Introduction In general, the purpose of an amplifier is to take an input signal and make it stronger.

Amplifiers find application in all kinds of electronic devices designed to perform numbers of functions. There are many different types of amplifiers, each with a specific purpose. This project is specified on audio amplifier. Audio power amplifiers are those amplifiers which are designed to drive loudspeakers.

Problem Statement This project is to overcome problems that usually occur in rural areas where it is hard to find a device for making important announcements or speeches so that everyone can listen precisely to what the speaker is talking about. Besides that, this simple project can also be use by lecturers in lecture hall. Many of them are tired of speaking aloud and as a solution, microphone and speakers works just fine for them.

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Objectives The objective of this project is to study, design and develop an amplifier that can be used in a small environment. It is also must be simple and can be carried around easily by its user. Using self battery and outlet power supply, this project Operating Environment Work that constrains this amplifier system is: Developing an amplifier that is powerful enough to be use in a small Designing a preamp suitable for use with a microphone and

Project Assumption This project main objective is its ease of use by users. But since it is still in a prototype mode, weight is less considered and taken into account. But then, the project should have its own power so that it will not rely on outlet power supply. After designing all sub circuits, the PCB of each sub circuit is constructed. The project ends up with the combination of all sub circuits and troubleshooting

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LITERATURE REVIEW PA System The power amplifier system is actually an integration of several audio projects to make a bigger project. It is must for it to follow the arrangement in order for the system to be functional. The flow for the complete system are Power supply Pre amplifier Power Amplifier Between the microphone and power supply and also between power amplifier and power supply, there are input and output socket respectively. This input socket and cables will act as a messenger to the whole system. Power Supply Introduction Power supply in general should supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load. It is also known as power supply unit (PSU). Types of Power Supply In general, there are three types of power supply that can be used to power an audio amplifier system. They are unregulated power supply, linear regulated power supply and the switchmode power supply. Power amplifiers can use any type of power supply with its corresponding advantages and disadvantages. Unregulated Power Supply This is the simplest power supply consisting of only transformers, rectifier, smoothing capacitors and fuse for over current protection. Advantages: o Can provide high power in transient pack.

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Disadvantages: Poor load and line regulation, o Sufficient ripple on the DC output, o Poor protection against malfunction. Advantages: Minimum level of output ripples noise, o Protection of the circuit can be incorporated easily. Disadvantages: Great heat dissipation and require proper heat sinking. o Higher cost as compared to the unregulated type. Power Supply for Power Amplifiers A simple unregulated power supply is chosen because it can deliver higher power on transient peak, which is just what is required in most audio power During power rectification, radio frequency interference is generated by the bridge rectifier. This happens when the bridge diode turned off; the charge carries are swept rapidly from the p-n junction and the current flow stops with a sudden jolt that Transformers Power amplifiers are usually designed to work from a positive and negative supply. One big advantage of this is that the output will be zero volts DC with respect to ground, and thus no large DC coupling capacitors are required. Few extra components are required to provide both supplies, however a mains transformer with a centre tapped output is required. A transformer may be specified as 50V centre tapped, or 25V-0-25V. The output current may be given for both series and parallel connection of the output windings. If it is using both windings as separate positive Transformers are often specified as the VA rating, this is the output volts multiplied by the output current. If the transformer was rated as 100VA, then it's output would be 50V at 2A

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for the series connection. This will also give two 25V supplies, at 2A each. The AC output then needs to be rectified and filtered to provide the necessary DC supply needed for the amplifier. Because the capacitors charge to the peak voltage of the rectified sine wave, this is approximately 1.4 times the Safety Precautions When dealing with mains transformers, one needs to be careful of safety requirements. This will usually mean providing a suitable earth to any metal case, providing a suitable fuse and switch to the transformer primary windings, and making sure all wires and connections are properly insulated. Fuse for the transformers must be large enough to allow for surge currents when the amplifier is first switched on, however it should be small enough to provide some overload protection in the event of circuit failure. All diodes can handle both the peak voltages and peak currents expected, not just the normal values. Similarly the capacitors must have a rating higher than the peak no load DC voltage expected. A suitable safety Portable Power Supply In order to make the system portable, portable power supply is a compulsory where it can function anywhere without depending on the normal AC outlet. There are numerous types of rechargeable batteries available in the market but in this case, the lead acid batteries have the highest score where its ability to produce constant Center taped Full wave rectifier
In full wave rectifier both the both half-cycles of the input are utilized with the help of two or four diode

working alternately. For full-wave rectification, use of the transformer is essential (through it is optional for half-wave rectification). The full-wave rectifier circuit using two diodes and a centre-tapped transformer shown in Figure The centre-tap is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference point.

