Lecture 3 - Propagation - Bis (Compatibility Mode)

Lecture 3:
Mobile Radio Propagation

ng L Khoa
Class 2
Outline Outline
Large-Scale Path Loss
Type of waves
Large scale/small scale fading
Free space model
Reflection, Diffraction, Scatter
Small-Scale Fading and Multipath Small-Scale Fading and Multipath
Stochastic models: Log-distance path loss model and log-normal
shadowing
Outdoor and Indoor propagation models
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
Types of Fading
Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency Speed, Wavelength, Frequency
Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency
= 3 x 10
8
m/s = 300,000 km/s
System Frequency Wavelength
AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km
FM radio 100 MHz 3 m
Cellular 800 MHz 37.5 cm
Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm
Ultraviolet light 10
15
Hz 10
-7
m
Radio Propagation Radio Propagation
Large Large--scale small scale small--scale propagation scale propagation
Propagation Models Propagation Models
Large scale models predict behavior averaged over distances >>
Function of distance & significant environmental features, roughly
frequency independent
Breaks down as distance decreases
Useful for modeling the range of a radio system and rough capacity
planning,
Experimental rather than the theoretical
Experimental rather than the theoretical
Path loss models, Outdoor models, Indoor models
Small scale (fading) models describe signal variability on a scale of
Multipath effects (phase cancellation) dominate, path attenuation
considered constant
Frequency and bandwidth dependent
Focus is on modeling Fading: rapid change in signal over a short
distance or length of time.
Free Space Path Loss Free Space Path Loss
Path Loss is a measure of attenuation based only on the distance
to the transmitter
Free space model only valid in far-field;
Path loss models typically define a close-in point d
0
and
reference other points from there:
2
| |
d
d
(
Log-distance generalizes path loss to account for other
environmental factors
Choose a d
0
in the far field.
Measure PL(d
0
) or calculate Free Space Path Loss.
Take measurements and derive empirically.
2
0
0
) ( ) (
|
\
|
=
d
d
d P d P
r r
dB
dB r
d
d
d PL d P d PL
(
+ = =
0
0
2 ) ( )] ( [ ) (
dB
d
d
d PL d PL
(
+ =
0
0
) ( ) (
Typical large Typical large--scale path loss scale path loss
Okumura Model Okumura Model
It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas,
and it is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
Based totally on measurements (not analytical calculations)
Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km to 100km T-R
separation, Antenna heights of 30m to 100m
Okumura Model Okumura Model
The major disadvantage with the model is its low response to rapid changes
in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban areas, but not as good in
rural areas.
Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss
values are around 10 to 14 dB.
G(hre)
m 30 m 1000 log 20 ) ( > >
|
|
|
=
te
te
te
h
h
h G
m 30 m 1000
200
log 20 ) ( > >
|
\
=
te te
h h G
m 3
3
log 10 ) (
|
\
|
=
re
re
re
h
h
h G
m 3 m 10
3
log 20 ) ( > >
|
\
|
=
re
re
re
h
h
h G
Okumura and Hatas model Okumura and Hatas model
Example 4.10
Hata Model Hata Model
Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the Okamura model.
Valid 150MHz to 1500MHz, Used for cellular systems
The following classification was used by Hata:
Urban area
Suburban area
Open area
E d B A L
dB
+ = log
C d B A L
dB
+ = log
D d B A L
dB
+ = log
Open area
dB
b
h f A 82 . 13 log 16 . 26 55 . 69 + =
b
h B log 55 . 6 9 . 44 =
94 . 40 log 33 . 18 ) 28 / log( 78 . 4
2
+ + = f f D
4 . 5 )) 28 / (log( 2
2
+ = f C
MHz f h E
m
300 cities, large for 97 . 4 )) 75 . 11 (log( 2 . 3
2
=
MHz f h E
m
300 cities, large for 1 . 1 )) 54 . 1 (log( 29 . 8
2
< =
cities small to medium for ) 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 ( ) 7 . 0 log 11 . 1 ( = f h f E
m
PCS Extension of Hata Model PCS Extension of Hata Model
COST-231 Hata Model, European standard
Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
Smaller cell sizes
Lower antenna heights
G E d B F L
dB
+ + = log
G E d B F L
dB
+ + = log
b
h f F log 82 . 13 log 9 . 33 3 . 46 + =
f >1500MHz
0
3
= G
Metropolitan centers
Medium sized city and suburban areas
Partition losses between floors Partition losses between floors
Small Small--Scale Fading Scale Fading
Rapid fluctuations of radio signal amplitude, phase, or delays
Occurs or short time period or short travel distance
Large-scale path loss effects can be ignored
Caused by arrival of two or more waves from the source
combining at the receiver
Resultant detected signal varies widely in amplitudes and phase
Bandwidth of transmitted signal is important factor
Determining the impulse response of a channel Determining the impulse response of a channel
Transmit a narrowband pulse into the channel
Measure replicas of the pulse that traverse different paths
between transmitter and receiver
Small Small--scale Multipath Propagation scale Multipath Propagation
Fading: The rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal
over a short period of time or travel distance.
Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of
the transmitted signal, which arrive at slightly different times.
Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading effects.
Phenomenon :
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance
or time interval.
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals.
3. Time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays.
If objects in the radio channel are static, and motion is considered
to be only due to that of the mobile, then fading is purely a spatial
phenomenon.
Antenna space diversity can prevent deep fading nulls.
Factors influencing Small Factors influencing Small- -scale fading scale fading
Multipath propagation: multipath propagation often lengthens the
time required for the baseband portion of the signal to reach the
receiver which can cause signal smearing due to inter-symbol
interference.
Draw a figure to explain ISI
Speed of the mobile: generate random Doppler shifts.
Train passing
Speed of surrounding objects: if the surrounding objects move at a
greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates the small-
scale fading.
The transmission bandwidth of the signal: if signals bandwidth >
bandwidth of the multipath channel received signal will be
distorted.
The coherent bandwidth is a measure of the maximum
frequency difference for which signals are still strongly
correlated in amplitude.
Comparison of the BER for a fading Comparison of the BER for a fading
and non and non--fading channel fading channel
Illustration of Doppler effect Illustration of Doppler effect
Doppler Shift Doppler Shift
Distance difference
Phase difference
Doppler frequency shift
Frequency shift is positive when mobile moves toward
