be surprised how good you can get at being your own light meter. Indoors, at night, in a normally illuminated room, we start at 1/30 @ f/2.8. Indoors during the day, if we're working with available window light, we bracket a bit but use the outdoor settings less a stop or two, unless there's direct sunlight falling on the subject, in which case it's right back to 1/250 at f/16. NYI Student Ken Teller Needless to say, each of these f/stop and shutter speed exposure combinations could be modified by doubling one setting and cutting the other in half. Balanced changes will keep the same exposure. For example, in open shade, instead of 1/250 @ f/8, you could use 1/500 @ f/5.6, 1/1000 @ f/4, 1/2000 @ f/2.8, as well as

1/125 @ f/11 and 1/60 @ f/16. All those combinations yield the same exposure on the film, but if, for example, you want a large aperture to employ selective focus, use the faster shutter speed that works with a larger aperture opening such as f/2.8 or f/4. Is this simple? You bet, and it works. It may sound a little complicated, and for those of you who have always been totally dependent on a light meter or autoexposure for all your photography it may seem scary to set exposure yourself, but once you try it you'll be amazed at how easy it is. Another of the fun parts of using black-and-white film is doing your own processing and playing with altering development times. For example, by giving exposed film more than the recommended time in a developer, you can "push" the film to greater light sensitivity. By cutting the recommended time you can "pull" the film early. The latter trick can be very handy if you accidentally expose a film think it is a lower ISO than it actually is. Giving a piece of exposed film more or less development time was actually part of the Zone System as propounded by the late Master Ansel Adams. Remember that Adams did all his best-known work with a view camera and pieces of blackand-white sheet film. Adams would play with both exposure and development to make sure that he could have the richest details in the important areas of his scenic photographs. Today's small roll films make it impossible to give each frame of film varying amounts of developing time. However, part of the fun of black-and-white photography is that there's a certain amount of leeway in both exposure and development. Make sure you take full advantage of it! We'll have lots more to say about development tricks with black-and-white film in future installments in the series. Stay tuned. In the first three installments <http://www.nyip.com/sub_idx_pgs/referidx/ref_technique_idx.html>of Bk2B&W, we presented an introduction of sorts. We've covered who killed black-and-white at the close of the last century, why it's back. We also discussed some of the types of subject matter that lend themselves to this treatment. In closing, we discussed the joy of exposing ISO 400 B&W films on the fly, and the "Sunny 16" rule. If we view the first three installments as an introduction, we've now embarked on Part Two - Raw Materials. This will be a slightly nostalgic review of the materials for black-and-white photography that are readily available today, how they are used, and some of the stuff we miss from yesteryear. Perhaps if enough people make enough noise, we may be able to get some of the good stuff that's gone brought back. After all, the people who killed black-and-white the first time around are still around, and they're actually very responsive to the market place. Back to Black-and-White Part 4 Raw Materials Part One: Film ISO 400 Black-and-white chromogenic films - Ilford XP2 and Kodak TCN-400 Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean The real fun of black-and-white photography is experimentation for many people. As we'll get to way down the road in this series, black-and-white photography is also about control for the kinds of great photographers who put the effort into learning to pull an exquisite black-and-white print. In fact, here's the first assignment, let's call itAssignment Number One, for all the readers of this series. If you've never been to a good photography museum or gallery, make it your business to look at some fine black-and-white silver prints made by masters. If possible look at prints by Ansel Adams, Barbara Morgan, George Tice (a name some of you may have never heard), Edward or Cole Weston, and (when he made them himself) W. Eugene Smith. This is by no means intended to be a "greatest B/W printer" list. Rather, it's just the names of some great printmakers that come to mind quickly. Once you've seen a few black-and-white fine art prints, you'll be able to readily identify a black-and-white print made by a master photographer who can bring out the maximum effect in all parts of a black-and-white image. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean If you're unaware of the term "silver print" don't be put off. In galleries and museums everything is precious. In galleries, the stuff is precious because it's for sale. In museums, things are precious because museums are supposed to be repositories of quality. In reality, "silver print" is just a pretentious way of saying "silver halide print," denoting a print made of black-and-white paper that is sensitive to light because it has silver halide crystals in it. This is the standard stuff of photographic prints for most of the past hundred years. We realize that many readers are fully familiar with the joy of looking at a rich black-and-white print. But to those individuals we must point out that we also know that a lot of our readers are just discovering black-and-white photography and know the work of black-and-white masters only from textbook, magazine and newspaper reproductions. It's to this latter group that this assignment is geared. Anyone who cares to do so, is welcome to email us at Bk2B&W, <mailto:info@nyip.com>and tell us what you saw and where you saw it. We'll be happy to print choice tidbits from selected mail. Black-and-White negative film Until the computer came along with the power to strip all color out of an image, black-and-white photographs usually began with a black-and-white negative image. In our series on the raw materials that are available for the black-and-white process, we'll start with film, then spend a little time discussing developers, and then cover traditional black-and-white printing paper. Black-and-white chromogenic films - Ilford XP2 and Kodak TCN-400 Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean We're not chemists, and we're not the world's greatest experts on these two films. But we have a lot of fun using both of them. Let's start with the names. We call these two films chromogenic black-and-white films because they use the same type of image activation as color negative films. The black-and-white negative is created by the color couplers that in other chromogenic films creates a color negative. This seems, at first, a little like a strange pathway. Since black-and-white films are cheap and easy to process and black-and-white negatives are very stable and if properly fixed and washed will last for a hundred years or more, why would anyone want to use more expensive color-type materials that are harder to process and less stable over time? There's really only one key reason-the films can be processed in the same color negative chemistry, called C-41, that's used for color negative films. For a long time, few people seemed to need the film. We are just guessing that Ilford intended it for the journalist who had to squeeze off a roll

of B/W now and then, or the photographer who wanted to get creative without learning how to process black-and-white. As time wore on, Ilford XP-2 became more and more popular, and there are a few main reasons for that. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean First, the people who killed photography the first time around had made it so hard to find any blackand-white processing that was any good that it was easier to shoot XP-2. That way, at least you could take it to any onehour lab or photo store and have a choice of processing. In the 1980s and early 90s it became very hard to find labs that could do a decent job with conventional black-and-white film. On the other hand, you could take a roll of XP-2 and at least get a decent negative. It probably won't last one hundred years but then again you probably won't either. But, you could have it in an hour or so, therefore XP-2 offered two benefits-any lab that could process C-41 could just toss it in the tank, and it was fast. The other big plus for the film lay in the fact that the one hour labs that could process the stuff started playing with the idea of printing with it on conventional color print paper, the so-called C print. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean All of a sudden, photographers discovered that they had a quick and easy way to make prints in a number of different tonal ranges. If the lab operator was hip, by playing with the cyan, magenta and yellow filtration, it was possible to give a roll of film a sepia look, or a blue/black tonality, even greens and pale tans. Work produced in this fashion began to crop up more and more in the portfolios of portrait photographers and wedding specialists. People started to get interested in the look. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean All of a sudden Ilford's product had a market. Guess who stepped in? That's right, the folks from Kodak noticed the growth in the market place and brought out TCN-400 close to five years ago. Assignment Number Two Too few photographers who use point-and-shoot cameras ever use black-and-white film. In fact, let's make this Assignment Number Two. Purchase and use a roll of either XP-2 or TCN-400. Try to use the roll on a few different types of subjects. Try a portrait subject outdoors, a portrait subject by window light, a landscape and perhaps an interior image of some sort. What about availability? Chances are, you won't find either of these films in the local discount or drug store. Any good photo specialty store should have (or be able to order within a day or two) one or both of them. In addition, we have good news: The Ilford XP-2 black-and-white single-use camera is back! That's right. A few years ago, in recognition of the phenomenal growth of single-use cameras, Ilford brought out a single-use flash model that used its XP-2 black-and-white film. For a while, the camera was taken off the market, but we checked with the technical services department of Ilford and learned that the XP-2 black-and-white single-use model is back. What's more, Ilford is also marketing a single-use model that is loaded with its traditional ISO 400 black-and-white films HP-5. How do the films differ? Truthfully, we've never done any side-by-side comparisons. Sometimes, we think that TCN-400 yields a slightly finer grain print. When we first got samples when it came on the market our local one-hour hotshot liked the way it performed. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean Bear in mind that at the New York Institute we have the choice of a dozen or more custom photo labs within a twenty-block radius. Most of the time, if the job calls for black-and-white images, we use traditional materials. For some photographers who don't have ready access to good black-and-white labs, these films may present a solution of sorts and become your black-and-white film of first resort. Working with either of these materials requires a little bit of collaboration with the processor unless you run your own C-41 line and do your own color printing. What you get out (in terms of prints) depends a lot on how the lab operator sets the printing filtration. It makes sense to try to develop an ongoing relationship with one lab with regard to establishing what tonality you want in the final print, particularly if you're having an enlargement made. That's why we insisted in Assignment Number Two that you meet someone who is on the ball in the lab where you dropped the film. Chuck DeLaney NYI Dean Next installment, we'll turn to some conventional black-and-white films you should try. <http://www.nyip.com/index.html> <http://www.nyip.com/index.html> Copyright 2000 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce content in any manner, see Notice on Home Page.

Back to Black-and-White Part 5 Tri-X "Pushes" Fifty Is it fair to call Tri-X a Super film? We think so. In the days of Max-this and Plus-that, Kodak's Tri-X 400 has provided a steady and predictable high-quality black-and-white film for photographers interested in shooting subjects under available light conditions. Ever since it was introduced back in 1954, it has been a more or less steady-seller, and though there have been one or two tweakings by the chemists at Kodak along the way, our contemporary Tri-X 400 is basically the same film that news photographers and other black-and-white aficionados have been using since its introduction. We know that ardent champions of Ilford's 400-speed black-and-white negative film and Agfa or Fuji enthusiasts might argue with us about the supremacy of Kodak's Tri-X. We would be happy to respond to anyone's comments regarding those 400-speed films in another installment of B2B&W. But, for now, we think it's high time to celebrate a legend. After all, for the past few decades, across the country, at the end of a press conference or news event, it's been those green, yellow, and black Tri-X boxes that litter the wake of the working photo press. When Tri-X was first introduced, it was the fastest film generally available, with a (then) ASA (now ISO, see our "historical note" below) rating of 200. No, it wasn't originally a 400. All films at the time had a built-in "safety" factor. If