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Working When input ac supply is switched on, the ends M and N of the transformer secondary become +ve and -ve alternately. During the positive half-cycle of the ac input, terminal M is +ve, G is at zero potential and N is at ve potential. Hence, being forward-biased, diode D1 conducts (but not D2 which is reversed-biased) and current flows along MD1CABG. As a result, positive half-cycle of the voltage appears across RL.

During the negative half-cycle, when the terminal N becomes +ve, then D2 conducts (but not D1) and current flows along ND2CABG. So, we find that the current keeps on flowing through RL in the same direction (i.e. from A to B) in both half-cycles of ac input. It means that both half-cycles of the input ac supply are utilized as shown in figure 1-2. Also, the frequency of the rectified output voltage is twice the supply frequency. Of course, this rectified output consists of a dc component and many ac components of diminishing amplitudes. Microphone Introduction Microphone is an acoustic to electric device that consist of transducer to convert sound into an electrical signals. It is being used in many applications such as

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Types of Microphones There are many types of microphone but not all of it is usually use for a specific function thus the microphone listed are the one that are usually used in Dynamic Microphones This is one of the widely used microphones. It has the advantages of being relatively inexpensive and hard-wearing, and need no power supply or batteries to make it operate. It operates with a lightweight diaphragm, usually made of plastic film, attached to a very small coil of wire suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. When a sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate, the whole assembly works as a miniature electricity generator, and a minute electric current is produced. How dynamic microphone works The weakness of this type of microphone is it cannot operate accurately at high frequencies. This weakness is not very serious but in a studio, it might cause the instrument fail to achieve its level of quality sounds. Another weakness is this type of microphone need a lot of amplification to make the input signal larger. But in order to do this, a problem arise where the diaphragm or coil assembly of the dynamic microphone is not particularly efficient thus will produce noise on the output. The dynamic microphones are most effective when working with relatively loud sound sources that do not contain a lot of very high-frequency detail. Advantages Tolerate with high sound level

Disadvantages Need a lot of amplification to make input signal larger

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Capacitor Microphones The condenser or more the capacitor microphone is generally more sensitive than a dynamic microphone. The main of capacitor microphone is a pair of conducting plates, one fixed and the other in the form of a moving diaphragm. When the spacing between the plates changes the capacitance varies, and if a fixed electrical charge is applied to the capacitor, an electrical signal is produced which faithfully represents the diaphragm vibration. The system is much more efficient, and is capable of capturing harmonics right up to the range of human hearing .

Despite its ability to capture harmonic and high frequency sound, capacitor microphone needs power in order for it to functions. The most common source of power is the 48V phantom power source, which is why many mixing consoles have a phantom power supply built in. The term 'phantom power' came about because the polarizing voltage is supplied via the signal leads of the microphone with no other Advantages Less noise and better frequency response

Disadvantages o Expensive

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PRE AMPLIFIER Introduction A preamplifier is a device typically used along with sound equipment to help improve the overall quality of a sound. It helps the main amplifier which task is increase the power and sound, for receiving the signal from other input devices. With the combination of the main amplifier and preamplifier, the output sound is not Functions of Preamplifier A preamplifier may be incorporated into a sound system in various ways. It may be placed inside the housing of the power amplifier or maybe have its own housing. The preamplifier may also be kept close to the source of its electrical signal while maintaining a distance from the power amplifier. Preamplifier is like a control center of a stereo system because all of the component plug into the preamp which allow the preamp to select source that provides signals to the loudspeaker. This case Other than that, preamplifier also performs other useful duties such as buffering and boosting low signals. In a typical audio system, the signal can come Types of Pre Amplifier There are many types^of preamplifiers and some of it are: Microphone Preamplifier Microphone preamplifier is a list of audio equipment that is considered essential in an audio system. Although some items of audio equipment have a microphone, it is by no mean universal. The microphone usage is depends on the exact application and way in which the microphone is used. There are 3 main types

