Drying Technology, 28: 11271135, 2010 Copyright # 2010 Crown Copyright ISSN: 0737-3937 print=1532-2300 online DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2010.

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Process Intensication for Drying and Dewatering

Marzouk Benali and Tadeusz Kudra
Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY, Industrial Systems Optimization, Varennes, Quebec, Canada

Background information on process intensication including the rationale, basic methods in process engineering, and interactions between material streams and processing methods is given. The general rules are then examined with respect to heat and mass transfer intensication, and pertinent to drying techniques and technologies (e.g., microwave drying, pulse combustion drying, intermittent drying, drying by alternation pressure, etc.) are highlighted. Milk processing for powdery product and bakery production is given as an example of process intensication with respect to water evaporation. Keywords Acoustic drying; Electromagnetic energy; Hybrid technology; Intensication; Intermittent drying; Pulse combustion; Pulsed drying

INTRODUCTION Apart from optimization and system engineering, process intensication (PI) is a growing trend in process engineering, aiming at the improvement of traditional technologies and at the development of new techniques that will lead to higher production yield, notable reduction in equipment size (both principal and ancillary), lower energy use and waste production, and increase product quality and processing safety, therefore offering more sustainable technologies.[14] The growing interest in process intensication resulted in a series of international conferences in this area, with the rst launched in 1995; a recent one held in New Zealand in 2006[5] was devoted to the intensication of separation processes and bioprocesses. Examples of new developments in process engineering intensication are the spinning disc reactor,[2,6,7] multifunctional reactors,[8,9] as well as heat integration and reactive distillation.[10] General issues regarding process intensication such as methodology, safety, process integration, contribution to sustainable development, modeling, and others can be found in source books.[11,12] The importance of process intensication is evidenced by the recent initiative of the European Union and the
Correspondence: Marzouk Benali, Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY, 1615 Lionel-Boulet Blvd., Varennes, Quebec, Canada J3X 1S6; E-mail: mbenali@nrcan.gc.ca

Dutch government that resulted in the creation of the European Roadmap for Process Intensication in four major industrial sectors, namely, petrochemicals and bulk chemicals (PETCHEM), specialty chemicals and pharmaceuticals (FINEPHARM), food ingredients (INFOOD), and consumer food (CONFOOD).[13] Among 72 typical equipment types and processing methods identied at the rst step of which 47 technologies were then reviewed in detail, including microwave heating= drying and the pulse combustion drying.[14] Though the PI Action Plan foresees a 20% reduction in industrial energy consumption by year 2050 through PI implementation alone,[13] the process intensication might not always be highly effective but it should at least be considered at the earliest stages of technology development. Whereas process intensication is well advanced in the chemical industry, its implementation in the food industry is far away from maturity, although this concept is suitable for all operations where heat and mass transfer problems occur, mainly when processing viscous materials or controlling microorganisms. Key food unit operations often require intensication either to minimize the adhesion=cohesion and clogging effects when processing sticky materials by mixing, homogenizing, membrane and contact-equilibrium separation or to shorten contact time during thermal processes (e.g., pasteurization, evaporation, drying) to reduce the capital and operating costs of a production system and to fully inactivate the microorganisms. In addition, a need for process intensication exists when new products cannot be made in conventional equipment because, for example, the required purity cannot be achieved (e.g., lactic bacteria) or when the failed processes do not give reproducible yields in conventional equipment (e.g., tomato pastes, soy derivatives). Thus, process intensication in the case of drying can be achieved by enhancing heat transfer and by integration of the proven, either new or hybrid, technologies into existing plants. An example is lactose processing through fermentation, where the major technology barriers in cost-effective production of high-purity lactic acid are the separation and purication steps. Pal and coworkers[15] have shown that the production of lactic acid can be

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intensied in a membrane-integrated process platform and it is economically viable. The most common limitations encountered in drying and dewatering can be categorized as follows: Heat transfer (e.g., rheology versus thermal resistance);  Mass transfer (e.g., interfacial area);  Kinetics (e.g., sugar content versus diffusion mechanism).