you exposed the film over the ASA rating, the result was an overexposed negative. This was okay if you were shooting 4 x 5 film, because even if you were to make a mistake, you would still be able (given the size of the film) to get a printable image. However, if you overexposed a smaller piece of film, like the 35mm, it would, of course, be deadly to the quality of the film. So photographers clamored for a removal of the "safety" factor. Kodak responded, and Tri-X became a 400 film. NYI Student Rose-Marie Boller "Tri-X was the film that ushered in available light photojournalism," said Jason Schneider, editor-in chief of Popular Photography. "With handheld 'miniature' cameras . . . the 35mm camera and high speed lenses like f 1.5, 1.4, even f1.1. and f1.2...photographers could take photos in almost any light." "1954 was kind of a seminal year," Schneider added. "Photojournalism converged around this combination of a faster film and people using fast lenses and shooting in available light." Bob Shanebrook, Kodak's former world-wide product manager for all blackand-white products and current manager for all of Kodak's color negative film, echoed Schneider's sentiments. "We joke about Tri-X here at Kodak, that the people who developed this film hit on the right combination at the right time. They managed to balance what the technology could produce with what the photographers needed." Have their been any significant changes to the film since it was first introduced in 1954? NYI Student Galen Mark Eversole "Certainly the materials have changed," Shanebrook explained. "But we haven't made any major changes since about 1960. We've tried to keep it the same, because people have become accustomed to the film. Photojournalists have said, don't mess with our Tri-X. Most of these guys were raised on the film, they've become very dependent on it. They expect it to perform as it always has. And it does. Granted it may not have the fine grains that T-Max films have, but for many photographers, TriX does what they want it to do." Tri-X is a very forgiving black-and-white film. It can be overexposed and underexposed, pushed and pulled, with good results. The images are grainier than Kodak's own T-Max 400, and grainier in general than most of the newer ISO 400 films. Some say, too, that it's not really as fast as 400 and rate it instead at 320 or even 250. But it is, quite rightly, known for its fantastic tonal range and quality. As Jason Schneider explained it, "Tri-X offers advantages in available light for a photographer who wants a certain kind of picture. For example, available light situations are often high contrast shooting situations. Tri-X is better for that." Shanebrook described the excellent shadow and highlight detail of Tri-X images by describing the problems that occur when photographing someone at a window "You can burn in the window, which is probably ten times brighter than the room, and still get detail. Tri-X records much of the information that is there." Shanebrook was on the ground floor during the development of T-Max. He wrote the original spec and gave the press conference. Despite his allegiances, he still uses Tri-X occasionally in his own work. NYI Student Fitzroy Rodney "My personal hope was that we could take the technology of the 1980s and replace what we had done in the fifties and sixties," Shanebrook confided. "Certainly the grain is much sharper. It's a finer film. But Tri-X has a certain something intangible about it that makes it a great film. I sometimes use it in my own photography. The tonality is very good. The way the highlights are kept even if the exposure isn't quite right. T-Max doesn't do quite as good a job with that. I would say there's room in the photo bag for both films." "But those that have switched to T-Max are learning to get the same degree of perfection from their film as those that are used to Tri-X," Shanebrook added. "It just takes time. Our obligation is to make the product as consistently as we can so that what you learned last year when using the film can be applied this year and two years from now." Despite the introduction of T-Max and its characteristic advantages, Tri-X is having no trouble holding its own within the black-and-white world. As Schneider put it, "T-Max may be the faster car, but Tri-X, tends to have much better handling, and on certain circuits it will get around the track faster and better." Tri-X Tips and Contest Items NYI Student Blake Newman Tips on Developing Tri-X: The faculty at NYI shoots Tri-X 400 at a variety of ISOs. Click here <mailto:info@nyip.com> to receive an e-mail of some of our favorite formulas for developing the film when shot at speeds under or over the recommended ISO. Historical note: For those of you new to photography who may not recognize the term ASA, it was just a different acronym for film speed. ASA stood for the jingoistic American Standards Association, while ISO represented (and still does) the International Standards Organization. Unlike Fahrenheit and Centigrade, ASA equals ISO. Special Prize for History Lovers: The first person to correctly e-mail us with the names behind the acronyms for two other exposure indices, plus the names of the scientists behind the DIN, EV and H&D Curve will win an NYI 100%-cotton Official Photographer T-Shirt in the size of his/her choice; along with the satisfaction of having his/her name published in an upcoming installment of B2B&W. Special Prize for Experts: Without calling Burt Keppler, the first person to e-mail us with a correct, or even a possibly correct, or at least a cogent explanation of the history of the letter "X" at Kodak, will win a copy of a 1979 (or earlier) copy of a regular monthly issue of Popular Photography or Modern Photography. Copyright 2000 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce content in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. Back to Black-and-White Part 6 Processing Black-and-White Film: Get Ready, Get Set. Developing black-and-white film is easy. B2B&W decided to ask one of NYI's Master Practitioners of black-and-white photography, Student Advisor Jerry Rice, to write the sections on processing black-and-white film. Jerry agreed, provided we allow him a few introductory words, which we were happy to do. As you'll read, Jerry's another member of the NYI faculty who believes

that black-and-white never died, it just had a lot of people trying to kill it. Here's the first installment of Jerry's sage advice on black-and-white processing. You'll learn what you need to get started. In next month's installment, we'll get to the actual processing steps. Enjoy! THE REVIVAL OF BLACK-AND-WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY NYI Student Gloria Restrepo Perhaps a quarter of a century ago some of the pundits of photography (synonym for camera magazine contributing editors) tolled the death knell for black-and-white photography. Done, they mournfully intoned. B&W is dead, gone, finished! Rest in peace, they said. The king is dead, long live the king and it's name is color photography. As for B&W, of the dead say nothing but good. But just as Mark Twain informed the world that the reports of his demise were premature so let us now proclaim that B&W photography (and its film developing and printing) are still with us. Not only with us but alive and kickin', as they say down yonder! Does that mean that color photography has given up the ghost? Oh, certainly not, by no means! Color photography still represents at least 95% of the film market and is likely to retain that dominant lead perhaps forever. But we at NYI assure you that there is currently a very healthy active interest in B&W, and we think it's high time we talked about this grand old timer. Many of us, especially among younger photographers and those who only just recently began their photographic interests, only know color film and processing. B&W is alien corn, so to speak. That's partly due to intense advertising hype but also due to the severely limited availability of B&W laboratory facilities. If film manufacturers sell the public on the notion of color photography and bang the drum (very slowly) for B&W then it stands to reason that B&W commercial laboratories will gradually disappear. That seems to have been the case. But B&W is still here and is still thriving, thanks be to such giants in the film industry as Kodak, Ilford, and Agfa; others in the film industry have been less vigorous in this respect, concentrating more on color. Why B&W you may ask, and it is a legitimate and logical question. There are numerous possible explanations. Here are a few, and perhaps you can think of additional reasons. B&W photography is an abstraction actually. Abstraction, by definition, suggests that something is removed from its original place, thus changing the nature of the object. Since we view the world in color, the removal of color from our perception fits the definition of abstraction. If we take color out of photography, leaving only black and white and shades of gray, we have made the end product different enough from the original so that one's attention is surely aroused. In fact, in the early days of photography the days of L.J.M. Daguerre and William Henry Fox Talbot people were curious and puzzled why photographs were not in color. Furthermore, no real progress in color photography was made until the end of the 19th century. Even those color beginnings were very primitive compared to today's color technology. So, from the earliest days in photography, the phenomenon of black-andwhite images prevailed and eventually even accepted as reality when, of course, it was not. NYI Student Paula M. Rose But abstraction is not the only reason for the appeal of B&W photography. Certainly the ability of B&W to emphasize shape, form, and texture uncluttered by color is important. When a painter starts his work he usually begins with rough B&W sketches, using pencil, pen, charcoal, etc. The artist needs to nail down the general shape, form, even the texture of his subject before he adds the color. And he must approximate the interplay of light-and-dark tonalities on his subject, what we sometimes call chiaroscuro. So, in a sense, B&W photography functions as a kind of quick form of sketching; to many of us, that holds an instant appeal. Also, in some cases, B&W carries with it a greater sense of realism than color does. That sounds strange, doesn't it, considering that we view the world in color? The problem with color photography, though, is that the colors it presents are often a far cry from the colors we find in the real world. Consider the color of blood. In reality it seems considerably different than it appears in color photography. Gory scenes photographed in color seem to be less repulsive and hence less realistic. Therefore, B&W seems to be well suited for documentary and photojournalistic photography. There are other valid reasons for choosing B&W photography, but let us move on now. We need to discuss various types of B&W film, of course. But first we need to convince you how relatively easy it is to process B&W film right in your own facilities. That seems to be the biggest stumbling block that keeps people from trying B&W. You might assume that B&W printing would be next on the list, but we prefer to discuss B&W film after film development. What we're trying to do is to get a good B&W negative in your hands before we even consider constructing a darkroom and undergoing the relatively considerable expense involved in that undertaking! You can find adequate B&W processing facilities in the major cities of North America and in the principal cities of much of the rest of the world. But if you can't there are two good alternatives: 1) developing and printing your B&W film in your own darkroom, and 2) using certain B&W film that can be developed and printed using color processes in color darkrooms found nearly everywhere. Let's talk about working in your own facilities. "But," you exclaim, "I have no darkroom!" To this argument we say you don't really need one, at least not at this stage of the game. Consider these stories, and they're supposed to be true, too. The late great Alfred Stieglitz (the father of modern American photography) loaded his 8x10 and 4x5 film holders under his dining room table. His darkroom? A long dark tablecloth draped generously over the table served to darken the area underneath. He developed his film and printed his images at night in an unlit attic and washed both negatives and prints in a bathtub. His contemporary, Edward Weston, draped dark cloths over the windows of his vintage Ford and loaded and unloaded his film holders inside the car. Not so remarkable a fact except, of course, that this was sometimes done in Death Valley or the Mojave Desert with temperatures reaching 125-degrees in the shade! We don't recommend either Stieglitz' or Weston's seemingly primitive method. but: where there is a will there is a way! The first step is to learn how to develop a roll of B&W film in your own location. It's similar to baking a cake but a good deal easier (if not quite so tasty). Here's what you need to get started: A roll of undeveloped but exposed B&W film. We are presuming here that you are using 35mm film. The procedures for developing120/220 film are the same essentially as 35mm film but differ very slightly in the reel loading. Developing large format sheet film is also essentially the same as other film but with a few variations that need not concern us at this time. A developing tank and lid, made of either stainless steel or plastic; also, a stainless steel

