174

DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a
constant dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor
converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and
smooth control. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles,
traction motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc.. They are also used in
regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage
regulators.
Choppers are of two types
Step-down choppers
Step-up choppers.
In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage
whereas in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.
PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER
V
i
0
V
0
Chopper
R
+

Fig. 2.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load

Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the
circuit acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and
when thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and
current waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.
175
V
dc
v
0
V
V/R
i
0
I
dc
t
t
t
ON
T
t
OFF
Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers output voltage and current waveforms
dc
V = average value of output or load voltage
dc
I = average value of output or load current
ON
t = time interval for which SCR conducts
OFF
t = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
ON OFF
T t t + = period of switching or chopping period
1
f
T
frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
Average output voltage
( ) ... 2.1
ON
dc
ON OFF
t
V V
t t
_

+
,
( ) . ... 2.2
ON
dc
t
V V V d
T
_


,
but ( ) duty cycle ... 2.3
ON
t
d
t
_


,
Average output current,
( ) ... 2.4
dc
dc
V
I
R

( ) ... 2.5
ON
dc
t V V
I d
R T R
_


,
176
RMS value of output voltage
2
0
1
ON
t
O o
V v dt
T

But during ,
ON o
t v V
Therefore RMS output voltage
2
0
1
ON
t
O
V V dt
T

( )
2
. ... 2.6
ON
O ON
t V
V t V
T T

( ) . ... 2.7
O
V d V
Output power
O O O
P V I
But
O
O
V
I
R

Therefore output power

2
O
O
V
P
R

( )
2
... 2.8
O
dV
P
R

Effective input resistance of chopper

( ) ... 2.9
i
dc
V
R
I

( ) ... 2.10
i
R
R
d

The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

METHODS OF CONTROL
The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.
Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
Variable frequency control.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
In pulse width modulation the pulse width ( )
ON
t of the output waveform is varied
keeping chopping frequency f and hence chopping period T constant. Therefore output
voltage is varied by varying the ON time,
ON
t . Figure 2.3 shows the output voltage
waveforms for different ON times.
177
V
0
V
V
V
0
t
t
t
ON
t
ON
t
OFF
t
OFF
T
Fig. 2.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control
VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL
In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either
ON
t or
OFF
t constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
Figure 2.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant
ON
t and variable
chopping period T.
In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be
varied over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large
OFF
t load current may become discontinuous.
v
0
V
V
v
0
t
t
t
ON
t
ON
T
T
t
OFF
t
OFF
Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control
178
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD
Figure 2.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode.
When chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the
supply to the load. When chopper is OFF, the load current
O
i continues to flow in the
same direction through the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
The load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and
duty cycle, d. For a continuous current operation the load current is assumed to vary
between two limits
min
I and
max
I .
Figure 2.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a
continuous current and discontinuous current operation.
V
i
0
V
0
Chopper
R
L
FWD
E
+

Fig. 2.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load

Output
voltage
Output
current
v
0
V
i
0
I
max
I
min
t
t
t
ON
T
t
OFF
Continuous
current
Output
current
t
Discontinuous
current
i
0
Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
179
When the current exceeds
max
I
the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when
current reduces to
min
I .
EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT
O
i FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT
OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON ( ) 0
ON
t t
V
i
0
V
0
R
L
E
+
-
Fig. 2.5 (a)
Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(a) is
( ) ... 2.11
O
O
di
V i R L E
dt
+ +
Taking Laplace Transform
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . 0 ... 2.12
O O O
V E
RI S L S I S i
S S

1
+ +
]
At 0 t , initial current
( )
min
0
O
i I

( ) ( )
min
... 2.13
O
I V E
I S
R R
S LS S
L L

+
_
+ +

,
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
( ) ( )
min
1 ... 2.14
R R
t t
L L
O
V E
i t e I e
R
_ _


, ,
1

+
1
1
]
This expression is valid for 0
ON
t t . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.
At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is
( )
max O ON
i t I
180
When Chopper is OFF ( ) 0
OFF
t t
i
0
R
L
E
Fig. 2.5 (b)
Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is
( ) 0 ... 2.15
O
O
di
Ri L E
dt
+ +
Taking Laplace transform
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
O O O
E
RI S L SI S i
S