source
In a multipath environment, frequency shift for each ray may
be different, leading to a spread of received frequencies.
For example, for pure sinusoid, the signal blurred in
frequency.
Example 5.1
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
Time Dispersion Parameters
Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
Determined from Power Delay Profile (average over different
time, a function of delay)
Parameters include
Mean Access Delay
Mean Access Delay
RMS Delay Spread
Excess Delay Spread (X dB)
Coherence Bandwidth
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Power Delay Profiles Power Delay Profiles
Power delay profiles are generally represented as plots of
relative received power as a function of excess delay with
respect to a fixed time delay reference.
Power delay profiles are found by averaging instantaneous
power delay profile measurements over a local area.
Are measured by channel sounding techniques
Plots of relative received power as a function of excess delay
They are found by averaging intantenous power delay
measurements over a local area
Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
Local area: no greater than 2m indoor
Samples taken at /4 meters approximately
For 450MHz 6 GHz frequency range.
Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel
Time Dispersion Parameters Time Dispersion Parameters
The mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and excess delay spread (X dB)
are multipath channel parameters that can be determined form a power delay
profile.
The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined as
= =
a
a
P
P
k k
k
k
k
k k
k
k
k
2
2
( )
( )
The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the
power delay profile, where
Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of microseconds in
outdoor mobile radio channel and on the order of nanoseconds in indoor
radio channel
Example 5.4
k
k
2
2 2
2
2
= =
a
a
P
P
k k
k
k
k
k k
k
k
k
( )
( )
2 2
) (
=
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB) Maximum Excess Delay (X dB)
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB): Defined as the time delay value
after which the multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum
multipath energy (not necesarily belongingto the first arriving
component). It is also called excess delay spread.
The maximum excess delay is defined as (
x
-
0
), where
0
is the first
arriving signal and
x
is the maximum delay at which a multipath
component is within X dB of the strongest arriving multipath signal.
The value of
x
is sometimes called the excess delay spread of a
power delay profile.
power delay profile.
In practice, values depend on the choice of noise threshold used to
process P(). The noise threshold is used to differentiate between
multipath components and thermal noise.
Noise Thresholds
The values of time dispersion parameters also depend on the noise
threshold (the level of power below which the signal is considered as
noise).
If noise threshold is set too low, then the noise will be processed as
multipath and thus causing the parameters to be higher.
RMS Delay Spread RMS Delay Spread
Example (Power delay profile) Example (Power delay profile)
-30 dB
-20 dB
-10 dB
0 dB
0 1 2 5
P
r
()
(s)
1.37 s
4.38 s
=
+ + +
+ + +
= s 38 . 4
] 1 1 . 0 1 . 0 01 . 0 [
) 0 )( 01 . 0 ( ) 2 )( 1 . 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 . 0 ( ) 5 )( 1 (
_
0 1 2 5 (s)
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
2
2 2 2 2
_
2
07 . 21
] 1 1 . 0 1 . 0 01 . 0 [
) 0 )( 01 . 0 ( ) 2 )( 1 . 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 . 0 ( ) 5 )( 1 (
s
= = s
37 . 1 ) 38 . 4 ( 07 . 21
2
Effect of delay spread Effect of delay spread
Coherent bandwidth Coherent bandwidth
Analogous to the delay spread parameters in the time domain,
coherence bandwidth is used to characterize the channel in the
frequency domain.
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat.
Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than B
c
are affected
quite differently by the channel.
quite differently by the channel.
Receiver
f
1
f
2
Multipath Channel
Frequency Separation: |f
1
-f
2
|
Coherence Bandwidth Coherence Bandwidth
Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <= Cr1, r2 <= 1.
Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which
two frequency components have a strong potential for
amplitude correlation.
is rms delay spread
If correlation is above 0.9, then
50
1
=
C
B
This is called 50% coherence bandwidth
Example 5.5
5
1
=
C
B
Example Example
For a multipath channel, is given as 1.37s.
The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5 = 146kHz.
This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter to a
receiver, the range of transmission frequency (channel bandwidth)
should not exceed 146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band
experience the same channel characteristics.
Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission frequencies that
are separated larger than this value.
This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel
(30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not enough for a GSM
channel (200kHz needed per channel).
Coherence Time Coherence Time
Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe the time
dispersive nature of the channel in a local area.
They dont offer information about the time varying nature
of the channel caused by relative motion of transmitter and
receiver.
Doppler Spread and Coherence time are parameters which
describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale
describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale
region.
Doppler Spread Doppler Spread
Measure of spectral broadening caused by motion, the time rate
of change of the mobile radio channel, and is defined as the
range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum
is essentially non-zero.
We know how to compute Doppler shift: f
d
Doppler spread, B
D
, is defined as the maximum Doppler shift:
Doppler spread, B
D
, is defined as the maximum Doppler shift:
f
m
= v/
If the baseband signal bandwidth is much less than B
D
then
effect of Doppler spread is negligible at the receiver.
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially invariant.
If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the
baseband signal bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than
the signal will distort, since channel will change during the
transmission of the signal .
m
f
C
T
1
Coherence time (T
C
) is defined as:
T
S
T
C
t=t
2
- t
1 t
1
t
2
f
1
f
2
Coherence time is also defined as:
Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with
a time separation greater than TC are affected differently by the
channel.
Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread
and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the
m
f
C
f
T
m
423 . 0
2
16
9
=