The ultimate goal of process intensication in drying and dewatering is to enhance the water removal rate while simultaneously considering either all these limitations or their various combinations. Although process intensication is industrially oriented, its implementation requires profound knowledge in process engineering. Thus, plant managers as well as decision makers will likely ask drying experts for assistance, and such a demand will initiate new research if the solution is not readily available. This article aims at guiding scientists in up-front identication and evaluation of several intensication techniques that could lead to the selection of the particular techniques best suited to the technology of interest and therefore worth studying. BACKGROUND TO PROCESS INTENSIFICATION As pointed out in the European Roadmap for Process Intensication,[13] the denition of process intensication changed over the years from plant miniaturization to sustainability-related issues such as reducing costs, energy consumption, material usage, and waste generation. The recently adopted denition reads[16]: Process intensication comprises novel equipment, processing techniques, and process development methods that, compared to conventional ones, offer substantial improvements in (bio) chemical manufacturing and processing. Process intensication is scientically founded in the four domains[13] that can easily be spotted in various drying and dewatering technologies and exploited alone or in various combinations: Structure (spatial domain); e.g., dispersion of liquids, foaming  Energy (thermodynamic domain); e.g., targeted energy transfer, internal heat generation  Synergy (functional domain); e.g., hybrid technologies, multistage and combined dryers  Time (temporal domain); e.g., intermittent drying, time-dependent operating conditions.


into a product of required properties (outlet stream). In general, the inlet and outlet streams are composed of many streams; for example, in drying, these are the streams of a drying material and drying agent. The transformation of a raw material occurs due to sequential or parallel application of numerous processing methods that involve a variety of external forces. These processing methods can broadly be categorized into mechanical (M), thermal (T), hydrodynamic (H), acoustic (A), electromagnetic (EM), chemical (Ch), and others (O), which could emerge in years to come. Each method is characterized by one or several operating parameters that can be relevant to a single processing method (e.g., heating rate in thermal methods) or several methods. An example of the latter is the frequency being pertinent to electromagnetic, acoustic, and hydrodynamic processing methods. The generic block diagram and the interaction scheme for an arbitrary technology are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In ~ represents a set of inlet material general, the symbol X streams such as mass or volume (x1, x2, . . . , xn), each being characterized by the set of unique properties k k ~ ak 1 ; a2 ; . . . ; an , whereas Y represents the respective set of outlet material streams (y1, y2, . . . , yn) with properties k k bk 1 ; b2 ; . . . ; bn . In the case of drying, the inlet streams may constitute not only the wet material and drying gas but also supplementary streams like the coating agent in drying of coated granules or webs, inert or active sorbents in contact-sorption drying, or the bed material in a dryer with bed mixing.[17] The superscript (k) represents the subset of parameters or properties (k1, k2, . . . , kn) that selectively affect certain unique properties (ai). Regarding hot air as the common inlet stream (x1) in convective drying, the unique properties comprise humid heat (a1), enthalpy (a2), humidity (a3), temperature (a4), and others (viscosity, thermal conductivity, heat diffusivity, etc.). Temperature (k1)

Regarding the aforementioned denition, it is apparent that any technological process can be the subject of process intensication as it aims at transforming the raw material (inlet stream), with certain physicalchemical properties,

FIG. 1.

Principle of process intensication.

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FIG. 2.

Interaction matrix (adapted from Kardashev[27]).

and humidity (k2) can be given as examples of parameters identied by the superscript (k) because they affect several unique properties including humid heat and enthalpy. Some parameters such as temperature (k1) can also be considered as unique properties that are shared by several material streams such as the wet material or coating liquid. Also, certain unique properties can encompass other properties; an example is air enthalpy, which depends on humid heat. Some of the unique material properties such as material moisture content, for instance, may respond to the processing methods through, for example, their mechanical, acoustic, thermal, electromagnetic properties marked here by an asterisk ( ). When thermal processing (T) is considered in drying, the key material properties (T ) are the heat capacity and thermal conductivity. However, in the case of other methods, the number of properties to be regarded is much higher. For example, the EM properties receptive to electromagnetic treatment (EM) are dielectric constant, loss tangent, electric and magnetic permittivity, attenuation constant, ionic conductivity, etc. In ultrasound drying, the key processing parameters are the frequency, sound intensity, sound pressure, and sound power, whereas the material properties susceptible to this processing method are moisture content and type of moisture in the material (free or bound), surface tension, viscosity, absorption coefcient, which depend on both the processing parameters of ultrasound drying and material characteristics. The degree to which a given property responds to a particular processing method is different, and for a given

processing method the property may be highly receptive and therefore of prime importance, whereas for others it is of secondary or tertiary importance. For example, in ultrasound drying, water evaporation due to the thermal effect of energy dissipation can be neglected in favor of mechanical effects such as increased turbulence, alternate compression and expansion leading to liquid ow through capillaries toward the material surface, directional diffusion, etc. Therefore, in ultrasound drying, both liquid viscosity and surface tension are of primary importance in contrast to heat capacity, which can be qualied as the property of secondary importance. