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THE PRIMARY INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY WITHIN THE PERIOD 1901 TO THE PRESENT The Influence of Christianity on Education The many variants of Christianity have enabled the Tradition to firmly influence education in Australia. Although all Christian schools receive a government subsidy, they exist largely due to the financial contributions of Christian organizations, parishes and the parents of their students. Because many Christian schools are therefore, essentially self-sufficient, it has enabled the Federal government to allocate a greater level of funds into the public education system, allowing the students of government schools to receive a higher quality education. Many churches also provide religious instruction for the students of public schools. In 2002, 1400 scripture teachers were teaching 500,000 children every week in NSW alone. This Special Religious Education has been the main educational focus of the Uniting Church, who employs qualified lay teachers to religiously educate the public school students of Australia, from a Uniting perspective. The most visible contribution of Catholics to education has been providing Church schools as alternatives to government schools. The Catholic Church is today responsible for a majority of Christian schools in Australia, enabling some 637,000 students to achieve an education, not only in the intellectual sense, but also both morally and spiritually. Many Christian groups also provide educational courses and resources for those seeking greater depth and understanding of how to live out their faith. For example, in February 2003, the Presbyterian Church held a three day Emerging Worship Conference, which provided instructions on the practical application of Christian beliefs Christian groups also contribute generously to records archives and libraries. The Lowe Memorial Library at Luther Seminary, for example, holds a rare book collection, including a 1521 edition of St Ambroses Concerning Priestly Worthiness and a hand painted pictorial Bible, translated by Martin Luther and published in 1550.

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The Influence of Christianity on Public Morality This refers to attempts by Christians to influence public policy so that a more just society is shaped. 1. The Sabbatarian Movement

Church people campaigned actively for Sabbath observance. In 1902 for example, a Methodist newspaper claimed that lunacy and heart disease were products of needless Sabbath work. Although the popularity of Sunday amusements eventually prevailed, an indirect Christian influence upon public morality has maintained itself through the use of penalty rates. 2. Liquor and Gambling

Protestant groups actively campaigned to ban the sale of alcohol and prohibit gambling. Although little success was experienced in regards to alcohol, as many Catholics seen no harm in responsible drinking, there was some long term success in relation to gambling. In Victoria, for example, it was not until 1994 that gambling restrictions campaigned by Protestants were overturned. 3. Divorce

Churches actively campaigned against legislative pieces which would remove the 14 grounds for divorce and replace it with the no fault concept. The churches claimed that divorce would become too easy and thus, be encouraged by the legislation. Their failure became clear in 1975, with the enactment of the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), which legalized the proposed reforms. 4. Public Decency

Early in the 20th century, Christian leaders endeavored to ban swimming in daylight and later, to enforce modesty in swimwear. The Catholic Church, for example, repeatedly issued public statements on modesty of dress, including one by Pope Benedict XV in 1921 and Pope Pius XXI in 1954. As the century progressed however, their failure became obvious. 5. Euthanasia

Churches argued strongly against the introduction of laws allowing euthanasia in the Northern Territory in the 1990s. Although they initially failed, the government eventually overturned the NT legislation that legalized euthanasia. This was despite the fact that more than seventy percent of Australians believed that euthanasia is sometimes or always justified.