or plastic reel on which the film is to be loaded. A beer can opener, used to pry open the 35mm cartridge in the dark, and a pair of small scissors. A thermometer specifically made for darkroom work; do not use any other types of thermometers. Two 1-quart beakers. These can be made of almost any material but should be sturdy and resistant to chemical corrosion. If the beakers have graduated measurements on them, all the better. A stirring rod to be used when mixing chemicals; the rod can be made of any material impervious to chemical corrosion. Two film clips or clothes pins and a strong cord or wire to be stretched horizontally above your work table and at a height approximately 6' or so above the table. One clip or clothes pin fits on the cord or wire; the other clip or pin to be attached to the bottom of the film when the film is hung up to dry. One small measuring graduate, marked in increments from about oz. or to about 5-8 oz. A timer of some sort, preferably one indicating both seconds and minutes. A clock or watch will do. Two necessary chemicals: film developer and film fixer; a quart of each is handy, but larger and smaller amounts are also available. A recent copy of the Kodak B&W Darkroom Data Guide, the most useful compendium of darkroom information available. There are similar instruction manuals available from other publishers as well. A holding tray, large enough to contain your beakers of chemicals and your developing tank. You add water to this tray and place the beakers and tank in it. The tray and water help to keep your chemicals and film tank at approximately the same temperature throughout the film development. Now you have to find a room that can be totally darkened. Film, especially very fast film, is very light sensitive and can easily be "fogged" (synonym for ruined) by even small amounts of stray light. Any material for blocking out the light can be used paper, cloth, wood, metal, plastic, whatever as long as all light is kept from striking the film! Before beginning the actual loading of the film on to the reel it's a good idea to practice the loading (with the room lights on). Use an old exposed roll of film and repeatedly try loading the roll smoothly on to the reel. Most people master this technique within an hour or so. There are a few practical hints that may help you to become expert at film-reel loading, though. First of all, make sure your reel is bone dry; any moisture on the reel may cause the film to stick in place and not run smoothly on to the reel. Make sure, too, that your reel is not in any way bent, a condition that will hinder proper loading. Also, when you finish shooting your roll do not wind it all the way back into the Film cartridge. Rewind only until you feel the film leader disengage from the takeup spool; then stop rewinding immediately! When you are ready to load the film onto the reel pull out three inches of film (beyond the leader) and cut this length off the rest of the reel still inside the cartridge. Cut the film straight, never on the bias, and then round off the film edges at the sprocket holes. All of these procedures are done with the room light on, and they will make your job of loading the film on to the reel easier. When you practice with the old exposed roll of film, you no doubt noticed that the film has to be fed into the reel smoothly and evenly. If any buckling occurs remove the film from the reel and start over again and as often as necessary until the film is fully and evenly on the reel. This, of course, is why it is necessary to practice in room light so that when you go into the dark everything will be successful. Serious prayer to the Photography Gods helps sometimes, too. In next month's installment, we'll turn to the actual work at hand, namely, developing a roll of film. Back to Black-and-White Part 7 Processing Black-and-White Film: Part Two We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! As you learned in Part Six <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_06.html> you've got your film loaded in a daylight developing tank. Now let's see what chemicals we'll need and how to get them ready to develop the film. While the chemicals used for black-and-white processing are relatively simple at least compared to those used for color film processing there are many choices for each step. As you get started it's best to keep this uncomplicated. After you're familiar with the process and want to experiment, that's the time to try new chemicals. Developer The film developer brings out the latent (or invisible) image that was created when the film was exposed in the camera. Most developers are mildly alkaline, and are ordinarily a mix of various chemicals. You should realize that all developers are not the same changing the developer can change some of the characteristics of the resulting negative. If you're using one of the commonly recommended films for black-and-white, such as Kodak Tri-X or Ilford HP5 Plus, there are several good, basic developers. A good one to start with is an old standby, Kodak D-76. Since I use HP5 Plus for much of my photography, I use a similar developer that Ilford manufactures, ID-11. Both developers are mixed from powders creating a stock solution which can be further diluted just before use. Typical dilutions are 1:1 and 1:3 (working solution:water). The 1:1 dilution is popular with many photographers and is the one I'd recommend. If you're unfamiliar with the terms stock solution and working solution, it simply means that when you first mix a powdered developer you create a highly concentrated stock solution. When you want to develop film, you take a small portion of the stock solution and further dilute it with water to make a working solution that you bring to the proper temperature and then pour into the developing tank. If you purchase a liquid developer you get it as a stock solution. Chances are, you'll dilute it into a working solution before you use it. Note: If you're using Kodak T-Max or Ilford Delta films, you might want to try Kodak's T-Max developer or Ilford's Ilfotec DD-X developer, respectively. These are both liquid concentrates from which a working solution can be directly mixed with a minimum of fuss. Some photographers also like the fact that with liquid chemicals there's less risk of airborne

chemical dust. Other popular liquid chemicals include Agfa Rodinal and Edwal FG-7 and TG-7. Powder developers should be mixed as a stock solution at least twenty-four hours before using for the best consistency. Once mixed, most stock solutions will keep for several months in a tightly stoppered bottle. Developers react with oxygen, which weakens them. As a developer becomes exhausted, from use or oxidation, it usually darkens. If you're not sure when the developer was mixed or opened, you should buy or mix fresh developer. Trying to save money by extending the developer's use is asking for trouble. There's only one chance at developing film. Follow the directions for the developer you're using. Be certain you are mixing film developer and not print developer. They are very different and can lead to unpleasant results (extremely contrasty negatives). Mix only as much film developer as you need. Some photographers believe strongly in mixing processing chemicals with distilled water. I've never found this to be necessary our water supply is very good. Depending on the water in your area, you might want to use distilled water (though you may only need distilled water for mixing the developer). If you're not sure, try using tap water for mixing chemicals with an unimportant roll of film. An expendable roll should always be used for testing any new developer. Fixing Your Film After film is developed, it is usually bathed in a mild acetic acid stop bath or a water rinse. Because the developer is alkaline, some photographers feel the water rinse is best. When the stop bath comes into contact with developer there is a possibility of a reaction occurring between the acid and alkaline solutions. If this happens, pinholes may result on the negatives. This seems to be less likely with modern films, but a water rinse is effective and inexpensive. Other photographers feel that the acetic acid counteracts the alkaline developer more quickly and there's little likelihood of pinholes with today's modern emulsions. While I favor the water rinse, I have only rarely heard of problems with stop bath. But water is cheaper and easier to work with than stop bath. It's your choice, though I suggest that you always stick with your choice for consistency's sake. Once the film has been developed, the emulsion is still light-sensitive. This is true even though the development was "stopped." Over time the remaining silver halide will darken if exposed to light and the image will be ruined. Therefore it is necessary to remove these unexposed, undeveloped, but still light-sensitive particles. The process that does this is known as fixing, and it's what makes the image permanent and the unexposed areas of the negative clear. Fixer is sometimes referred to as "hypo" because of an archaic term for the main chemical,"hyposulphite of soda" (it's now known as sodium thiosulfate). Rapid fixer made with ammonium thiosulfate will clear the emulsion faster than plain hypo, usually in half the time. Rapid fixer is mixed from a liquid concentrate, regular fixer from a powder. I suggest using rapid fixer for its speed and ease of use. Some rapid fixers include Kodak Rapid Fixer, Ilford Universal Rapid Fixer, and Edwal Quick Fix. Used fixer, regular or rapid, takes longer to properly fix the film. Also, some newer films especially Kodak's T-Max films deplete the fixer faster and require longer fixing times. Check the film and fixer instruction sheets for the time needed for proper fixing. When taking the film from the developing tank, if you find that the negatives look "milky" it is probably because they were not completely fixed. Immediately return the negatives to the tank and re-fix them using fresh fixer. You should always test the fixer or mix it fresh before you use it. Hardener is frequently added to film fixer. Hardener is a chemical used to toughen the film's emulsion. When gelatin a main part of the emulsion gets wet it softens and is easily damaged. Adding hardener makes the film less susceptible to damage such as scratching. The hardener is added only once, when the fixer is initially made up. Rapid fixers usually have hardener included in the packaging. Final Developing Steps After fixing, I advise the use of a washing aid, also called hypo clear. It makes washing chemicals out of the film an easier task. A washing aid can reduce the necessary washing time from over twenty minutes to less than ten minutes. If the water runs rapidly and is dumped every thirty seconds, five minutes wash time will usually suffice. After fixing the film, rinse it with tempered water (water at the recommended developing temperature), and then use the washing aid before proceeding to wash the film. Some common washing aids include Heico Perma Wash, Kodak Hypo Clearing Agent, and Edwal 4 & 1. Normally, after the negatives have been washed thoroughly, they are briefly put into a wetting agent and hung up to dry. A wetting agent, such as Kodak's Photo Flo breaks the surface tension of water remaining on the film, and reduces the chance of "water spots" forming as the film dries. The temperature of all the solutions, including the wash water is critical, because of the danger of reticulation. Reticulation occurs when the film emulsion cracks. The emulsion swells and softens during processing. The warmer the temperature the greater the swelling. If the temperature drops quickly, the surface of the emulsion contracts while below the surface it remains swelled. This causes small cracks to appear in the surface. The cracks can appear as a pattern throughout the image when a print is made. Occasionally this pattern can make an interesting image; usually it's a distraction. Grain clumping, a mild form of reticulation, can also take place. The image appears grainier and coarser than it normally would with proper processing. You can understand why it's important to constantly control the temperatures of all solutions. These are the different chemicals and agents used in the development of film. In our next installment, we'll take you step-by-step through the processing of a roll of film. Bernhard J Suess Back to Black-and-White Part 8 Processing Black-and-White Film: Part Three We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Black-and-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-

White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Now that you're familiar with the different types of chemicals we'll be using for developing black-and-white film we discussed last month <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_07.html> in Back to Black-and-White, let's get ready to process a roll. Environmental Note: Local Regulations Before we proceed any further and start mixing and discarding chemicals, let's tackle an issue that you need to plan for. It is very important to follow local regulations regarding the disposal of chemicals when you are processing film and paper. Some areas forbid any chemical to be poured into sewer lines or the ground. Some localities will accept used photographic chemicals from amateurs. In other communities, professional photographic laboratories accept used chemicals from regular customers. Check your locale for acceptable procedures. Step 1: Prepare Your Chemicals Before starting to process the film you should get all the chemical solutions ready. Be certain to prepare enough of each solution for the number of rolls you are processing to cover the reels loaded in the tank. Otherwise, the film will not be properly processed. Most tanks take eight to ten ounces approximately 240 to 300 milliliters (ml) of solution for each roll of film. Check the instruction sheet for your tank. If you can't find the instruction sheet, you can check the quantity needed by seeing how much solution is required to cover one reel in a spare tank. If the tank is already loaded, and you have no other recourse, pour tempered water (see below) into the tank until it is full. Now pour it into a beaker and measure it. It is very important to pour more tempered water into the tank while you are getting ready. Once the film is wet, it should not be allowed to dry until the processing is finished. If you are unsure of the tank's capacity or the film's requirements it is also better to use too much of each solution than not enough. Get all the solutions you'll need to process the film ready before you start. Otherwise you might find the next step has come up without having the solution ready. The solutions should all be at the proper temperature. Most black-and-white film developers are used at 68 degrees F (20 degrees C). Some developers recommend different processing temperatures, usually above 68 degrees F. Read the directions for the developer you are using to find the correct temperature and time. With most developers, film develops more quickly at higher developer temperatures. The differences can be significant, so check and maintain the solutions' temperature. Step 2: Temperature Readings There are several types of thermometers that make this easy. A metal dial thermometer reacts quickly to changes in temperature and is relatively sturdy. If dropped, these types of thermometers can lose their accuracy. An inaccurate thermometer is worse than none at all. Glass thermometers can be very accurate, but they are fragile. Electronic thermometers can be robust and very accurate, but are usually expensive. To make the processing easier, I recommend filling a bucket with tempered water. Tempered water is simply water at the recommended developing temperature. It saves time and water. Tempered water will hold its temperature long enough to process the film. Tap water can fluctuate wildly in temperature. Step 3: Mix the Chemicals Once the tempered water is ready you can mix the developer, if it must be diluted. While some developers can be replenished and reused, using fresh developer is best for consistency. I use film developer only once, then it's discarded. Liquid concentrates are usually the easiest developers to use for this reason. However, after mixing a powder developer into a stock solution, it can be diluted for consistent results. For example, Ilford's ID-11, and Kodak's D-76 stock solutions can be mixed with equal parts of water diluted 1:1 before developing. By mixing five ounces of stock solution with five ounces of water you would have ten ounces of working, 1:1 solution. Be sure the developer is at the proper temperature. If your developer is too warm or too cool, you can put a beaker with working strength developer into a larger beaker with cool or warm water to move the developer to the correct temperature. Set the timer according to the directions on the developer package. This is a starting point your developing time for now. As we noted, before starting to process the film, get the other solutions ready as well. Make the film fixer according to the directions. Be sure you have enough fixer for the amount of film you are processing, and that it's at the same temperature as the developer. If necessary, adjust the fixer's temperature. If you're reusing older fixer you should check to make sure it's still good before using it. This is done with a solution called hypo-check (remember, fixer is also called hypo). Hypocheck solution is used by putting a drop into a small amount of fixer. If a white precipitate forms, the fixer is starting to go bad. Hypo-check solution can be used as an early warning. Some critical workers using fresh fixer each time, though this can become expensive. With care, film fixer can be used for several rolls of film before being exhausted. Besides the tempered water, developer, and fixer, you should also make a washing aid. The quantity and temperature of the washing aid should be the same as the other solutions (for example, 10 ounces at 68 degrees F). Step 4: Filling the Tank Now you're ready to start processing the film. Set the timer according to the developer's directions for the film you're developing. In a pinch you can use a clock, though a timer that counts down the remaining time is preferable, because with a clock, it's easy to lose track of the elapsed time. Developing time is especially critical. Special timers are available in camera stores. If you're looking for something less expensive, you can use a cooking timer (choose a battery operated one so it's accurate). Fill the film tank with tempered water. This is called pre-soaking the film. Dry film has a tendency to form bubbles on its surface when a solution is poured in. By lightly tapping the tank in the sink or on the counter, you'll dislodge these bubbles (known as air bells). If created by the developer, these air bells cause light spots on the negative and dark spots on the prints when they prevent developer from reaching the film emulsion. The emulsion around the air bell begins developing. Until the air bell dislodges, there's no developing at that spot. Eventually it moves, but it never catches up to the surrounding emulsion in density. Pre-soaking greatly minimizes the chance of having problems with air bells. Pre-soaking also warms or cools the film, reels, and tank to the proper developing temperature. It softens the emulsion, which makes developing more consistent and even. Anywhere from 30 seconds to one minute is enough for the pre-soak the time isn't crucial. Step 5: Agitation Pour the water out at the end of the pre-soak step. This water can be saved or discarded. Immediately after, pour in the film developer. Put on the tank lid, start the timer, and rap the tank