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Low Impedance As the popular types of microphone, the low impedance has the lowest output amplitude. The two common forms of low impedance microphone are dynamic and electret microphone which do not have built in step up transformer. The output level is generally around 500 microvolt. To drive a high level input, the signal must be High Impedance High impedance microphone has impedances of around 10K to 50K are mostly from the dynamic and electret. High impedance microphone sometimes consists of low impedance microphones that are built in with a transformer. The other alternative way is to simply have a high impedance coil. However, this does not translate into a better signal to noise (SNR) when using a high impedance Amplifier The purpose of a power amplifier, in very simple terms, is to take a signal from a source device and make it suitable for driving a loudspeaker. The only thing different between the input signal and the output signal is the strength of the signal itself. In real world, there are no such things as ideal power amplifier. But many do a very good job if they are operated within their advertised power ratings. The output signals of all amplifiers contain additional and unwanted components that are not present in the input signal; these additional characteristics may be combined together and are generally known as distortion. Amplifiers also generate a certain amount of unwanted noise. This noise may happen due to many factors. Power amplifier ability is measures by its power rating. The unit that is used is watts. The power rating of an amplifier may be stated for various load impedances; the units for load impedance are ohms. The main characteristics of an amplifier are linearity, efficiency, output power, and signal gain. In general, there is a trade off between these characteristics. An amplifier is said to be linear if it preserves the details of the signal waveform, referring to the equation:

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Where, Vi and Vo are the input and output signals respectively, and A is a constant gain representing the amplifier gain. The amplifier's efficiency is a measure of its ability to convert the dc power of the supply into the signal power delivered to the load. The definition of the Equation is as below

For an ideal amplifier, the efficiency is one. Thus, the power delivered to the load is equal to the power taken from the DC supply. In this case, no power would be consumed in the amplifier. But in reality, there is no such thing as ideal amplifier. Most of the power given to amplify the signal is dissipate as heat. Thus, amplifier needs heat sink to withstand higher temperature cause by this nature.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES There are many classes used for audio amps. The class of an amplifier refers to the design of the circuitry within the amplifier. These classes range from entirely linear with low efficiency to entirely non-linear with high efficiency. The following is brief description of some of the more common amplifier classes: Class B Amplifier Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs or designs where sound quality is not that important. Class B amplifiers are significantly more efficient than class A amplifier, however it produces bad distortion when the signal level is low and the distortion in this region of operation is known as crossover distortion. The class-B amplifier operates ideally at zero quiescent current, so that the dc power is small. Therefore, its efficiency is higher than that of the class-A amplifier. Class B is used most often where economy of design is needed. Class B amplifiers were common in clock radio circuits, pocket transistor radios, or other applications where
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Class-B is by far the most popular mode of operation, and probably more than 99% of the amplifiers currently made are of this type. Disadvantages: Crossover distortion is high. Self bias cannot be used. Supply voltage must have good regulation Output Dynamic Range Output dynamic range is the range between the smallest and largest useful output levels and usually given in decibels (dB). Since the lowest useful level is limited by output noise, this is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range. Bandwidth and Rise Time The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually defined as the difference between the lower and upper half points. This is also known as the -3 dB. Bandwidth for other response tolerance are sometimes quoted (-1 dB, -6dB). Settling Time It is the time taken for the output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value. This is usually specified for oscilloscope vertical amplifiers and high accuracy measurement systems. Slew Rate Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually quoted in volts per second and sometimes microsecond. Noise Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and components. It is measured in either decibels or the peak output voltage produced by

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Efficiency Efficiency is the measure of how much of the input power is usefully applied to the amplifier's output. The efficiency of the amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is available. Efficient amplifiers run much cooler and often do not Linearity An ideal amplifier would be a total linear device. When the signal drive to the amplifier is increased, the output also increase until a point is reached where some part of the amplifier becomes saturated and cannot produce any more output and this SPEAKERS Introduction Speaker is the component that takes the electronic signal stored on things like CDs, tapes and DVDs and turns it back into actual sound. In other word, it is an electromechanical transducer that converts an electrical signal to sound. Good speakers are optimized to produce extremely accurate fluctuations in air pressure, just like the ones originally picked up by the microphone. Speaker Specifications Speaker specifications are often displayed or labeled on the body of the speaker itself as references for the user in determine the proper amplifier and 1. Driver type: Determine the type of the speaker itself. It is either full 2. Impedance: Use to determine the correct power amplifier to match with the speaker. It is normally marked 4 Ohms or 8 Ohms. 3. Rated Power: Nominal (or even continuous) power, and peak (or maximum shortterm) power a loudspeaker can handle. 4. Frequency response: The measured, or specified, output over a specified range of frequencies for a constant input level varied across those frequencies. It often includes a variance limit such as within 5. Number of drivers: In a complete system, it can be consider either 2-