and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the
frequency dispersive-ness of the channel in the time domain.
If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5, then the coherence time is
approximately, where
Example 5.6
T
f
c
m
9
16
f
v
m
=
Types of Small Types of Small--scale Fading scale Fading

Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tme Delay Spread)
Flat Fading
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
Frequency Selective Fading
1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)
Fast Fading
1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
Slow Fading
1. Low Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
signal variations
Flat Fading Flat Fading
Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted signal is much larger than the
Delay Spread of the channel
Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.
If B
s
<< B
c
, and T
s
>>
Flat fading
May cause deep fades.
require 20 or 30 dB more power to achieve low BER during times of
deep fades.
Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.
Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.
The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signals are preserved at the
receiver, however the strength of the received signal changes with time.
Flat fading channels are known as amplitude varying channels or narrow-
band channels.
Radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
It is the most common type of fading described in the technical literature.
Flat Fading Flat Fading
h(t,)
s(t)
r(t)
0
T
S
0 0 T
S
+
<< T
S
Occurs when:
B
S
<< B
C
and
T
S
>>
B
C
: Coherence bandwidth
B
S
: Signal bandwidth
T
S
: Symbol period
: Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading Frequency Selective Fading
Occurs when channel multipath delay spread is greater than the symbol
period.
Symbols face time dispersion
Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the channel impulse response.
Radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth which is smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted
symbols within the channel. Thus the channel induces inter-symbol-
interference.
Statistical impulse response model and computer generated impulse
responses are used for analyzing frequency selective small-scale fading.
Frequency selective fading channels are known as wideband channels since
the BW of the signal is wider than the BW of the channel impulse response.
As time varies, the channel varies in gain and amplitude across the spectrum
of s(t), resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).
If B
s
> B
c
, and 0.1T
s
<
Frequency selective fading

Frequency Selective Fading Frequency Selective Fading
h(t,)
s(t)
r(t)
0 T
S 0

0
T
S
+
>> T
S
T
S
Causes distortion of the received baseband signal
Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Occurs when:
B
S
> B
C
and
T
S
<
As a rule of thumb: T
S
<
Fast Fading Fast Fading