lightly. Agitate the tank continuously for the first 10 seconds. Then, agitate the tank for 5 seconds every 30 seconds unless the developer you're using recommends a different agitation technique. Consistency is important. Agitate the same way every time you develop film. Agitation is very important in the developing process. Film must get fresh developer as it uses the developer that comes in contact with the emulsion. It's agitation that brings fresh developer to the surface of the film. The film must also be allowed to absorb and use fresh developer, which is why constant agitation is not usually recommended. The way you agitate the film is important. The best way to agitate film is by inverting and twisting the daylight tank. Invert the tank completely, with one hand on the top of the tank and the other hand on the bottom. As you turn the tank over, twist it with one hand, using the palm of the other hand to steady the tank. The twist is very important, in order to randomize the developer's flow patterns and minimize surge lines. During the 5 seconds of agitation the tank should be turned upside down and back four or five times. For the remaining 25 seconds set the tank down, allowing the developer to soak in. This agitation should be done every 30 seconds, or whatever interval you are using, for the duration of the developing time. Watch your time. With 15 to 20 seconds left on the timer, pour out and discard the developer. You should just finish pouring out the developer as the developing time is over. You may need more time to pour out the developer if you're developing more than one roll of film. Consistency is the most important thing. If you always use the same developing techniques, your results will be repeatable. Step 7: Stopping the Developer and Fixing the Film Immediately after pouring out the developer, pour in tempered water to stop the development. Agitate and discard the water after 15 to 20 seconds. The time is not absolutely critical, although greatly extended time in tempered water should be avoided. Some photographers prefer using a stop bath to end development. Follow the directions if you choose to use stop bath. As soon as the tempered water has been poured out, the rapid fixer with hardener should be poured in. The fixer should be agitated constantly for two to four minutes. If you're using normal fixer rather than rapid fixer the times will probably be doubled. Also, some films, such as Ilford's Delta films and Kodak's T-Max films, require longer fixing times. Check the film carton or developing instructions to be sure. Some film manufacturers recommend using a fixer without adding hardener since the film should wash faster. After the film has been fixed, it is no longer sensitive to light. The daylight tank can be opened at this point and the film won't be damaged. Usually it's easier to leave the cover in place. Congratulations, now your film is developed. In the next installment we'll discuss how to wash, dry and store your negatives. Bernhard J Suess Back to Black-and-White Part 9 Processing Black-and-White Film: Part Four We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Black-and-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-andWhite is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! In our last installment <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_08.html> we showed you step-by-step how to process your film. However, you're not finished just yet. The final steps in developing your negatives involve washing, drying and properly storing your film. Step 8: Washing Immediately after pouring out the fixer, pour tempered water into the tank. Although the washing aid is an optional step, it's usually an important one if you want your negatives to endure. The time the film is in tempered water is not critical. Dump the water and pour in the washing aid. Agitation should be constant for one minute, unless the washing aid you are using indicates differently. Then discard the washing aid. It's inexpensive enough that I usually don't save it. The film is ready for washing. The film should be washed for five to ten minutes, if a washing aid solution is used. With running water and dumping the water from the tank every 30 seconds, five minutes will suffice. But it's difficult to control the temperature of running water and it's wasteful. Many people prefer an alternative to using constantly running water to wash their film. Ilford proposed some years ago the use of a sequence of water rinses, rather than running water. According to Ilford, less water is used and the negatives are archivally clean. Ilford advises using a non-hardening fixer, since that make the washing easier. After fixing, fill the developing tank with tempered water, and invert it five times. Pour out the water and refill the tank, then invert it ten times. Again pour out the water and refill the tank, inverting it for twenty times. Finally pour out the water, and pour in a final rinse of water with a wetting agent added. Since I prefer using a rapid fixer with hardener, I've changed the Ilford procedures to suit my methods. After using a washing aid, I use ten changes of fresh water, each with thirty seconds agitation. This is a total of five minutes agitation time, taking seven to eight minutes in duration. I've found it to be sufficient with the Ilford films that I use and should work with all films. It is important to wash the film thoroughly. Because the film is the original image, anything that happens to it will affect your final picture. If the film is not well-washed, chemicals will remain in the emulsion. Although these will not be visible, over time these chemicals will attack the image. Stains will form, obliterating the image or the image will fade. When the film is completely washed it can be hung up to dry. You can use a wetting agent to help the drying. A wetting agent breaks the surface tension of the water and lessens the chance of water spots. Water spots usually appear as oval shapes of slightly lighter density in the print. Mix the wetting agent according to directions. If it's not diluted enough there is a chance of leaving scum on the film. This can be as bad as water spots. The wetting agent can be saved when done. It can be used for several times, unless it becomes contaminated by another chemical. After a few

uses, the wetting agent should be discarded and a fresh solution mixed, to prevent the growth of algae or scum. The wetting agent is best used by putting it into a clean container, removing the film from the reel, and putting the film into the wetting agent. Do not put the reel into the wetting agent because, in my experience, it can "gum up" plastic reels, and the effect is cumulative. As you draw the film from the wetting agent, you can gently squeegee the film, using only your wet fingers. Be careful not to use too much pressure as you may scratch the emulsion with any grit or fine particles of dirt that may be in the water or wetting agent. While the film won't dry as fast, sometimes hanging the film wet and allowing it to "drip dry" results in fewer water spots. Giving the film a final rinse in distilled water is another option. Since distilled water has no mineralswhich often form the water spotsthe negatives dry spotless. Do not pour the used rinse water back into the container of distilled water. If the distilled water is contaminated, it's ineffective for rinsing. Step 9: Drying the Film The film should be hung to dry in a low-traffic, dust-free area, if possible. A weight on the bottom end of the film will help prevent curling. I have found plastic clothespins the type with springs are effective and inexpensive for this purpose. Film drying time depends on the temperature and humidity of the air. The warmer and drier the air the faster the film will dry. Several rolls of film, drying at once, will slow down the drying process, since all are putting moisture into the air. Forced, warm air can cut drying time considerably, but often results in negatives with excessive curl, and can stir up dust in the drying area. Step 10: Cutting the Negatives When the film is dry it should be cut and stored. The most functional storage is with negative files. This allows easy access to the negatives and makes filing simple. The negative file can be used to make a contact sheet without removing the negatives. The contact sheet can be kept with the file for immediate reference. The negatives should be cut and handled carefully. Cut the film between the sprocket holes, if possible. Be careful not to cut any of the image in the frames. The negatives should be cut in easily handled strips, according to the filing method you are using. Do not cut the negatives too short. Short lengths of film are hard to work with in the darkroom. The negative strips should be five or six frames in length. In order to facilitate loading the film into the negative files you can trim one end of the strip, with angles similar to the ones you cut for loading the film on the reel. This reduces the chance of slicing through the thin plastic negative files with the sharp edges of the film. Negative files are also good for flattening the negatives. After putting the negatives into files, store them for a few days under weight, such as a few books. The negatives will be flatter and easier to work with. Be careful not to bend or fold the negatives. Step 11: Handling the Negatives Also, be cautious about handling the negatives. You should not touch the image area of the negatives. Handle the negatives by the edges at all times. The oil in fingerprints is corrosive to negatives, and will etch into the image in time. If you do get fingerprints on the negative, clean them off immediately. A film cleaner is the best thing to use, although a lightly moistened not soaking wet soft, lintless cloth will work. Work gently when cleaning negatives to avoid scratching them, which will only make things worse. By understanding how processing affects the film, you will begin to appreciate the care needed to make good negatives. Remember the film is your original. If it is damaged it will be much harder, perhaps even impossible to make pictures from it. Always handle your film and negatives carefully. To make it easier for you to follow the steps, I've created a condensed procedure chart which you can open in Adobe Acrobat and print out to use as a reference. If you would like to receive it, e-mail us at Back to Black-and-White <mailto:bwdeveloping@nyip.com> and we'll be happy to send it to you. Coming in January, we'll show you how to make contact sheets from your newly developed film! Bernhard J SuessWe're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-andWhite feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Black-and-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-andWhite is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Back to Black-and-White Part 10 Making a Contact Print: Part One Now that you've developed your black-and-white film, the next step is to choose images to enlarge. Some photographers prefer to choose directly from the negatives but this can be difficult, especially for a beginner. Instead, we strongly suggest that you first do an intermediate step - making a contact sheet. We'll devote the next two installments of Back To Blackand-White to this subject. Before we can make any print, the chemicals to be used for processing prints must be mixed and put into processing trays. This is the first time in this series that we've talked about print chemicals and the use of trays. It's important to realize that the amount of each chemical you'll need to mix will depend on the size of your trays. To give yourself some room for agitating the prints, it's a good idea to work with trays that are the next size up from the largest prints you'll be processing. So using 11" x 14" trays is a good choice when making 8" x 10" prints. For those 11" x 14" trays you'll need about two quarts or two liters of each solution. The quantities I use below are based on using 11" x 14" trays. If you're using a different size, adjust the amounts accordingly. I use Ilford films and tend to use Ilford chemicals, but that's a personal preference. You can get similar results with other chemicals, if you choose. In separate trays, you will need: Print developer - mix it following the directions on the package. Using Ilford's Multigrade developer (which is a liquid concentrate), mix one part of concentrate with nine parts of water (at 68 degrees F/ 20 degrees C) to obtain a working solution. That's 200 milliliters (ml) of concentrate plus 1800 ml of water. A similar print developer can be used, though the mixing ratio may be different. Some photographers prefer using a powder developer, such as Kodak's popular Dektol paper developer. The powder must first be mixed with water to produce a stock solution. It is the stock