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Controversial Performers

Including Eminem, Black Sabbath and Alice Cooper, have all been banned from entering Australia due to their negative influence upon youth and the blasphemy contained in their lyrics. The importance of blasphemy laws in Australian society, and thus, the influence of Christianity on public morality, is also seen through the Gay Games, which was highly controversial, received poor levels of business sponsorship and failed to attract government funding, despite the tourism dollars it was expected to generate. The Interrelationship between the Australian Physical Environment and Cultural Environment and the Development of Christianity in Australia Australias multicultural environment has led to the development of a unique, highly diverse and multi-faceted Christianity. A diverse and uniquely Australian Orthodox Christianity, for example, has emerged due to continual immigration, where the law so strongly upheld in Europe, that only one Orthodox Church can be found in one area, has been abandoned. This is evidenced by the fact that today, within one Australian suburb, Russian, Greek, Ukrainian and Serbian Orthodox Churches can all be found. Catholicism experienced growth in Australia, resultant from the immigration of Catholics from countries including Malta, Germany, Croatia and the Middle East. Both this, and the fact that Catholics have always made up a higher proportion of the population than they did in England, has led to this Christian denomination becoming an important political force in Australia; actively involved in every state and holding the power to have government legislation overturned, including for example, the legalization of euthanasia in the Northern Territory. Australias Aboriginal heritage and cultural identity has also had a marked influence upon Christianity in Australia, leading to the developing of a Christianity featuring the integration of Aboriginal spirituality. For example, Aboriginal actors have participated in the re-enactment of the crucifixion whilst adorning Aboriginal costumes and body paints whilst performing traditional dances. The huge physical distances between population centres has profoundly influenced Christianity; making regional and national gatherings much more difficult and resulting in pronounced difference between dioceses. For Catholicism, the even larger geographical difference between Australia and the Vatican has facilitated within it, a more Australian and less European identity. This notion was exemplified in 1967, with the consecration of the first Australian-born Archbishop of Sydney, Marcus Loane.

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RESPONSES BY SOME RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS TO SOCIAL CHANGE AND INITIATIVES IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FROM 1901 TO THE PRESENT Ministry in Rural and Outback Australia 1. o o o o o 2. o o o 3. o o o o Evangelical Sydney Anglicans Burch Church Aid Society The Bush Church Aid Society began in 1919 and provided an array of vital services for the rural communities of Australia. This included health services, via the establishment of a hospital at Cook in 1935 as well as a pharmacy and dental clinic. The BCA also provided educational services, including for example, a radio school for children. They also provided a number of non-essential, but nonetheless, important services, such as counseling, Sunday School and leading Bible studies classes. The providence of such services continues today. Presbyterian Church Australian Inland Mission Was established by John Flynn in 1912. Provided a range of services for those in the outback, including daily Bible lessons to school children, Sunday School each Sunday morning and also arranged funerals, telegrams, registrations and the conduct of graveside funerals. AIM workers also escorted patients who needed to be taken by train to Port Agusta, 550 miles away. Presbyterian Church Frontier Services When the Presbyterian Church became part of the Uniting Church in 1977, the AIM became the Frontier Services. The Frontier Services have enabled the children of the outback to receive a quality education by establishing Student Group Homes in Atherton, Charleville and Mt. Isa, in QLD. They have also contributed tremendously to the health and wellbeing of rurally located Australians but providing social welfare services, including counseling, advocacy and other support services. One example is the Migrant Settlement Services in the Pilbara, where Frontier Services assists recent arrivals to become established in a new country and community, accessing appropriate services and maximizing the potential of life in Australia. Church of England Bush Brotherhood Begun in 1897 by Bishop Nathaniel Dawes, who held the vision of establishing bush centres for a flying squadron of clergy and laymen, organized to deliver aggressive Christianity. 4

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Assumed responsibility for three Anglican schools in Queensland and have had a great influence upon the bush; reflected by the presence of the High Church Anglicanism in many rural regions.

The Role of Religious Traditions in the Labour Movement 1. o o Christianity The Christian Tradition made it their role to support the various political parties who governed or influenced the Australian labour force. The Catholic Church, for example, provided official support for the Labor Party, whose policies were aligned to a majority of the working class Catholics of Australia. Bishop Moran welcomed the party to protect the working man and defend his rights in a constitutional manner. When the Labor Party won the federal election in October in 1910, they were also supported by a number of other Christian denominations, including for example, the Methodist Church, whose national newspaper The Methodist, proclaimed that many of our own people in this state are intelligently and ardently attached to the Labor Party. The role of the Catholic Church in supporting the Labor Party eventually unraveled as a result of their upward social mobility. By the late 1980s, Church leaders no longer perceived their role as the great champion of workers rights, in part because they were now one of the countries major employers. Resultantly, the Catholic Church made it their role to support the Liberal Party; evidenced by the fact that in 1993, more Catholics voted for the Liberal Party than for Labor. In recent years, it has been the role of the Christian Tradition to fight for the protection of workers rights. This was clearly seen in 1998 during the Waterfront dispute. When a court injunction prohibited the workers from protesting in the vicinity of the docks, Anglican Minister Rev. Alan Nichols went to the docks and proclaimed in front of one thousand picketers that Australians should not tolerate this intrusion into the democratic right of workers to protest and justified this outburst by asserting that a right of conscientious objection has a long, Christian history.

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The Role of Religious Traditions in Conscription 1. Christianity World War One (1914-1918)

Two referendums were held; one in October 1916 and another in December 1917, to endorse the conscription of single men without dependants to war service. Both referendums were supported largely by the Protestant Church, whose members seen it as 5

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an excellent way to demonstrate their allegiance to Britain. The predominantly Irish Catholics at the time however, held a negative vote. Many were reluctant to accept that they had a duty to die for a country which had historically imposed upon them, oppression and tremendous hardship. Catholic Archbishop Daniel Mannix, was a central figure during the second WWI referendum, who strongly opposed the war and once asserted; Australia first, the empire second. 2. Judaism - World War One (1914-1918)

Because they felt loyalty to the Empire for granting them British freedom and wanted security against Germany, Jews supported conscription. Rabbi Cohen of Sydney and Danglow of Victoria especially encouraged it. 3. Christianity World War Two (1939-1945)

Both the Catholic and Protestant churches tended to support the limited conscription, introduced by the government in 1942 as a result of their growing feelings of hostility towards communism, flowing the 1939 Pact between Germany and the communist Soviet. 4. Christianity -Vietnam War

Christians argued on both sides of the conscription debate. Due to their profound hatred of communism, Catholic bishops were in favor of Australias National Service (Conscription) Act which would enable more Australian men to fight against the communist North Vietnam. A number of Anglican bishops were strongly against conscription for the Vietnam War, including Bishop Moyes of Armidale, who unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Prime Minister Menzies to avoid Australian involvement in the Vietnam conflict. The Jewish Tradition were one of the few groups unsplit by the issue; holding universal support for conscription and working actively to hasten its introduction. Rabbi Cohen of Sydney for example, established the Universal Service League to work for the introduction of compulsory service. The Role of Religious Traditions in Wars 1. Christianity World War One

When war broke out, most of the churches felt it was their role to: o o o Provide chaplains. This was particularly true for the Methodists, who were the first denomination to send full time chaplains to overseas army camps. Comfort soldiers when they were confronted by death Pray for the soldiers and hold special prayer services to remember the dead

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Fundraise for the soldiers. Protestant women were actively involved in this; initiating Red Cross fundraisers as well as concerts to raise money for the war effort. Judaism World War One The Jewish people felt it their duty to support Britain in the war, as repayment for the freedom and equality given by Britain to the Jews. Their enthusiasm in fulfilling this role was clearly seen through the high percentage of enlistments amongst Jews. 13% of Jews eligible to enlist did so, compared with only 9.2% of the Australian population as a whole. On the home front, the Jews took on the role of financial contributors; donating generously to the Red Cross, Comforts Fund, Lord Mayors Patriotic Fund and Australia Day Appeal. In fact, in NSW alone, the Jewish contribution to the Australia Day appeal raised 900,000 pounds through the active work of Rabbi Cohen. Christianity World War Two During the 1930s, the peace movement had grown strongly in the Methodist Church and resultantly, they felt it their duty to actively oppose the war and reduce the level of support for it in the Australian community by emphasizing the sinful nature of war and Jesus dislike for it. In 1932, for example, the President of the Methodist Conference, Reverend J.A Burton, publically asserted that War is, without question, the negation of all that Christ taught and meant. In 1941, he also proclaimed that The only activity Jesus mentioned in the Beatitudes was peacemaking.

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o Despite this, most Christian denominations took on a supportive role, providing chaplains as well as for the physical and spiritual needs of soldiers. o For example, Archbishop Mowll from the Church of England established the National Emergency Fund to minister soldiers who sorrowed. o Mrs. Mowll also led 2000 women to serve up to 80,000 meals a month and raise more than 50,000 pounds for the war effort. 4. o o o Judaism World War Two The Jewish people felt it was their role to assist their suffering affiliates in Europe. This role was achieved by them establishing relief organizations and sending money overseas to the suffering Jewish people. Their active role in supporting the war was also seen through their efforts to provide entertainment and for the physical needs of soldiers through, for example, establishing the Monash Recreational Hut in Hyde Part and the Martin Place Kiosk for service men as well as by joining in sewing bees and Red Cross activities.

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The Role of Religious Traditions in the Great Depression 1. Christianity

The role of the Christian church during the Depression was to provide emergency relief for those unemployed and impoverished. In the Anglican Church, this was a role taken very seriously by Archdeacon Robert Hammond who: o o o o Organized housing for hundreds of homeless people Arranged loans to help people start new jobs Fed thousands of hungry people Established a settlement near Liverpool where families could buy cheap housing and which is today known as Hammondville.

The Catholic St Vincent De Paul fulfilled this role by providing housing, food and clothing for the destitute. The Salvation Army and Central Missions of the Methodist Church also provided emergency relief including meals and lodging. Some members of the Christian Tradition made it their role to address the underlying causes of the Great Depression. B.A Santamaria from the Catholic Church and Anglican minister Ernest Burgmann provide two examples of such individuals who publicly criticized capitalism as being both corrupt and the cause of the Depression. 2. Judaism

The Jewish Tradition took on the same role was the Christian Tradition; providing relief and assistance for the ordinary Australians adversely affected by the Depression. For example, the Jewish Employment Service was established by the Jews, at the expense of many of their Rabbis salaries and which assisted Australians, regardless of their religious affiliation, to receive employment and thus, leave the cycle of poverty which trapped so many at the time.

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The Role and Responses of Religious Traditions in/to Abortion Abortion The premature removal of a fetus from the womb during pregnancy. 1. Christianity Catholicism

Response o Have a strong standpoint against abortion o Believe that life begins at the point of conception and thus, the human within the womb has the right to protection, respect and life itself. o See abortion as a violation of Gods laws. Role o To eliminate or at best, reduce the use of abortion in society by providing public information to deepen understanding of the sanctity of human life and the humanity of the unborn child, through pastoral care for women with problems related to pregnancy and lastly, though public policy efforts directed to restoring legal protection to the lives of the unborn child. 2. Christianity Uniting Church

Response o Emphasizes the sanctity of life o However, argues that the best person to make the decision regarding abortion is the pregnant women, after consultation with her friends, family and trusted advisors. Role o Supporting the pro-choice movement and the providence of counseling services and advice for women who have or will undergo an abortion. 3. Judaism Orthodox

Response o Support the Right to Life movement view and strongly believe that God is the Creator of life and thus, only he has the power to take it away. Role o Like the Catholic Church, their role has been to prevent the intentional termination of pregnancies via the establishment of organizations including the International Organization for Saving Jewish Babies, whose members; doctors, Orthodox rabbis and social workers, approach mothers who are considering abortion and explain to her, all the repercussions of her action. o They also financially support the expectant women who wish to abort due to financial constraints; EFRAT is there with food, diapers, encouragement and allowance.

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Judaism Reform

Support the right of women to make their own decision and emphasise the fact that Jewish scripture asserts that abortion is allowed when: o o o Mothers life is in danger Rape has occurred Mothers general health is poor

Thus, their role parallels itself to that of the Uniting Churches. 5. Islam

Do not believe the foetus is alive until after four months of pregnancy. Abortion after this point is considered to be murder. They only support abortion under certain circumstances, as promoted by the Islamic Council of NSW: o o o Strong medical reasons Families economic welfare is at risk Deformity is a real possibility

Thus, because of their similar beliefs to that of Catholicism, their role parallels itself to that of the Catholic Church.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGIOUS PLURALITY AND DISTRIBUTION/ PROFILE OF RELIGIOUS ADHERENCE TODAY Immigration after World War II In the post-WWII era, there was great enthusiasm for immigrating into Australia, reflected in the slogan populate or perish. Through immigration, many Christian denominations have grown rapidly, thus expanding Australias religious plurality. For example, prior to WWII, only a very marginal number of Orthodox denominations existed. However, as a result of an influx of immigration after the war from many European and also Eastern nations, there are now 14 Orthodox denominations in Australia, including the Greek, Coptic, Serbian and Russian Orthodox Churches; all of which strongly reflect the language, culture and identity of their mother churches overseas. The impact of post-WWII immigration is also seen through the Catholic denomination, whose predominantly Irish character was fragmented by the influx of Catholic migrants from countries including Italy, Poland, Croatia, the Middle East and Germany. Australias religious diversity grew tremendously after WWII. The Jewish Tradition, for example, flourished in the post WWII years, with many European Jews from countries including Hungry, Poland and Germany, seeking refuge in Australia. Today, the Jews have maintained a strong Hebrew identity and have to a great degree, reisisted assimilation. With the ending of the Vietnam War and the abolition of the White Australia Policy in 1973, Australias religious diversity was set to expand once again, with many Buddhists migrating to Australia as refugees, from countries including Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and China. Australians have been quietly turning to Buddhism ever since, thus further complicating and blurring Australias religious make-up. This is supported by the Commonwealth Government Census, which asserts that between 1986 and 1991, the number of Buddhist practitioners rose by an astounding 74%. Between 1947 and 1971 the Muslim population of Australia increased from 2,704 to 22,311. Apart from the immigration of Albanians, who came in relatively small numbers, the only Muslims acceptable under the prevailing immigration restriction policy were Turkish-Cypriots who held British passports by virtue of the occupation of their land by the British Empire. The Ending of the White Australia Policy The ending of the White Australia Policy; a policy dedicated to ensuring that the sending country mirrored Australia in terms of culture and religious affiliation occurred in 1973.

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Resulted in an influx of migrants from Asian nations, including Malaysia and Thailand. This greatly contributed to Australias pluralism by facilitating a growth in the religions which had previously only had a diminutive presence in Australia, including Buddhism and Hinduism, but also enabling new religions to permeate Australias religious landscape, including Confucianism, Taoism and Shintoism. The wave of immigrants from China inevitably brought with the Chinas national religion; atheism. This, adding to Australias pluralism by forcing Australia to reestablish the boundaries of what is considered religion. Wide-scale immigration from countries including Turkey and Lebanon, tempered by the conflict in those nations, also enabled the presence of Islam to become more evident in Australia; many Muslims have brought the strong religious ties of their homeland and preserved them in Australia. With the ending of the Vietnam War and the abolition of the White Australia Policy, Australias religious diversity also expanded, with many Buddhists migrating to Australia as refugees, from countries including Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and China. Australians have been quietly turning to Buddhism ever since, thus further complicating and blurring Australias religious make-up. This is supported by the Commonwealth Government Census, which asserts that between 1986 and 1991, the number of Buddhist practitioners rose by an astounding 74%. With migrants from America, came the Church of the New Faith (Scientology) which had been established in America only five years previously. The Formation of the Uniting Church in 1977 o o o Inauguration of the Uniting Church on the 22nd June 1977 was an interdenominational union of a majority of Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists. Today, the Uniting Church is the third largest Church in Australia; 1.3 million Australians claiming affiliation to it. The Uniting Church does not perceive itself, simply as the product of a three-way merger, but rather, an entirely new church; a uniquely Australian church, which shares with the Australian people in the search for meaning, purpose and community in life. Thus, the Uniting Church have further developed Australias plurality by adding yet another dimension to it.

New Age Religions o o New Age religions cover a vast range of non-conventional, spiritual experiences. The emergence of New Age religions including scientology as well as the Orange People, Satanists and Wiccans, have contributed greatly to the multi-religious landscape of Australia.

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o o o o

The contribution made by New Age religions to Australias plurality has been a highly alternative one, straying far from centralized, traditional religion. They have no holy text, central organization, formal clergy or creed, but are a network of believers who share similar beliefs and practices. Is a new-style pluralism which is more global and brings traditions once thought of as alien right into Australian neighborhoods Had broadened the range of religious and secular alternatives.

Beliefs o Reincarnation after death, we are reborn and live another life as a human o Karma the good or bad deeds that we do, add or subtract from our accumulated record. o Ecological Sustainability the earth is the mother and must be respected. New Age practices include: o o o Crystals believed to posses healing energy Meditating releasing oneself from conscious thinking Music gentle, melodic, inspirational

New Age religions have facilitated a greater respect for pluralism amongst its followers, by emphasizing the importance of universal tolerance. The existence of New Age religious has not merely added religious plurality to the religious background of Australia, but have also redrawn the boundaries of what is considered religion. Religious Conversion and Denominational Switching o o o o o o o o o A disestablishment and lack of denominational boundaries has resulted in Australia becoming increasingly pluralistic. Religion is no longer a unified force, but rather, a non-permanent choice from an ever more varied religious arena. Mostly occurs between Anglican and Protestant churches Level of switching is low in the Catholic Church 14% of A/P; 1% Catholic had switched from 1991-1996 Main Beneficiaries Pentecostal Church (28% switching in, only 15% switching out) Switchers are young people. It is clear that for these people, commitment is with the congregation, not the denomination. Combined with their older age profiles, this poses a great problem for the mainstream churches including Anglican, Uniting, Presbyterian and Lutheran churches. These churches have been forced to undergo a revitalization; the adaptation of new characteristics to appeal to switchers. This includes o Inviting people to church

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Looking after the young Contemporary worship A lively faith

Pentecostalism and the Charismatic Movement o Australias religious plurality has also expanded with the explosion of Pentecostalism and the Charismatic Movement, which have attracted many members of mainstream denominations, due to the exuberance and energy of their services. Pentecostalism is a diverse, Christian movement that stresses the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and has an evangelical understanding of the Bible. Pentecostal services are enthusiastic, full of scripture, singing/dancing, hand-holding and speaking in tongues. Examples of Pentecostal churches include the Assemblies of God, the Apolistic Church and the Christian City Church. Their attraction to the young, close knit community and sense of stability and hope in an ever-changing world, points to continued growth. The charismatic movement crosses denominational boundaries. Charismatics profess a powerful experience of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, including speaking in tongues. Their prayer meetings are alike to the Pentecostals, and are likely to attend mainstream services. 10% of Christian denomination members have experienced speaking in tongues and thus, have been influenced by the charismatic movement.

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RECOGNITION OF COMMON ELEMENTS IN RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION AND WORLD VIEWS IN AUSTRALIA TODAY Religious Harmony and Inter-Faith Dialogue The encounter and finding of common ground between people of different traditions, in an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and trust. Initiative One o o o An important aspect of interfaith dialogue is interfaith prayer; where people of different faiths come together to pray and where each religious group takes a turn in leading the event. On the 10th February 2003, an interfaith prayer service was held at the Cathedral of St Mary and Joseph in Armidale, Northern NSW. It included representatives from the Christian, Buddhist, Islamic and Hindu Traditions, who each led the congregation in prayers for peace and harmony.

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Initiative Two o An interfaith forum called Living in Harmony, a joint project of the Uniting Churches Frontier Services and the town of Port Hedland in Western Australia, where two Tibetan monks created a mandala (intricate sand painting), Thai women were shown how to skin a kangaroo tail by Aboriginal women and a cookbook called Crocodile, Curry or Capsicum was produced.

Initiatives during Times of Crisis Some of the poignant moments of religious harmony and interfaith dialogue have come in times of tragedy. Bali Bombings o o o The Indonesian Embassy in Canberra held an interfaith memorial service on Sunday, 20 October 2002 to honor and pray for the victims of the Bali terrorist attacks, whose lives had been brutally cut short by terrorists. Religious leaders from Islam, Catholic, Protestant and Hindu religious all offered prayers during the service. The Indonesian Embassy released a statement shortly after, clearly underlining that all religions can be united to confront the forces of evil who manipulate religious teaching and injure human life.

September 11 o o o A multi-faith prayer vigil was held in Strathfield Plaza on 15th September 2002, following the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, USA. Muslims, Hindhus, Buddhists, Tamil Catholics, Anglo-Catholics, Anglicans, Korean Christians and Pentecostals all took part. A Bosnian Muslim man said, We know what terrorism is like.

Result of Interfaith Initiative o o o o Enabled each religious group and the congregation to realize and reflect upon the truths and realities which bind the religions together and the similarities of their sacred teachings. Facilitated deeper connections and relationships among the participants and the community Builds unity and trust between the religious groups of Australia In regards terrorism, the interfaith initiatives promote and facilitate a culture of peace and harmony, by emphasizing the universal religious condoning of the terrorist acts and de mythegising the notion that religion is the source of conflict.

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