1
+ +
]
Redefining time origin we have at 0 t , initial current
( )
max
0
O
i I

Therefore ( )
max
O
I E
I S
R R
S LS S
L L

_
+ +

,
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
( ) ( )
max
1 ... 2.16
R R
t t
L L
O
E
i t I e e
R
1

1
]
The expression is valid for 0
OFF
t t , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At
the instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is
( )
min O OFF
i t I
181
TO FIND
max
I AND
min
I
From equation (2.14),
At ( )
max
,
ON O
t t dT i t I
Therefore ( )
max min
1 ... 2.17
dRT dRT
L L
V E
I e I e
R
1
+
1
]
From equation (2.16),
At ( )
min
,
OFF ON O
t t T t i t I
( ) 1
OFF
t t d T
Therefore
( ) ( )
( )
1 1
min max
1 ... 2.18
d RT d RT
L L
E
I I e e
R

1

1
1
]
Substituting for
min
I in equation (2.17) we get,
( )
max
1
... 2.19
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e E
I
R R
e

1

1
1
]
Substituting for
max
I in equation (2.18) we get,
( )
min
1
... 2.20
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e E
I
R R
e
1

1

1
1
]
( )
max min
I I is known as the steady state ripple.
Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current
max min
I I I
Average output voltage
( ) . ... 2.21
dc
V d V
Average output current
( )
( )
max min
... 2.22
2
dc approx
I I
I
+

182
Assuming load current varies linearly from
min
I to
max
I instantaneous load current is
given by
( )
( )
min
.
0
O ON
I t
i I for t t dT
dT

+
( )
max min
min
... 2.23
O
I I
i I t
dT
_
+

,
RMS value of load current
( )
2
0
0
1
dT
O RMS
I i dt
dT

( )
( )
2
max min
min
0
1
dT
O RMS
I I t
I I dt
dT dT
1
+
1
]

( )
( )
2
min max min 2 2 max min
min
0
2
1
dT
O RMS
I I I t I I
I I t dt
dT dT dT
1
_
+ +
1

,
1
]

RMS value of output current

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
2
max min 2
min min max min
... 2.24
3
O RMS
I I
I I I I I
1

+ + 1
1
]
RMS chopper current
2
0
0
1
dT
CH
I i dt
T

2
max min
min
0
1
dT
CH
I I
I I t dt
T dT
1 _
+
1
, ]

( )
( )
1
2
2
max min 2
min min max min
3
CH
I I
I d I I I I
1

+ + 1
1
]
( )
( ) ... 2.25
CH O RMS
I d I
Effective input resistance is
i
S
V
R
I

183
Where
S
I = Average source current
S dc
I dI
Therefore ( ) ... 2.26
i
dc
V
R
dI

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

+

V
O
V
Chopper
C
L
O
A
D
D L I
+
Fig. 2.13: Step-up Chopper
Figure 2.13 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage
O
V higher than the
input voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of
output voltage and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across
the supply. The inductor current rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON
time of the chopper,
ON
t . When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow
through the diode D and load for a period,
OFF
t . The current tends to decrease resulting in
reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by
( ) . ., ... 2.27
O O
dI
V V L i e V V
dt
+ >
If a large capacitor C is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide
a continuous output voltage
O
V . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the
source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.
When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L V
184
Therefore energy stored in inductor = ( ) . . ... 2.28
ON
V I t ,
where
ON
t ON period of chopper.
When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)
Voltage across
O
L V V
Energy supplied by inductor ( )
O OFF
L V V It , where
OFF
t OFF period of
Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L
Therefore ( )
ON O OFF
VIt V V It
[
ON OFF
O
OFF
V t t
V
t
+

O
ON
T
V V
T t
_

,
Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.
ON OFF
T t t +
1
1
O
ON
V V
t
T
_