solution that is diluted with water to make a working solution. The powder developer must be mixed completely to make the stock solution - mixing part of a package can yield inconsistent results. The stock solution must be kept bottled, preferably in glass or chemical resistant plastic, so it will not deteriorate. Developer is very sensitive to oxygen. You must also be careful when mixing the stock solution, so that the powder doesn't become airborne. In addition to contaminating other chemicals or portions of your darkroom, the dust from a powder developer should not be inhaled. For these reasons, like many photographers, I prefer using a liquid concentrate. Stop bath - I prefer mixing this from a 28% solution of acetic acid. For a working stop bath, mix 3 ounces of 28% acetic acid with 2 quarts of water. You can also use prepackaged stop baths, though I see no advantage. Just follow the directions to mix a prepackaged stop bath. Print Fixer - with Ilford Multigrade Fixer mixed 1:4 (400 ml of concentrate plus 1600 ml of water) and no hardener, prints are fixed very quickly. Other rapid fixers, mixed at film strength, should provide similar results. Hardener - which toughens the surface of the print - makes washing the print more difficult. For this reason, most photographers do not add it to print fixer. Holding bath - this is simply a tray with water. It's used to keep the prints wet prior to washing them in running water. This is optional if you'll be washing each print immediately, but using a holding bath conserves water and saves time when you're making several prints. It is essential to remember that as soon as the first print is put into the holding bath the tray no longer contains plain water. Even the small amount of fixer carried over into the holding bath should be treated like any other chemical. In other words, don't put your fingers into any of the tray solutions. About Printing Paper: In black-and-white, there are two types of photographic paper - fiber base (FB) and resin coated (RC). Fiber base paper has been in use for over a century. If you have old family photographs in black-and-white, they were probably printed on fiber base paper. Fiber base paper is difficult to use because the paper's fibers soak up processing chemicals. This makes washing fiber base prints laborious and time consuming. To thoroughly wash FB paper you need at least two to three hours of continuous water flowing and agitation, unless you use a special (and costly) washer designed for that purpose. Fiber base papers also take a long time to dry, often four to six hours without heat. Furthermore, FB papers tend to curl as they dry, making later handling unwieldy. Black-and-white RC paper has a much shorter history - it was introduced almost concurrently by Ilford and Kodak in 1974. Most manufacturers now offer RC paper. RC paper is often referred to as "waterproof" paper. It is made by sealing a paper base in a type of plastic. The chemicals are therefore not absorbed into the paper but merely into the emulsion. For this reason, RC prints wash faster and dry faster and flatter. As a result, many fiber base papers have disappeared over the years. Some photographers still prefer fiber base papers due to perceived quality differences and known archival properties. Fiber base prints are favored by many collectors, galleries, and museums. The quality of RC prints is not - in my opinion - substantially different from that of fiber base prints. RC paper is also much easier for beginners to use while learning darkroom procedures. RC paper may also be somewhat less expensive than its FB counterpart. Cost can vary, however, according to paper type and manufacturer. Paper Surfaces Both RC and FB papers are available in several weights and surfaces. Weight refers to the thickness of the paper. Most photographers using fiber base papers use double-weight or heavier. This is typically more expensive than the commonly available medium-weight RC paper. You are probably familiar with a glossy surface, but other surfaces available include matte and semi-matte and variations. Every manufacturer has its own way of describing a paper's surface. I prefer Ilford's Pearl surface. Kodak's Lustre surface is somewhat similar. A photographer's choice of weight and surface is a personal one. I use glossy paper for contact sheets and pearl for enlargements. I find the pearl finish makes it hard to look at the images with a loupe (magnifier), which is essential when you're examining your contact prints. Contrast Grade Blackand-white papers are also graded. That is, the papers can vary in the range of tones available. The grades usually run from 0 to 5, with 2 being normal. There are papers with lower grades as well as some having higher grades available. The lower the grade, the lower the apparent contrast and vice versa. With a normal negative, a normal grade paper (2) should produce a good print. There are also papers with multiple grades that can be adjusted by the use of filters on the enlarger. Multiple contrast papers produce a normal print (grade 2) when used without filters. This makes them as convenient to use as single graded papers. Ilford offers Multigrade and Kodak has Polycontrast and Polymax. Other manufacturers, such as Fuji, Agfa, Oriental, and Cachet (among others), offer similar products. I use Ilford Multigrade in both RC and FB. This allows me to fine tune prints on RC and switch to FB to make final prints with minimal problems. No matter which type of paper you prefer to use, remember black-and-white paper should not be exposed to light, except for a safelight. Don't open the box, even to peek, except in the darkroom. Do not open the paper box with white room lights on. Black-andwhite photographic paper is orthochromatic, meaning the emulsion is sensitive to all colors of light except red (or related orange colors). This allows us to work with black-and-white paper with dim orange/red illumination in the room. The emulsion is the light-sensitive portion of photographic film or paper, usually made of silver halide suspended in gelatin. The paper should only be opened in the dark with a proper red or orange safelight on. Even the safelight can expose photographic paper that is brought too close or exposed for too long a period of time. For this reason, it's important to get out a piece of photographic paper when you're ready to use it and not expose it to the safelight for longer than five or six minutes. The safelight should be very dim, usually 15 watts or less. A regular 15-watt bulb with a Kodak OC safelight filter is recommended, three feet or more from the paper. Specially coated bulbs can also be used in lieu of a safelight filter. You can test how safe a safelight really is by leaving out an unexposed piece of photographic paper, emulsion side up covered by eight coins. Every minute remove a coin. At the end of eight minutes, process the paper normally (as outlined below). If you see any white circles, the safelight is not safe. The more circles you can see, the less safe the safelight truly is. Ideally, you should not be able to find any discernable circles. The entire paper should be white. The darkroom procedures outlined here are for RC prints. Fiber base paper procedures are generally similar, but have some

specific differences. Don't worry about fiber base printing for now. Depending on the darkroom, I'll arrange the trays with the chemicals listed above - in order from left to right (or right to left, if appropriate for that darkroom). That makes it easier to move through the process. In traditional photography there are two ways of printing - contact printing and enlarging. We'll concentrate on contact printing in this article, though many of the techniques and processes that I'll point out are applicable to enlargements as well. A contact sheet, also known as a proof sheet, is a way to more easily preview the images on your roll of negatives. You'll recall that black-and-white is a negative process; that is, light tones in the original scene are dark on the negative, while dark tones in the original scene are light. When we make a photo from a negative, we are essentially performing the same process again. Only this time the dark tone of the negative will be made light in the final print (or contact sheet). The other tones are similarly reversed. To make a final black-and-white photo, you will be making a negative of a negative. Since it can be hard to visualize this in your mind, a contact sheet makes it much easier to see what you'll be working with. We'll discuss other problems of the negative process when we learn about making enlargements. Contact printing makes images that are the same size as those on the negatives. When working from a large format negative (like 8" x 10"), this can suffice for a final print. With smaller negatives, like 35mm (approximately 1 1/2" x 1"), the images are too small for final prints. But since the contact sheet has reversed the tones, the small images are good for estimating what the final print will look like once you enlarge an image. As mentioned above, a loupe or magnifier is a good way to look at the images on the contact sheet. An 8X loupe (8X means it magnifies the image eight times) provides an approximation of what the 35 mm image would look like enlarged to 8x10. Contact sheets can also be good for filing negatives. It's a lot easier to pick an image out from a contact sheet than it is from a sheet of negatives (for example, you don't need a light box with contact sheets). I usually file the contact sheet along with the negatives themselves. Because of this, I prefer using slightly larger paper for making contact sheets. I have a separate box of 8 1/2" x 11" glossy paper that I use strictly for making contact sheets. The oversized paper allows me to see any writing I have on the negative files, lets me punch holes in the sheet without losing any images, and allows the negative file to seat itself snugly on top instead of hanging over the edges (thereby minimizing curl along the edges). For most photographers, however, there's no need to buy additional paper. Whatever paper you'll be using for enlarging should be fine. In the next installment we'll expose and develop contact sheets of our negatives. Bernhard J Suess Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! In the last <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_10.php> installment we discussed the chemicals, tools, and paper you'll need to make contact prints. Now we'll turn to the actual work involved in making your first contact print. Back to Black-and-White Part 11 Making a Contact Print: Part Two Making a contact sheet is relatively simple. The negatives are placed on top of photographic paper and then exposed to light. While the light the paper is exposed to can be room light, it is likely much too strong. Using an enlarger as the light source is more common and provides an additional level of control and consistency to the exposure. If you don't own an enlarger and would still like to make contact prints, you can likely use a 15-watt or a similar low intensity bulb for the exposure. There are some important points about making the contact print. You'll recall the emulsion is the lightsensitive portion of photographic film or paper. The emulsion of the photographic paper (usually its shiny side) should be facing up and the emulsion of the negatives (usually the duller side) should be facing down. A common darkroom phrase used to remember the correct positioning is "emulsion to emulsion." This is true for contact or enlargement printing if you want the image correctly oriented (that is, that the letters on a stop sign say "STOP" in the final image). Although it won't affect the exposure by having the film emulsion facing up, most people want to see their images in the orientation they were shot and not as mirror images. By the way, having the photographic paper's emulsion side down is a problem. Paper exposed through the back usually produces a very light print that isn't sharp. This is due to the paper's surface diffusing the image before it reaches the emulsion. You can usually tell if the image is a mirror image of what you expect. Sometimes the print is so light, you can barely see it. If you get an unexpectedly light print, do another being certain that the paper's emulsion side is facing the enlarger lens. Using negative files can make the process easier still. Some photographers prefer using glassine envelopes to store their negatives, removing them from the envelope to make a contact print. While this basic procedure can work well, more handling of the negatives means more opportunities to damage them. If you decide to use glassine envelopes or sleeves, be sure they are archival photographic glassine so your negatives won't be ruined by the chemicals that are in some glassine envelopes. I prefer using negative files. There are many brands to choose from. I've used Print File negative files since I first started developing my own black-and-white film. Their use has simplified my negative filing and retrieval. That might not mean much when you Have five or ten rolls of film, but

when you have more than three thousand rolls on file, as I do, it's critical to be able to find an image simply and quickly. Most negative files allow you to make contact prints without removing the negatives from the plastic. This minimizes handling and makes it simpler to orient the negatives. With most negative sheets, when the information area (usually an area you can write shooting information) is facing up, the emulsion side of the negative is down. You can double-check this by looking at the numbers and other writing along the edge of the processed film. When you can read the numbers (when they don't look like mirror images), the emulsion is facing away from you. Since negatives have a tendency to curl, a contact frame or piece of heavy glass is often used to hold the film flat against the surface of the photographic paper. Make sure the glass is clean or you'll end up with spots on your contact print. If you're using glass alone, be sure the edges are beveled smooth or covered with masking tape to prevent cutting yourself as you handle it. The exposure for a contact print depends on several factors the paper used, the light source and its distance from the surface, the print developer, and the density of the negative, all play a part. I can give you numbers, but it's important to remember they are guidelines or starting points. It's very likely you'll have to make adjustments for your circumstances. With my enlarger (with a 50mm lens about 22 inches above the paper) and using Ilford Multigrade IV RC Deluxe (my normal proofing and enlarging paper) processed in a homemade developer similar to Ilford's Multigrade developer, the exposure for a contact print is approximately f/5.6 @ 8 seconds. My enlarger has a condenser head, which uses oversized magnifying lenses to condense the output of a tungsten light bulb. An enlarger that uses a diffuser head with a "cold light" bulb (a special fluorescent bulb) is likely to have a very different exposure. Also, if you adjust your enlarger so the circle of light that it produces is just slightly larger than the contact frame, you may need to use a smaller aperture to reduce the light. If you are unsure where to start with your contact sheet exposure, setting the enlarger to f/8 at 8 seconds is a good, albeit random, choice. We'll discuss how to tell if the exposure was right and what adjustments to make a little later. Once you've exposed the paper, it's processed the same way an enlargement would be. After processing the contact sheets, making enlargements should move more quickly since you'll be familiar with the process. With my trays set up as listed above, I start with the developer tray on the left side. The procedure goes like this: 1. DEVELOPER Using tongs, I slide the paper into the print developer face down. This minimizes problems getting the entire emulsion under the surface of the developer quickly. The paper remains in the developer tray for 60 to 90 seconds. The paper should be agitated gently but constantly with the tongs. I prefer to agitate the print by moving the tongs gently over the surface of the paper. It's important not to be too energetic because you can damage the surface of the print if you agitate too hard. Some photographers choose instead to rock the tray by gently lifting each corner in succession. I find this to be too messy. You can agitate the print by moving the tongs through the surface of the chemical without touching the print, halting from time to time to gently push the paper below the liquid. No matter how you choose to agitate the print, it's important that you do not shorten the developing time. Always develop by time, not by how the print/contact sheet looks. Being consistent is important for repeatability. After about 15 to 30 seconds you can flip the paper over carefully. The image should just start to be coming out. For many photographers, myself included, this is the most exciting moment when you first see the positive image in the developer. Continue to agitate gently with the tongs for the rest of the time in the developer. Once the time is up, use the tongs to remove the print from the developer and drain it for a few seconds over the tray. Then put it into the next tray. A quick word about tongs. Many photographers prefer to have a set of tongs in each tray. Some go so far as to label the tongs so the same set is always used in the same chemical for every session. The idea of having dedicated tongs for each tray is to minimize chemical contamination due to the chemical from one tray being carried over to the next. While this is true in concept, I have found that if you're careful you can use a single pair of tongs for the entire process, taking the tongs from tray to tray with the print. The amount of chemical that a pair of tongs carries over is minimal compared to what is carried on the print. There are a few important points, however, if you take this approach. First, it's important that the tongs always go forward and never back. In other words, never move the tongs directly back from the stop bath or fixer to the developer. Second, the tongs should always be rinsed in water after the fixer, then, they can be moved back to the developer. If you're concerned about contamination, the best way to avoid chemical spillover is by having a pair of tongs for each tray. However, in more than twenty years of using a single pair of tongs for the entire process, I have never had a contamination problem. The choice is yours. 2. STOP BATH Agitate the print for 15 to 30 seconds. The time is not critical.Again, drain the photo for a few seconds over the tray before moving on. 3. RAPID FIXER Agitate the print continuously for 60 to 90 seconds. Normal fixing time with rapid fixer is two to four minutes. Due to the lower dilution of the fixer concentrate, less time can be used. However, because of this, constant agitation is critical. 4. HOLDING BATH (optional) You can hold unwashed prints for 15 minutes or more before washing. Remember the water becomes contaminated with chemicals as soon as you put the first print into the holding bath. Always use tongs. 5. WASH Depending on your washer, you will need to wash RC prints for 2 to 4 minutes in running water. More time might be necessary for large quantities of prints. A Kodak tray siphon can be a relatively inexpensive way to wash prints. It hooks onto a tray and turns it into a print washer. Remember to interleave the prints to make the washing more efficient. Using rubber gloves, take the bottom print and put it on top. Continue the process until the prints are washed. Don't use tongs to move or remove the prints since the tongs can contaminate the clean prints (although if you dedicate a pair of tongs to this use, that should be okay). If you were processing FB prints, you would need to wash the prints for several hours to get them as clean as RC prints will be after just a few minutes. With FB prints, photographers often use a "sit and dump" method, allowing the prints to sit in a tray of water for a period of time (typically a half hour or longer) before dumping the water, then putting fresh water into the tray before repeating the process. This is very tedious compared to washing RC prints. Although a similar technique could be employed with RC, it's counter-productive,

decreasing efficiency and increasing the chance of damaging the prints. With extended wash times RC prints will sometimes fray along the edges the plastic surface will separate from the underlying paper. With RC prints, the shorter the washing time beyond the minimum the better. 6. SQUEEGEE and AIR-DRY The prints should dry in about fifteen to twenty minutes. The prints can be clipped to a line, put on a drying rack, or laid carefully on a clean surface. Do not stack the prints together until you are sure they are completely dry on both sides. A single drop of water can cause two prints to stick together. Getting them apart means putting them in water again. Even then the surface is often damaged. Be certain the prints are dry before putting them together. Instead of air-drying, you can optionally use a heater or hair drier. Be sure it's well away from water to minimize the chance of shock or injury. Any outlet near water should have a ground fault circuit to prevent potential accidents. Also be careful not to get the print too hot and not to blow dirt into the surface if you're using a hair dryer. Once the print is dry, you can evaluate your exposure before moving on to choose images. The contact sheet exposure is just about right if the sprocket holes almost disappear. You should barely be able to see the sprocket holes on the contact sheet. If the sprocket holes are very prominent that is, considerably darker than the surrounding area your print didn't get enough exposure. Increase the time and/or the aperture opening for your next print. On the other hand, if the sprocket holes can't be seen, your print exposure was too much and you'll need to cut back on time and/or intensity next time. Once you have a good print exposure, write it down. It will simplify making contact sheets next time if you've recorded the settings. That includes the enlarger height, aperture, lens focal length, paper, time, filter (if any was used) and developer. Don't be too surprised if some of the images look light or dark, even if your exposure was good for the contact print. That's usually the result of incorrect film exposure, which you can correct next time you make photographs. If the images look consistently too light or dark, in spite of good print exposure, increase or decrease the camera settings accordingly. I'll get into more detail about this in a later segment. Sometimes because of varying camera exposures you might need to make several contact sheets at different print exposures in order to view all the images as you might want. As your camera exposures get better there will be less need to do this. Using an 8X loupe, you can get a good idea what the images will look like when they're enlarged. If you've used a paper that is not glossy, you might see the texture of the paper when looking through the loupe. You won't see that pattern once you make an enlargement. Remember the contact sheet is only a guide. The first print you make might be different from what you see on the proof sheet. You should also be able to improve the final print in most cases. Choose images that look interesting, not just the frames that look like they had good camera exposure (though you should choose good exposures, if you have that choice). Some photographers also like to cover the contact sheet with a board that has a hole cut out, usually the size of the format. This allows the photographer to look at the images individually, without the distraction of surrounding frames. As you look at the contact sheet and make your choices, mark them down. You can do this on a separate piece of paper, but the easiest way is to mark the contact sheet directly. A grease pencil (such as a china marker) can be used to mark and indicate cropping. The marks can be rubbed off later. I usually just use a Sharpie permanent marker to identify the frames I want to work on. I'm not worried about marking up the contact sheet I can always make another later, if I feel that it's necessary. More often than not, I prefer leaving the marks for later reference in the darkroom. Once you have chosen which images you want to work with on a contact sheet, it's time to start making enlargements. That's a topic we'll take up in the next installment of our Back to Black-and-White series. Bernhard J Suess Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Back to Black-and-White Part 12 Making an Enlargement: Part One Ask any photographer who has spent some time in a darkroom. Making a fine black-and-white print can be an effort. You need to pay attention to a lot of details, but we're going to start with a simple example of making a basic enlargement with nothing fancy. After you get some experience making basic prints, we will discuss some of the finer points. If you've made a contact print, then making an enlargement should be a fairly easy task. If you have not made a contact print, you might want to read Contact Sheets Part One <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_10.php> and Contact Sheets Part Two <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_11.php> first. The steps for developing an enlargement are precisely the same as those for developing a contact print. Usually I'll start making enlargements immediately after making contact prints. The trays are set up and the chemicals mixed the same way as for contact prints: print developer, stop bath, fixer, and the optional but recommended holding bath. If you are making bigger enlargements than the contact prints you made (which were probably 8 x 10), you might want to use larger trays. I'd suggest starting with 8 x 10 enlargements, because they are big enough to see significant detail in the image, but not so large as to be difficult to handle nor exceedingly expensive. Learn your basic printing techniques first, then move on to different size printing paper. You should always use tongs to handle the prints, to protect your hands and prevent contamination of the prints.

Previously I covered some of the reasons for using Fiber Base (FB) paper or Resin Coated (RC) paper. For reasons of convenience and speed, I suggest using RC paper for your tests and early prints. Later, when you have an image worth the effort, you can use FB for posterity. Since Fiber Base paper has been around in some form or another for more than a hundred years, we can be sure that with proper processing it will last for a long time. With a history of about thirty years, it will be another seventy years before we have equal certainty about RC's staying power. In addition, many photographers believe that FB prints surpass RC for tonality, richness, and surface texture. Since these are individual evaluations, it will be something you'll eventually need to decide for yourself. However, the basic developing procedures are the same, with some minor variations that are not critical at this time. If you learn with RC paper, you can apply that knowledge to printmaking with Fiber Base. Interval Test or "Test Strip" There are several ways to start making enlargements. The first thing you have to determine is the print exposure. The easiest way to do that is to make an interval test, especially for someone who is just starting to print. An interval test is a series of exposures used to determine a starting point for the final print exposure. Using your contact print, choose an image that looks like it has a good tonal range (in addition to the grays, it should have some white highlights and black shadows). It's always a good idea to check the sharpness of the negative with a loupe on a light box. A loupe is a small magnifier that allows you to see the negative as if enlarged. You can purchase an inexpensive loupe for a few dollars or you can easily spend over a hundred dollars on a good one. An inexpensive loupe will give you a good idea of what your negative is like, though you might have to move it around to check the sharpness. A good loupe is literally like a lens on your camera corrected for its task. It will be sharp throughout its viewing field. If you do a lot of darkroom work, a good loupe is a worthwhile investment. Otherwise, even an inexpensive loupe will help you in choosing negatives. Whether inexpensive or pricey, a loupe's magnification is denoted by a number with an "X." For example, many photographers use an 8X loupe because that magnifies the image eight times (showing the approximate magnification that would produce an 8 x 10 print from a 35mm negative). A light box (larger ones are sometimes called light tables) is a box with a light source inside, one side of which is translucent plastic or glass and is used to backlight negatives or slides to make them easier to view with a loupe. Though I have a small light box, I'll just as often look at the negative with a loupe while using a light bulb in the room as the light source. Because I use transparent negative files, I can look at the negatives with a loupe without removing them from the file. This reduces the chance of scratching the negatives during handling. To judge the sharpness of a negative I look for fine detail, such as leaves or branches on a tree. Also, any portion of the negative that has a large transition in tones, such as distinct shadows, can help you to judge the sharpness of the negative. If an area doesn't look sharp, look elsewhere in the negative. It's possible that the area was out of focus when the photograph was shot. If none of the negative looks sharp, it's likely that the negative is completely out of focus or blurry because of camera shake. In that case, it's best to choose another negative to enlarge. Once you've chosen the negative you'll be working with, put it into a negative carrier and place that into the enlarger. The emulsion side of the negative should be towards the baseboard of the enlarger for the image to be in the correct orientation (so, for example, a stop sign doesn't spell P-O-T-S). If the emulsion is facing away from the baseboard you will still get a print, but it will be a mirror image. A good phrase to help remember this is, "Emulsion to emulsion." The emulsion side of the negative is dull, the other side the film's base is distinctly shiny. If you look at both sides of your negative you'll see that it's easy to tell the difference. Some photographers remind themselves to put the negative in the enlarger "dull side down." Whether contact printing or enlarging, the emulsion of the film should always be down and the paper emulsion should always be up. If you want to view the image in the correct orientation as you look at the easel you'll need to have the negative inverted in the negative carrier. That is, if you have an image of a person that you'll be enlarging, the negative in the carrier should look like the person standing on his or her head. Let's review a few basic concepts before proceeding. The contact sheet was made by having the negatives in contact, either directly or indirectly (such as in a clear negative preserver), with the photographic paper on which the exposure was made. You'll recall that black-and-white photography is a negative process. In essence when you make a contact print or enlargement, you're making a negative of a negative. The more light that the paper (or film, for that matter) is exposed to, the darker the resulting image. The intensity of the light is affected by the exposure time, lens aperture, and distance from the light source to the paper. We want to control two of those variables and change the other to find the best starting point for our print exposure. The easiest variable to adjust is the exposure time, so we'll set the distance and aperture first. Like everything else in photography, the size and type of print that you make is a personal choice. You can enlarge the entire image on the negative this type is often called a full frame image. Conversely you can enlarge just a portion, cutting off distractions or parts you don't want to show called a cropped image). The size print you make depends on the paper. Depending on the amount of enlargement you can either fill the paper, allowing for borders, or make smaller images on the paper. It should be no surprise that if you're using 8 x 10 paper, you can't make an image larger than 8 x 10. You can however, make the image smaller, such as 5 x 7 with very wide borders. It's important to note that when enlarging from 35mm negatives you cannot fill the paper of an 8 x 10 print with the entire image. Because a 35mm negative has a 2:3 ratio and 8 x 10 has a ratio of 4:5, you must crop the image to fill the paper. If you want to print the entire 35mm image you will have slightly borders along the long dimension. I would strongly suggest that you make a full frame print. In other words, print so that none of the image on the negative is cropped (or cut off) in the enlargement. While not technically necessary, printing uncropped enlargements helps you to see how well you have composed your photograph. For the final print you can crop if you feel it's necessary, but for early test prints making a full frame enlargement provides you with much more aesthetic and technical feedback. While photographers who are just starting often need to do considerable cropping of a final image, by initially printing full frame you'll see what you might