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PROJECT REQUIRED EQUIPMENTS

CAPACITORS
500uF/25v Electrolytic 1000uF/25v Electrolytic 1500pF Ceramic 1uF Ceramic 100uF Electrolytic/25v (3 needed) 5600pF Ceramic (6 needed) 1uF Mylar or Ceramic Semiconductor Components Integrated circuit CTC-810 D-6283 Speaker (6W, 8 ) CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

RESISTORS
1 Ohm 100 K Ohm 100 Ohm 56 Ohm

Diode and transistor 4007 (2 needed) TR-BC-148 (2 needed) Transformer 12-0-12

This circuit is mainly based on IC CTC810. When the audio signal is give microphone. It converted into electric signal which is connected in this circuit is given through "pp" capacitor cum at the base of transistor BC148. This signal offer amplifying by this transistor through capacitor 4.7MFis rise up pin no. 4 of IC 810 due to this pin No. 4 of IC 810 triggers and output is obtain from pin 14. Due to that capacitor connected re sister are connected and the regulator are connected and by the capacitor. It is a feed back to the IC 810. Which make stable the amplifier.

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DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS The CTC 810 is a monolithic integrated circuit in a 12-lead quad in-line plastic package, intended for use as a low frequency class B amplifier. Features *A wide range of supply voltages (4 to 20V) *High output current (up to 2.5A) *High efficiency (75% at 6W output) *Very low harmonic and cross-over distortion *Built-in thermal shut down protection circuit

BLOCK DIAGRAM

DUAL AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER IC- D6283 GENERAL DESCRIPTION D6283 is an audio power IC with bui lt-in two Channels developed for portable radio cassette tape recorder. Thermal shut down protection circuit is built-in .Because of the par t s reduction and SIP (Single inline package), space merit is remarkable.

FEATURES High Power Outline Drawing Pout=2.5W/CH(Typ. ) :(Vcc=9V,RL=4,f=1kHz,THD=10%) Pout=4.6W/CH(Typ.) :(Vcc=12V,RL=4,f=1kHz,THD=10%) Low popping noise at power ON Small Quiescent Current : ICCQ=19mA(Type . ) (Vcc=9V Vin=0)

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Soft Clip Built-in thermal shut down protection circuit Best for supply voltage 9V, 12V Operation supply voltage range : Vcc=6~15V

TRANSFORMER - 12-O-12 12-0-12 is just two 12V windings joined together at one end, you could think of it as a single 24V winding with a connection in the middle. It has many uses but the primary one is in low voltage power supplies where full wave rectification can be achieved with two rectifiers instead of the four needed in a bridge circuit. They are sometimes used in crude inverters where switching the DC current from one winding to the other simulates AC. TRANSISTOR BC- 148 A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. PROJECT ASSEMBLY... The head sink and its' accompanying screws/nuts/washers...are needed for the CTC 810, to keep it from over-heating. Some extra components will be a potentiometer to regulate the amplifier volume and an LED with its' protecting resistor to see the ON/OFF of the unit. I built my project in the 'Manhattan' style, which is the way I am very fond of...in building electronic circuits. You pass directly from the drawn schematic to soldering the components on the copper panel in an almost always vertical position. So it is quite easy to compare the work you are doing with the schematic...and detect possible errors. I started cutting a piece of PCB at 70mm's long and 50mm's wide. The copper face of this small panel was cleaned and polished to facilitate the soldering of components. Afterward... it is necessary to create a positive rail, while the rest of the panel being the negative rail. The positive rail is a track of 3 or 4 mm's wide and 50 mm's long, in more or less with the center of the panel. You can cut this track with a sharp utensil and a ruler, or any other suitable device that fits your taste. After the positive rail is cut, be sure that it is absolutely isolated from the rest of the panel. This is a condition known as