Due to Doppler Spread
Rate of change of the channel characteristics is larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
The channel changes during a symbol period.
The channel changes because of receiver motion.
Coherence time of the channel is smaller than
the symbol period of the transmitter signal
It causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spread and leads to
Occurs when:
B
S
< B
D
and
T
S
> T
C
B
S
: Bandwidth of
the signal
B
D
: Doppler
Spread
T
S
: Symbol
Period
T
C
: Coherence
Bandwidth
It causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spread and leads to
distortion.
Note that, when a channel is specified as a fast or slow fading channel, it
does not specify whether the channel is flat or frequency selective
A flat, fast fading channel the amplitude of the delta function
varies faster than the rate of change of the transmitted
baseband signal.
A frequency selective, fast fading channel the amplitudes,
phases, and time delays of any one of the multipath
components varies faster than the rate of change of the
transmitted baseband signal.
Slow Fading Slow Fading
Due to Doppler Spread
Rate of change of the channel characteristics is much smaller
than the rate of change of the transmitted signal
Occurs when:
B
S
>> B
D
and
T
S
<< T
C
B
S
: Bandwidth of the signal
B
D
: Doppler Spread
T
S
: Symbol Period
T
C
: Coherence Bandwidth
Different Types of Fading Different Types of Fading
With Respect To SYMBOL PERIOD
T
S
Flat Slow
Fading
Flat Fast
Fading
Transmitted Symbol Period
Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal
T
S
T
C
Frequency Selective
Slow Fading
Frequency Selective
Fast Fading
Different Types of Fading Different Types of Fading
With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
Frequency Selective
Slow Fading
Frequency Selective
Fast Fading
B
S
Transmitted
Baseband
B
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth
B
S
B
D
Flat Fast
Fading
Baseband
Signal Bandwidth
Flat Slow
Fading
B
C
Types of Small Types of Small--scale Fading scale Fading
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tme Delay Spread)
Flat Fading
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
Frequency Selective Fading
1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)
Fast Fading
1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
Slow Fading
1. Low Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
signal variations
Flat fading Flat fading -- Slow fading Slow fading
Flat fading Flat fading Fast fading Fast fading
Frequency selective fading Frequency selective fading Slow fading Slow fading
Frequency selective fading Frequency selective fading fast fading fast fading
Fading Distributions Fading Distributions
Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with time.
Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple signals
arriving from different directions, phases and amplitudes.
With the received signal we mean the baseband signal, namely the
envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
It is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading.
Two distributions
Two distributions
Rayleigh Fading
Ricean Fading
Rayleigh Distributions Rayleigh Distributions
Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels, where all
the components are non-LOS:
i.e. there is no line-ofsight (LOS) component.
Ricean Distributions Ricean Distributions
Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels where one
of the multipath components is LOS component.
i.e. there is one LOS component.
Rayleigh Fading Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh Fading Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh Fading Distribution Rayleigh Fading Distribution
The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to describe the
statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat
fading signal, or the envelope of an individual multipath
component.
The envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise
signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution.
is the rms value of the received voltage before envelope
detection, and
2
is the time-average power of the received
signal before envelope detection.
p r
r r
r
r
( )
exp( )
=

<

2
2
2
2
0
0 0
Rayleigh PDF Rayleigh PDF
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.6065/
mean = 1.2533
median = 1.177
variance = 0.4292
2
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4
5
A typical Rayleigh fading envelope at 900MHz. A typical Rayleigh fading envelope at 900MHz.
Ricean Distribution Ricean Distribution
When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS signal present, then the
envelope distribution is Ricean.
The Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh when the dominant
component fades away.
Ricean Fading Distribution Ricean Fading Distribution
When there is a dominant stationary signal component present, the small-
scale fading envelope distribution is Ricean. The effect of a dominant signal
arriving with many weaker multipath signals gives rise to the Ricean
distribution.
The Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution when the
dominant component fades away.
p r
r r A
I
Ar
r A
( )
exp[
( )
] ( ) ,
=

+

2
2 2
2
0
2
2
0 0
The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a parameter K which is
defined as the ratio between the deterministic signal power and the variance
of the multipath.
K is known as the Ricean factor
As A0, K - dB, Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh
distribution.
r <
2
0 0
K
A
=
2
2
2

Lecture 3 - Propagation - Bis (Compatibility Mode)

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Lecture 3 - Propagation - Bis (Compatibility Mode)

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Lecture 3:

Mobile Radio Propagation

Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

Types of Small Types of Small--scale Fading scale Fading

Frequency selective fading

Fast Fading Fast Fading

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