have ignored when you shot the photograph. I find this helps beginners to improve their compositions next time they shoot. The way you adjust the borders is with an easel. A photographic easel is used to hold the paper in place on the enlarger's baseboard. The easel also holds the paper flat during exposure. Most photographic paper tends to curl towards the emulsion when set out. Even a slight curl will cause part of the enlargement to be out of focus. There are several types of easels available. One of the most common and inexpensive is the two-bladed easel. On most models like this the top and left borders are fixed, while the bottom and right borders are movable metal blades. When you want thin, even borders all the way around the print, a two-bladed easel is a good choice. A better choice, especially if you'll be making prints with wider borders, is a four-bladed easel. This usually has a slot to hold the paper in place while all four borders are created by individually-adjustable metal blades. Four-bladed easels are great when you want the image centered on the page even if you have wider borders. They do tend to be more expensive than two-bladed easels, though I believe a four-bladed easel is worth the investment. One other noteworthy easel is the fixed-border easel. On the fixed-border easel, the borders cannot be adjusted and produce consistent (if pre-determined) borders. Fixed-border easels are usually relatively inexpensive and fast to work with. The paper slides quickly into place. Fixed-border easels are well suited to production work, where you rarely vary from a pre-determined setting. If you're enlarging from a 35mm negative, I'd suggest making a 6 x 9 image on 8 x 10 paper. Using a 2 1/4 square negative, try 7 x 7. If you choose to crop or make a different image size, you may need to compensate for the settings we'll be giving you in our next installment. Bernhard J Suess Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Back to Black-and-White Part 13 Making an Enlargement: Part Two Let's continue our discussion of how to enlarge that we started in Part 1 <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_12.php>. Once youve decided on an image size, you can set the height of the enlargers head or lamphouse. To do this, open the enlarger lens aperture to its widest (brightest) setting. With most 50mm lenses, which are the lenses used to enlarge 35mm negatives, the widest aperture is often /4 or /2.8. Having the lens wide open will allow you to more easily see the image on the easel, especially if the room lights are off. Adjust the enlarger head by moving it up or down and focusing so the image fits in the borders. The image should just barely overlap the easel borders if you want sharp edges on the print. Once the image is sized, make a final focus adjustment with the aperture still at its widest setting. Now close the enlarger lens aperture down to /11. You should check the critical focusing with an image or grain magnifier. A grain magnifier allows you to see the grain that the image is composed of. If the grain is in focus, the image is in focus. Do this near the center of the image try to find fine detail to check on, if possible. Critical workers also place a piece of scrap photo paper under the grain magnifier while checking in order to compensate for the thickness of the paper. Though you can try to visually judge the sharpness of an image, a grain or image magnifier will produce better and more consistent results. Its difficult to see how truly sharp an image is, especially at a working aperture of /11 (which is fairly dim). Remember that you cannot put an image that wasnt properly focused when it was shot back into focus in the darkroom. The best you can hope for is a sharp print of an out of focus image. In other words, if the grain is sharp and the print still looks out of focus you cant improve it beyond that. The image magnifier is the best way to ensure you have the sharpest print possible. Next, set the timer to 2 seconds. A digital timer allows this setting to be precise, consistent, and repeatable. While a less expensive mechanical timer will work, in the long run the more expensive digital timer will pay for itself in saved paper and time. I had two relatively inexpensive mechanical timers that wore out within five years when I first built my darkroom. The more expensive digital timer that I bought next is still functioning more than fifteen years later. Get out a piece of photographic paper and place it in the easel with the emulsion side up. The emulsion side of the paper is the shinier side when youre using glossy or semi-matte papers (Ilford calls theirs Pearl; Kodaks is called Lustre). You can often see this shininess by looking at both sides under a safelight. Remember the safelight should be at least four feet away from the paper. The emulsion side of matte papers, which I do not recommend using, is very difficult to distinguish. You can sometimes feel a slight difference, with the emulsion side being described as somewhat smoother or slicker. Since papers with a matte finish do not have the rich black (or shadow) tones of other papers, they should only be used when you have a specific need for a matte finish. One such use would be for prints that youre planning on hand coloring, since the oils hold better to the matte finish. You can also usually detect the emulsion side of the paper by holding the paper on one end and looking for the curl. As noted earlier in this article, most photographic papers curl toward the emulsion. Instead of using an entire sheet, you can use a strip of photographic paper approximately 2 inches wide by 10 inches long to save paper. However, I find that using a full 8 x 10 sheet for the interval test makes it easier for beginners to understand the results of varying the exposure. I would suggest doing that until youre comfortable judging your results. A full sheet of paper is also easier to process. Now comes the tricky part making a series of exposures on the same sheet of paper. Its very important not to move the

enlarger, easel, or paper between exposures or youll end up with a blurry print. Using a permanent marker, like a Sanford Sharpie, to indicate the intervals on the emulsion side of the paper makes this process easier. The marks usually come off in the developer leaving white lines that clearly show the intervals. Begin by exposing the entire image at /11 at 2 seconds. Being careful not to move the easel, negative, or enlarger, cover about 1 inch of the where the image is projected onto the paper with something opaque (e.g., the photo paper box or a piece of cardboard, not photographic or notebook paper) and make another exposure at /11 at 2 seconds. Move the box or other opaque material about 1 inch and repeat with the same aperture and time (in this case, /11 at 2 seconds). Continue until the entire paper (or strip) has been covered. Although you can expose and uncover the paper, this can cause less accurate intervals, especially if you give an extra exposure at the end (which often happens with those in the darkroom for the first time) or forget to move the cardboard or box. By covering the paper, you can be sure the first interval has only a single two-second exposure. When youre finished covering the paper, you know youre done. When uncovering, its easy to get confused how far you must go to finish the final exposure. However, some people prefer making the exposure this way and, other than the potential for confusion, it works as well as the way I recommend. When youre done with the exposures you should have a series ranging from about 2 seconds to 18 or 20 seconds. That is, the first exposure is 2, the second 2+2, the third, 2+2+2, and so on. These areas of additive exposure serve as good indicators of the sum exposure. In other words, the area that has 2+2+2+2 seconds of exposure closely represents the results of a single exposure of 8 seconds. Develop the print normally, as you did the contact print. A short review of the developing procedure follows. For a more complete description of print developing, take a look at the previous article, Making a Contact Print Part 1 <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_10.php> and Part Two <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_11.php>. Remember to develop by time rather than inspection. The developing procedure goes like this: 1. DEVELOPER 60 to 90 seconds with the paper agitated gently but constantly with the tongs. Do not shorten the developing time. Consistency is important for repeatability. When the time is up, use the tongs to remove the print from the developer and drain it for a few seconds over the tray. Then put it into the next tray. 2. STOP BATH Agitate the print for 15 to 30 seconds. The time is not critical. Again, drain the photo for a few seconds over the tray before moving on. 3. RAPID FIXER Agitate the print continuously for 60 to 90 seconds if you are using the Ilford-recommended dilution (see previous article for details). Constant agitation is critical. 4. HOLDING BATH (optional) This can hold unwashed prints for a short time before washing. Dont forget the water becomes contaminated with chemicals as soon as the first print is put into the holding bath. Always use tongs. 5. WASH Depending on your washer, you will need to wash RC prints for 2 to 4 minutes in running water. If youre washing more than one print, remember to interleave the prints to make the washing more efficient and that more time might be necessary for large quantities of prints. 6. SQUEEGEE and AIR-DRY (optional: heat dry) The prints should dry in about fifteen to twenty minutes. The prints can be put on a drying rack, clipped to a line, or laid carefully on a clean surface. After washing and drying, decide which interval has the best exposure. Use this as your basic exposure. For example, if the fourth interval looks best, the basic exposure would be /11 at 8 seconds (i.e., 2+2+2+2). Remember, you can use reciprocal exposures. For reasons that will become clear at a later time, its best to keep exposures in the 6 to 20 second range; therefore, if the test shows the exposure is /11 at 4 seconds, make the test print at /16 at 8 seconds. The choices of /11 for the aperture and 2 seconds for the interval are somewhat arbitrary, but usually produce good results with most enlargers when using 35mm film, a 50mm enlarging lens, and printing full frame on a sheet of 8 x 10 paper. However, if the intervals are too light, make another interval test with the enlarging lens aperture opened a stop to /8 at 2-second intervals. On the other hand, if the intervals are too dark, make another test at /16 at 2-second intervals. While it would be unusual to need to adjust the aperture or time by more than this with a normal negative, you may need to compensate for especially dense or thin negatives. With a grossly overexposed negative Ive seen a photographer need to make an interval test at /4 in 10second increments. If an interval test is light, simply open the aperture and/or increase the time. A dark interval test indicates a need to close down the aperture and/or decrease the time. Most of the time, your results will be better if you simply choose a better negative to work with. No matter what type of negative you start with, though, the interval test should give you a reasonable starting point. As long as you dont change the negative or lamphouse height, this is your basic exposure time. Use this time when making your test print. If you change your enlargers height or use a different negative, you should make another interval test. In the above example, the fourth interval would indicate a basic exposure of /11 at 8 seconds. We would change the timer setting to 8 seconds, leave the aperture at /11 and expose an entire sheet of paper. After developing as above, we can determine if the print needs any adjustments. In most cases, if you chose the proper interval, you shouldnt need to adjust the basic exposure. But you may need to make some fine modifications within the exposure. Well see how to do that next time. Bernhard J Suess Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available.

Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Back to Black-and-White Part 14 Dodge and Burn: Part One In the previous installment <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_13.php>, we did an interval test and made a test print. If this was your first time making a print, you should congratulate yourself. You're probably pleased with the results and proud of your print. Though there are other ways to make test prints and we'll eventually get to them, let's first look at ways to improve the print. Even if a test print looks good, there are usually small areas that need to be adjusted. We will assume that you're getting a good test print from a good negative. Printing from problem negatives and how to improve your negatives will be discussed a little later in this series. For now we want to concentrate on improving prints from existing negatives, specifically from good negatives. By looking closely at your test print, you will likely see areas in the print that would look better if they were a little lighter or darker. If, upon close inspection, the entire print looks too light or too dark, you should make another interval test and another test print (you may want to read the previous installment to refresh yourself). You will make selected areas darker or light in the next print you make. It's important to understand that these procedures are to be done on the prints you will be making. They are not done on existing (already printed) prints. Once a photograph has been developed and fixed, no additional exposure can be made on that print. Since the procedures we'll be dealing with in this installment are exposure-based, they must be done on the print paper before it's developed. I will define some terms so that we're all talking about the same thing. Some photographers may define these terms slightly differently, so even if you're familiar with these procedures please read through my definitions first. Once you've made a good test print, the exposure settings you used will represent your basic print exposure. So if you chose the fifth interval of 2 second exposures at /11, your basic print exposure would be /11 @ 10 seconds (or 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 seconds). In essence, the basic print exposure is the setting that gives you a good test print. Remember you can also use reciprocal exposures (by changing the aperture of your enlarging lens) for the same results if you want to increase or decrease the length of exposure. Reciprocal exposures for our example of /11 @ 10 seconds could be /8 @ 5 seconds or /16 @ 20 seconds. I generally prefer keeping the interval of the exposure between 8 second and 20 seconds, to give myself enough time for the procedures I be discussing below. You'll recall that black-and-white printing is a negative process. This means that the more light you add to a print or to an area of the print (that is, increase the exposure on the printing paper), the darker that area becomes. Conversely, if you decrease the amount of light that falls on the print, the lighter the print or area becomes. The simplest way of improving a print is by selectively adding or holding back light. To make an area of a print lighter, you dodge or hold light back during the basic print exposure. On the other hand, to make an area of a print darker, you burn or add light beyond the basic exposure. I emphasize when each of these takes place because dodging and burning are so similar. They really are different sides of the same coin. Both procedures involve holding some light back from part of the image, while allowing light to hit other parts of the image area. The main difference (to me) is when it occurs. Dodging is holding back light during the basic print exposure and burning is adding light beyond the basic print exposure. There are some other differences between the two techniques, though these again are personal preferences rather than steadfast rules. When I dodge an area, I usually use small homemade dodging tools. This is because, in my work, dodging is typically done on smaller areas. Some photographers prefer to cut cardboard into shapes or with openings to use as burning tools. When I burn, however, I prefer to use my hands because I can adjust the shape even as I'm burning. Using my hands I can match the outline of buildings or mountains, faces or trees, or whatever shape I need to make. I can usually do it more quickly with my hands than with cardboard. Although using your hands when burning in is more difficult at first, once you have a little experience you'll be surprised at how effective it can be. One of the other differences between dodging and burning is absolute. The amount of time you can spend on dodging is limited by your basic print exposure. You cannot dodge longer than the basic print exposure by definition. You can't dodge for 12 seconds during a 10 second exposure, for example. In fact, for practical purposes you shouldn't expect to dodge for more than 60% of the basic print exposure since the dodged area can become unnaturally light. Rather than improving the photograph dodging too much can draw attention to its shortcomings by leaving the area too light. Typically a good starting point is 30% to 40% of the basic print exposure. This can vary depending upon your technique, the tone of the area being dodged, and the detail in the negative. The time you can burn an area is open ended. That is, you can keep adding exposure until the area is black in the print. You can easily burn an additional 50%, 100%, 200%, 500%, or more. A good starting point for burning is 50% to 100%, though this can also vary according to your technique, print tones, and so forth. When a portion of a negative is so dense that light cannot pass through, it cannot be burned in. Such a negative is referred to as being blocked up in the highlights. Blocked up negatives are unusual and difficult to print. Most negatives can be readily burned in. Some photographers, in lieu of taking a background into consideration when shooting will remove any distractions by burning in extensively when printing. Usually a very long additional exposure, this effect is sometimes called the "hand of God" technique. This possibly refers to the resulting halo in the image as much as to the photographer's absolute control. While the "hand of God" technique is usually the intended result of overdoing the burning in of an image, the more common (and personally preferred) subtle types of dodging and burning require some practice. One of the most important aspects when using either technique is to learn how to feather the exposure. By moving the tool or hand that you use to block the light during the exposure, you will create a subtle change in tones when dodging or burning. If you don't move during the exposure, you will see a lightened outline of the tool or hand. The more you move during the exposure, the more subtle the transition will be. Most of the time you will not want an abrupt change in tones, such as you would have with a long additional exposure and no motion of the blocking hand or tool. The subtle transition is what allows you to make the dodging or burning look like a natural part of the image. I'm often told by

students that their hand is not big enough to block an enlarged image. It's actually easy to vary the size of the light you're blocking by moving your hand or tool closer to the light (towards the enlarger lens). The image comes from the enlarger in a cone shape, which becomes larger the farther the distance from the lens. Even a small dodging tool can be used to cover most of the image if it is moved close enough to the enlarger lens. Your hand can easily block the entire image. It's critical when dodging or burning not to touch the enlarger, lens, baseboard, easel, paper, or anything that might move during the exposure. If you do, the resulting image will be blurred. If the paper, easel, or negative shifts between exposures when you're burning in, the result will be a multiple image. Most of the time these aren't the effects you want, so try to be careful during the entire exposure process. This has been an overview of the process of giving selective exposure to a black-and-white print using burning and dodging. I should add that these same techniques can be used when making prints from color negatives as well. In the next installment, we'll go through the entire procedure step-by-step using a negative from my collection. Bernhard J Suess Copyright 2002 New York Institute of Photography 211 East 43rd Street, Dept. WWW New York, NY 10017 U.S.A. info@nyip.com For permission to reproduce in any manner, see Notice on Home Page. We're very pleased to turn our Back to Black-and-White feature over to Bernhard J Suess for the next series of articles. As many of you may know, Bernhard's the author of two popular books on Black-and-White Photography: Mastering Blackand-White Photography: From Camera to Darkroom and Creative Black-and-White Photography: Advanced Camera and Darkroom Techniques both published by Allworth Press. We're also thrilled to announce that we're hard at work on a new Course on Black-and-White Photography based on the teachings, books and philosophy of Bernhard J Suess. Email us at Black-and-White Course <mailto:b2bw@nyip.com> to be on the list to find out about this Course as soon as it is available. Back to Black-and-White is in very capable hands, so sit back, relax and get ready to learn! Back to Black-and-White Part 15 Dodge and Burn: Part Two In the last installment <http://www.nyip.com/tips/topic_black_white_14.php>, I discussed the basic principles behind using burning and dodging techniques to give selective exposure to various areas of a print. Let's go step-by-step through the entire procedure. Since you might make several prints as you attempt to fine tune your dodging and burning, I recommend using a permanent marker to write information on the back of the RC (resin coated) print. If you're using FB (fiber base) paper, you can use a pencil. For example, in addition to the negative number (so that later I can find which negative was used) I'll write the aperture and timer setting. You can also include any other information that might be relevant, such as enlarger height, paper type, paper grade, and so forth. After making a test print with a good exposure, decide which areas should be a little lighter or darker. Remember, this is a judgment based on your preferences and experience. For now, just try it in small increments. As you get better at it your judgment will improve, too. For example, this test print of a photograph taken at the Sun Inn in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania looked pretty good with the basic print exposure of /11 at 10 seconds. I liked the composition of the old log book and glasses. With permission, I moved the glasses onto the log book to improve the composition. The shapes and textures are enhanced by the soft light coming from the upper left corner of the composition. But the lighting created a problem, too. The upper left corner of the photo is too light and I find it to be distracting. The light area pulls the viewer's eyes away from the subject. That's not what I had in mind when I shot the photo. To make the image look more like what I had in mind, I wanted to darken the upper left corner. Since I was making another print, I decided to also lighten the diagonal gutter of the log book (though only slightly). If you haven't done any dodging or burning before, I recommend that you take a few moments to practice with no paper in the easel. Learn how to position your hands or the tool that you'll be using. Even try moving your hands while the timer is running. A few dry runs will help save paper. When I was ready to make the next print, I put another piece of printing paper into the easel. My basic print exposure remained the same (/11 at 10 seconds). During the basic exposure I used a small dodging tool to dodge the gutter for about 5 seconds. If your timer has an option for a foot switch, you might consider getting one. It allows a hands-free operation of the timer, making it easier to position your hands so they're ready to dodge and burn. At the end of the basic exposure it's critical not to move anything. I also suggest leaving the aperture and timer settings at the basic print exposure settings for any additional exposure you'll be making. It's easier to understand the dodging and burning if you think of them as percentages or increments of the basic exposure. Also, if you change the exposure for your burning, you'll probably forget to change it back next time you make a print. Usually it takes a few tries to get the dodging and burning just the way you want it, so this can be a problem. Whenever I burn I put my hand immediately under the enlarger lens and start the timer with my other hand or a foot switch. Any additional exposure will darken the print, so you have to block the light as soon as the exposure begins. If you were to start the timer, then move your hand to block the light, there would be a second or two of additional exposure in areas you didn't want to be darkened. The burning in that I did on this print was for 200% - that is, I burned in for two additional exposures at the basic print settings (/11 at 10 seconds done twice). During that time I moved my hand diagonally so that the upper left corner got the most additional exposure. The area near the curve in the page received the least additional exposure. The print was then developed normally. The result shows the difference. I'm pleased with the results. The dodging and burning do not draw attention to themselves, which is what I prefer. The viewer's eyes tend to move around the central part of the image to a greater extent than they did in the original photo. If you did not have the first photo for comparison, it would be hard to see where the dodging and burning were performed. For most photographs, if the viewer can't tell there was any

dodging or burning, I consider it a successful improvement. If it wasn't the result I wanted I would make adjustments accordingly. For example, if the upper left corner was burned in too much, I would burn in for a shorter time on the next print. Once I have a good print, I'll make a "map" which I can refer to whenever I want to print the image again. The red area represents the dodging and the blue section is the burning. Believe me, after you've made hundreds of prints it can be difficult to recall how you dodged and burned on a particular print, especially if it was done a long time ago. The darkroom map gives me a good idea of how I made the final print, even if the photograph is reprinted to a different size or on a different paper. It can save you from repeating the work that went into fine tuning your dodging and burning the first time the print was made. Nearly every photograph needs some dodging and burning. Even the best test print can stand improvement. I've been making prints for over 25 years and I can't remember a photograph that didn't need some additional work. You'll probably even have a good sense of how much dodging and burning a particular photograph needs before you print. Because dodging and burning are basic darkroom procedures, you'll be glad once you've put them into practice. Once you've learned and mastered dodging and burning, you will find yourself using these techniques often. Bernhard J Suess