,
Therefore ( )
1
... 2.29
1
O
V V
d
_

,
Where duty cyle
ON
t
d
T

For variation of duty cycle d in the range of 0 1 d < < the output voltage
O
V will vary
in the range
O
V V < < .
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence
duty cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the
minimum and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends
inversely on the chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current,
frequency should be as high as possible.
185
CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
Choppers are classified as follows
Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper
Class E Chopper
CLASS A CHOPPER
V
Chopper
FWD
+

v
0
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
O
A
D
V
Fig. 2.14: Class A Chopper and
O O
v i Characteristic
Figure 2.14 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-
wheeling diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e.,
O
v V and current i
0
flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v
0
= 0 and the
load current
O
i continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode.
Therefore the average values of output voltage and current i.e.,
O
v and
O
i are always
positive. Hence, Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper).
Figure 2.15 shows output voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.
186
Output current
Thyristor
gate pulse
Output voltage
i
g
i
0
v
0
t
t
t
t
ON
T
CH ON
FWD Conducts
Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from
source to load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations
obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of
Class A Chopper.
CLASS B CHOPPER
V
Chopper
+

v
0
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
E
R
D
Fig. 2.16: Class B Chopper
Fig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, 0
O
v and E
drives a current
O
i through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16.
During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is
OFF, diode D conducts,
O
v V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to
the supply. Also the current
O
i continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the
average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class
187
B Chopper operates in second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the
output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper.
The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode
D conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
V
i
0
V
0
R
L
E
+
-
D
Conducting
O
O
Ldi
V Ri E
dt
+ +
For the initial condition i.e., ( )
min O
i t I at 0 t .
The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down
chopper with R-L load
Therefore ( )
min
1 0
R R
t t
L L
O OFF
V E
i t e I e t t
R
_
+ < <

,
At
OFF
t t
( )
( )
max O
i t I
max min
1
OFF OFF
R R
t t
L L
V E
I e I e
R
_
+

,
During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by
i
0
V
0
R
L
E
+
-
Chopper
ON
0
O
O
Ldi
Ri E
dt
+ +
188
Redefining the time origin, at 0 t ( )
max O
i t I .
The solution for the stated initial condition is
( )
max
1 0
R R
t t
L L
O ON
E
i t I e e t t
R
_
< <

,
At ( )
min ON O
t t i t I
Therefore
min max
1
ON ON
R R
t t
L L
E
I I e e
R
_


,
Output current
D
conducts
Chopper
conducts
Thyristor
gate pulse
Output voltage
i
g
i
0
v
0
t
t
t
I
min
I
max
T
t
ON
t
OFF
Fig. 2.17: Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
CLASS C CHOPPER
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18
shows a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation,
1
CH is ON
or
2
D conducts and for second quadrant operation,
2
CH is ON or
1
D conducts. When
1
CH is ON, the load current
O
i is positive. i.e.,
O
i flows in the direction as shown in
figure 2.18.
The output voltage is equal to ( )
O
V v V and the load receives power from the
source.
189
V
Chopper
+