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'sine qua non', for on the contrary...you will have a short circuit to your power source! The dimensions of the positive rail are enough for the few solders that go to it. Next... the mounting and soldering of the components on the panel is very easy indeed. The position of the components is not critical at all and the only difficulty is how to mount the integrated circuit. I solved this part of the project by making another smaller panel of sheet of 15 cm X 5 cm from a perforated board with metal strips on one of its' faces. On this smaller panel, I mounted and soldered a DIL socket for the CTC 810 IC. To the strip of each leg of the socket, I soldered a piece of bare copper wire. So these bare copper wires of .8mm's in diameter are the connections from the CTC 810 to the rest of the circuit. In this way, you have the facility of soldering the IC easily and the possibility of changing it without the annoying and difficult task of de-soldering an integrated circuit!

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PUBLIC ADDRESSING SYSTEM APPLICATION Some of the most common uses are described in this section, with suggested systems for each application. Most of the events we deal with fall into one of the following general categories: Weddings and Parties A PA system is often needed at a wedding, party or private function. Applications include: Speeches and announcements Background music Disco and dance music Live performance

Lectures, Conferences and Presentations You may need a PA system for: A single presenter Several speakers or panelists, or a conference-style event Audio-visual presentations (including video and film) Question-and-answer sessions

Live Music A PA system is nearly always required for live music. Our systems cater for: Solo performers Folk and acoustic music Bands Blues, rock, and heavier styles Multi-style and multi-performance events

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Conclusions
It's difficult to make any absolute conclusions with such a disparate range of topics, but there are some things that are very obvious. One of these is the myth of power handling and the general inattention paid to cone excursion. These two have seen the demise of countless loudspeaker drivers over the years, and will undoubtedly continue to do so. At the very least, all tuned boxes and horn systems require the use of a high pass filter to remove programme content below the lowest frequency that can be handled by the loudspeaker/enclosure combination. Where amplifier "headroom" is provided (by using bigger amps than needed), even greater attention must be paid to ensuring that voicecoil dissipation and cone excursion are kept within safe limits at all times. Using peak limiting is perfectly alright, provided the limiters are set up to maintain at least some dynamic range. This means a fast attack and relatively slow decay - preferably a few seconds if possible. This maintains an acceptable peak-to-average ratio, makes the music sound more alive, and gives loudspeaker drivers some hope of long-term survival. Issues like lobing will forever be a problem with high power sound systems. Since there is no way to generate the sound power needed with single drivers, multiple drivers are simply a fact of life. With multiple drivers comes lobing . The effects can never be eliminated, but they can be minimised by careful speaker placement. It's important for anyone choosing a system to avoid deciding on something based on its (apparent) popularity elsewhere. Elsewhere does not have the same venues that you do, and apparent popularity is just that - apparent. Anyone can write glowing testimonials and place them on their website. Unless you can speak to the actual people who wrote the testimonials, they are meaningless. Also, be wary of people who post in newsgroups and forum sites. While they often seem to be unbiased, you'll find that some have a vested interest in a particular brand, but may "forget" to disclose this. It's undoubtedly been noticed that I have a preference for the highest possible efficiency in a system. I know that power is cheap, and that there are drivers that seem to be able to take the claimed power. This doesn't change the fact that power compression is a very real and easily demonstrated problem. Only by keeping the power as low as practicable can you avoid the worst effects of power compression, and the side-issues that are created when drivers (and the air inside the cabinet) are allowed to become hot. Needless to say, I don't recommend that any high power system be run with passive crossovers. Apart from the fact that they introduce their own losses, passive crossovers also mean that once the amp clips, the entire audio spectrum is contaminated. The ability to manage the signal

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level in each frequency band can only be achieved sensibly when active crossovers are used, and this gives the skilled operator a system that is louder and cleaner than will ever be possible with passive crossovers - with the same total amplifier power ratings. When passive crossovers are used, you need a lot of extra headroom because of the full bandwidth signal, but you must then restrict the average power to suit the speaker power ratings. Yes, active crossovers require more amps and possibly cables, but that's why you can get 4-pole Speak on connectors almost anywhere. Remember that horn compression drivers don't need (and can't use) anything above perhaps 100W (allowing for headroom), so amp power requirements are minimal. The small extra bother is well worth the improvement in sound quality. .

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