v
0
D
1
D
2
CH
2
CH
1
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
E
R
Fig. 2.18: Class C Chopper
When
1
CH is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow
through the diode
2
D and the output voltage 0
O
v , but
O
i continues to flow in positive
direction. When
2
CH is triggered, the voltage E forces
O
i to flow in opposite direction
through L and
2
CH . The output voltage 0
O
v . On turning OFF
2
CH , the energy stored
in the inductance drives current through diode
1
D and the supply; output voltage
O
v V
the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
Thus the average output voltage
O
v is positive but the average output current
O
i can take both positive and negative values. Choppers
1
CH and
2
CH should not be
turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C
Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor.
Figure 2.19 shows the output voltage and current waveforms.
Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
V
0
t
t
t
t
D
1
D
1
D
2
D
2
CH
1
CH
2
CH
1
CH
2
ON ON ON ON
Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
190
CLASS D CHOPPER
V
+
v
0
D
2
D
1
CH
2
CH
1
v
0
i
0
L E
R i
0
Fig. 2.20: Class D Chopper
Figure 2.20 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both
1
CH and
2
CH are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage
O
v V and output current
O
i flows
through the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When
1
CH and
2
CH are turned
OFF, the load current
O
i continues to flow in the same direction through load,
1
D and
2
D ,
due to the energy stored in the inductor L, but output voltage
O
v V . The average load
voltage
O
v is positive if chopper ON-time ( )
ON
t is more than their OFF-time ( )
OFF
t and
average output voltage becomes negative if
ON OFF
t t < . Hence the direction of load current
is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in
figures 2.21 and 2.22.
Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
Average v
0
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
v
0
V
t
t
t
t
CH ,CH
ON
1 2
D1,D2 Conducting
Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for
ON OFF
t t >
191
Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
Average v
0
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
v
0
V
t
t
t
t
CH
CH
1
2
D , D
1 2
Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for
ON OFF
t t <
CLASS E CHOPPER
V
v
0
i
0
L E
R
CH
2
CH
4
D
2
D
4
D
1
D
3
CH
1
CH
3
+
Fig. 2.23: Class E Chopper
192
v
0
i
0
CH - CH ON
CH - D Conducts
1 4
4 2
D D
2 3
- Conducts
CH - D Conducts
4 2
CH - CH ON
CH - D Conducts
3 2
2 4
CH - D Conducts
D - D Conducts
2 4
1 4
Fig. 2.23(a): Four Quadrant Operation
Figure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When
1
CH and
4
CH are
triggered, output current
O
i flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through
1
CH and
4
CH , with output voltage
O
v V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When
both
1
CH and
4
CH are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives
O
i through
3
D
and
2
D in the same direction, but output voltage
O
v V . Therefore the chopper
operates in the fourth quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery
must be reversed. When
2
CH and
3
CH are triggered, the load current
O
i flows in
opposite direction and output voltage
O
v V .
Since both
O
i and
O
v are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When
both
2
CH and
3
CH are OFF, the load current
O
i continues to flow in the same direction
through
1
D and
4
D and the output voltage
O
v V . Therefore the chopper operates in
second quadrant as
O
v is positive but
O
i is negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices
which are operative in different quadrants.
EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE
In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the
transient voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source
inductance. Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper.
The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping
frequency. Therefore the peak load current depends on load inductance. To limit the load
ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected in series with the load.
Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 2.24, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and rms free wheeling diode current.
RMS value of output voltage
RMS and average thyristor currents.
193
V
i
0
v
0
Chopper
FWD
+

L
O
A
D
Fig. 6.24.
Solution
Average output voltage,
ON
dc
t
V V dV
T
_


,
Average output current,
dc
dc
V dV
I
R R

The thyristor is commutated at the instant
ON
t t .
Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is
V
R
, since V is the output
voltage at that instant.
Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore
average and RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.
RMS value of output voltage
( )
2
0
0
1
ON
t
O RMS
V v dt
T

But
O
v V during
ON
t
( )
2
0
1
ON
t
O RMS
V V dt
T

( )
2 ON
O RMS
t
V V
T
_

,
( ) O RMS
V dV
Where duty cycle,
ON
t
d
T

194
RMS value of thyristor current
= RMS value of load current
( ) O RMS
V
R

dV
R

Average value of thyristor current

= Average value of load current
dV
R

Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V

supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in
each cycle.
Solution
V = 460 V,
dc
V = 350 V, f = 2 kHz
Chopping period
1
T
f

3
1
0.5 sec
2 10
T m

Output voltage
ON
dc
t
V V
T
_

,
Conduction period of thyristor
dc
ON
T V
t
V

3
0.5 10 350
460
ON
t

0.38 msec
ON
t
Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 ssec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new
output voltage.
195
Solution
V = 200 V, 200
ON
t s , 600
dc
V V
dc
ON
T
V V
T t
_

,
6
600 200
200 10
T
T

_

,
Solving for T
300 T s
Chopping frequency
1
f
T

6
1
3.33
300 10
f KHz

Pulse width is halved

Therefore
6
200 10
100
2
ON
t s

Frequency is constant
Therefore 3.33 f KHz
1
300 T s
f

Therefore output voltage =
ON
T
V
T t
_

,
( )
6
6
300 10
200 300 Volts
300 100 10

,
Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20 and input voltage 220
S
V V .
When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.
196
Solution
220
S
V V , 20 R , f = 10 kHz
0.80
ON
t
d
T

ch
V = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts
Average output voltage
( )
ON
dc S ch
t
V V V
T
_


,
( ) 0.80 220 1.5 174.8 Volts
dc
V
Chopper ON time,
ON
t dT
Chopping period,
1
T
f

3
3
1
0.1 10 secs 100 secs
10 10
T

Chopper ON time,
ON
t dT
3
0.80 0.1 10
ON
t


3
0.08 10 80 secs
ON
t


Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency
is 250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper
if the load resistance is 2 ohms.
Solution
30 Amps
dc
I , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, 2 R
Chopping period,
3
1 1
4 10 4 msecs
250
T
f


dc
dc
V
I
R
and
dc
V dV
Therefore
dc
dV
I
R

197
30 2
0.545
110
dc
I R
d
V


Chopper ON period,
3
0.545 4 10 2.18 msecs
ON
t dT


Chopper OFF period,
OFF ON
t T t
3 3
4 10 2.18 10
OFF
t


3
1.82 10 1.82 msec
OFF
t


Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 2.25 has a resistive load of 10 R and input
voltage of V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping
frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 60%, determine
Average output voltage
RMS value of output voltage
Effective input resistance of chopper
Chopper efficiency.
V
i
0
Chopper
+

R
v
0
Fig. 2.25
Solution
V = 200 V, 10 R , Chopper voltage drop, 2
ch
V V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.
Average output voltage
( )
dc ch
V d V V
[ 0.60 200 2 118.8 Volts
dc
V
RMS value of output voltage
( )
O ch
V d V V
( ) 0.6 200 2 153.37 Volts
O
V
198
Effective input resistance of chopper is
i
S dc
V V
R
I I

118.8
11.88 Amps
10
dc
dc
V
I
R

200
16.83
11.88
i
S dc
V V
R
I I

Output power is
2
0
0
1
dT
O
v
P dt
T R

( )
2
0
1
dT
ch
O
V V
P dt
T R

( )
2
ch
O
d V V
P
R

[
2
0.6 200 2
2352.24 watts
10
O
P


Input power,
0
1
dT
i O
P Vi dt
T

( )
0
1
dT
ch
O
V V V
P dt
T R

( ) [ 0.6 200 200 2

2376 watts
10
ch
O
dV V V
P
R


Chopper efficiency,
100
O
i
P
P

2352.24
100 99%
2376

Problem 2.7: A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a free-wheeling diode. The
load inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10. The input voltage to the chopper is 200
199
volts and the chopper is operating at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time ratio is
2:3. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load current in one cycle of chopper operation.
Average load current
Solution:
L = 5 H, R = 10 , f = 1000 Hz, V = 200 V, : 2: 3
ON OFF
t t
Chopping period,
1 1
1 msecs
1000
T
f

2
3
ON
OFF
t
t

2
3
ON OFF
t t
ON OFF
T t t +
2
3
OFF OFF
T t t +
5
3
OFF
T t
3
5
OFF
t T
3
3
1 10 0.6 msec
5
T


ON OFF
t T t
( )
3
1 0.6 10 0.4 msec
ON
t


Duty cycle,
3
3
0.4 10
0.4
1 10
ON
t
d
T

Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of

max
I and
min
I .
Maximum value of load current [equation (2.19)] is
max
1
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e E
I
R R
e

1

1
1
]
200
Since there is no voltage source in the load circuit, E = 0
Therefore
max
1
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e
I
R
e

1
1
]
3
3
0.4 10 1 10
5
max
10 1 10
5
200 1
10
1
e
I
e

1
1

1
1

]
3
3
0.8 10
max
2 10
1
20
1
e
I
e

1
1
]
max
8.0047A I
Minimum value of load current from equation (2.20) with E = 0 is
min
1
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e
I
R
e
1

1
1
]
3
3
0.4 10 1 10
5
min
10 1 10
5
200 1
7.995 A
10
1
e
I
e

1
1

1
1

]
Average load current
max min
2
dc
I I
I
+

8.0047 7.995
8 A
2
dc
I
+

Problem 2.8 : A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure 2.26. With V = 200 V, R =
5, L = 5 mH, f = 1 kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load current
Average value of load current
RMS load current
Effective input resistance as seen by source
RMS chopper current.
Solution
V = 200 V, R = 5 , L = 5 mH, f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0
201
Chopping period is
3
3
1 1
1 10 secs
1 10
T
f

i
0
v
0
Chopper
R
L
FWD
E
+

Fig.: 2.26
Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of
max
I and
min
I .
Maximum value of load current
max
1
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e E
I
R R
e

1

1
1
]
3
3
3
3
0.5 5 1 10
5 10
max
5 1 10
5 10
200 1
0
5
1
e
I
e

1
1

1
1

]
0.5
max 1
1
40 24.9 A
1
e
I
e

1

1

]
Minimum value of load current is
min
1
1
dRT
L
RT
L
V e E
I
R R
e
1

1

1
1
]
3
3
3
3
0.5 5 1 10
5 10
min
5 1 10
5 10
200 1
0
5
1
e
I
e

1
1

1
1

]
0.5
min 1
1
40 15.1 A
1
e
I
e
1

1

]
Average value of load current is
1 2
2
dc
I I
I
+
for linear variation of currents
202
Therefore
24.9 15.1
20 A
2
dc
I
+

Refer equations (2.24) and (2.25) for RMS load current and RMS chopper current.
RMS load current from equation (2.24) is
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
max min 2
min min max min
3
O RMS
I I
I I I I I
1

+ + 1
1
]
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
2
24.9 15.1
15.1 15.1 24.9 15.1
3
O RMS
I
1

+ + 1
1
]
( )
1
2
96.04
228.01 147.98 20.2 A
3
O RMS
I
1
+ +
1
]
RMS chopper current from equation is (2.25) is
( )
0.5 20.2 14.28 A
ch O RMS
I d I
Effective input resistance is
i
S
V
R
I

S
I = Average source current
S dc
I dI
0.5 20 10 A
S
I
Therefore effective input resistance is
200
20
10
i
S
V
R
I

Problem 2.9: A 200 V dc motor fed by a chopper, runs at 1000 rpm with a duty ratio of
0.8. What must be the ON time of the chopper if the motor has to run at 800 rpm. The
chopper operates at 100 Hz.
Solution
Speed of motor
1
N = 1000 rpm
Duty ratio
1
0.8 d , f = 100 Hz
203
We know that back EMF of motor
b
E is given by
60
b
ZNP
E
A

Where N = speed in rpm

= flux/pole in wbs
Z = Number of Armature conductors
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths
Therefore
b
E N
if flux is constant
b
E N
V
I
a
Chopper
R
a
E
b
+
+

V
dc
M
Fig. 2.27
b dc a a
E V I R
where
a
I = Armature current
a
R = Armature Resistance
Since
a
R is not given,
a a
I R drop is neglected.
Therefore
1 1
200 volts
b dc
E V
1
1 dc
V d V
Supply,
1
1
dc
V
V
d

200
0.8
V
250 Volts V
204
1
1 b
E N
( ) 200 1000 ... 2.30
Now speed changes hence d also changes.
Given
2
800 N rpm
2
?
b
E
2 2 b
E N
( )
2
800 ... 2.31
b
E
Dividing equation (2.30) by equation (2.31) we get
2
200 1000
800
b
E

2
800 200
160 V
1000
b
E

But
2 2
2 b dc
E V d V
2
2
160
0.64
250
dc
V
d
V

Chopping frequency f = 100 Hz
1 1
0.01 sec
100
T
f

10 msecs T
2
ON
t
d
T

ON time of chopper
2 ON
t d T
3
0.64 10 10
ON
t


6.4 msecs
ON
t
205
IMPULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER
Impulse commutated choppers are widely used in high power circuits where load
fluctuation is not large. This chopper is also known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper
or voltage commutated chopper or classical chopper.
Fig. 2.28 shows an impulse commutated chopper with two thyristors T
1
and T
2
.
We shall assume that the load current remains constant at a value I
L
during the
commutation process.
L
O
A
D
L
C
I
L
L
S
V
S
+
_
+
_
T
2
T
1
D
1
a
b
i
C
i
T1
v
O
+
_
FWD
Fig. 2.28
To start the circuit, capacitor is initially charged with polarity (with plate a
positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T
2
. Capacitor gets
charged through V
S
, , T
2
and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T
2
will be turned-off. With capacitor charged with plate a positive the circuit is ready for
operation. For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes.
MODE 1
Thyristor T
1
is fired at t = 0
.
The supply voltage comes across the load. Load
current I
L
flows through T
1
and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T
1
,
D
1
, L
1
, and and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is
held constant by diode D
1
. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.
L
O
A
D
L
C
I
L
L
S
V
S
+
_
+
_
T
1
D
1
V
C
i
C
Fig. 2.29
206
Capacitor Discharge Current
( ) sin
C
C
i t V t
L

( ) sin
C P
i t I t ; where
P
C
I V
L

Where
1
LC

& Capacitor Voltage
( ) cos
C
V t V t
MODE 2
Thyristor T
2
is now fired to commutate thyristor T
1
. When T
2
is ON capacitor
voltage reverse biases T
1
and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load
from V
S
to 0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.
Circuit turn-off time is given by
C
C
L
V C
t
I

Where I
L
is load current.
Since t
C
depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition
which occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor
voltage.
Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate a positive).
This time is called the recharging time and is given by
S
d
L
V C
t
I

The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the
commutation time and it is given by
r C d
t t t +
At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to V
S
and the free wheeling diode
starts conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.
207
L
O
A
D
C
L
S
V
S
+
_ +
_
T
2
V
C
I
L
I
L
Fig. 2.30.
MODE 3
Free wheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The
energy stored in source inductance L
S
is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is
( ) cos
L
i t I t Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage.
2
T
naturally turns-off.
The instantaneous capacitor voltage is
( ) sin
S
C S L S
L
V t V I t
C
+
Where
1
S
S
L C

Fig. 2.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 3.
L
O
A
D
C
L
S
V
S
+
_
+
_
T
2
V
S
FWD
I
L
I
L
Fig. 2.31
MODE 4
Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it
starts discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The
capacitor discharges through L
S
, V
S
, FWD, D
1
and L. When this current reduces to zero
D
1
will stop conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig.
2.32 shows in equivalent circuit of Mode 4.
208
L
O
A
D
C
L
S
V
S
+
_
+
_
D
1
L
FWD
I
L
V
C
Fig. 2.32
MODE 5
In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the free
wheeling diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T
1
is fired. The equivalent
circuit for mode 5 is shown in fig. 2.33
L
O
A
D
I
L
FWD
Fig. 2.33
Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated
chopper.
209
Capacitor Current
I
L
t
t
t
t
t
I
p
Current through T
1
Voltage across T
1
Output Voltage
Capacitor Voltage
t
c
t
d
i
c
0
I
p
i
T1
0
v
T1
V
c
0
v
o
V
s c
+V
V
s
v
c
V
c
-V
c
I
L
Fig. 2.34
Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following
disadvantages.
A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers
thyristor T
2
first.
Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated.
The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the
load current and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load
current.
Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load.
Thyristor T
1
has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in
increasing its peak current rating.
210
Jones Chopper
C
D
+

V
+

L
FWD
R
T
1
T
2
L
2
L
1
v
0
Fig. 2.35: Jones Chopper
Figure 2.35 shows a Jones Chopper circuit for an inductive load with free
wheeling diode. Jones Chopper is an example of class D commutation. Two thyristors
are used, T
1
is the main thyristor and T
2
is the auxiliary thyristor. Commutating circuit
for T
1
consists of thyristor T
2
, capacitor C, diode D and autotransformer (L
1
and L
2
).
Initially thyristor T
2
is turned ON and capacitor C is charged to a voltage V with a
polarity as shown in figure 2.35. As C charges, the charging current through thyristor T
2
decays exponentially and when current falls below holding current level, thyristor T
2
turns OFF by itself. When thyristor T
1
is triggered, load current flows through thyristor
T
1
, L
2
and load. The capacitor discharges through thyristor T
1
, L
1
and diode D. Due to
resonant action of the auto transformer inductance L
2
and capacitance C, the voltage
across the capacitor reverses after some time.
It is to be noted that the load current in L
1
induces a voltage in L
2
due to
autotransformer action. Due to this voltage in L
2
in the reverse direction, the capacitor
charges to a voltage greater than the supply voltage. (The capacitor now tries to discharge
in opposite direction but it is blocked by diode D and hence capacitor maintains the
reverse voltage across it). When thyristor T
1
is to be commutated, thyristor T
2
is turned
ON resulting in connecting capacitor C directly across thyristor T
1
. Capacitor voltage
reverse biases thyristor T
1
and turns it off. The capacitor again begins to charge through
thyristor T
2
and the load for the next cycle of operation.
The various waveforms are shown in figure 2.36
211
Gate pulse of T
2
Gate pulse of T
1
Gate pulse of T
2
Capacitor Voltage
Capacitor
discharge current
Current of T
1
Voltage across T
1
Auto transformer action
Resonant action
I
g
I
L
I
L
V
C
+V
V
t
t
t
t
t
C
t
C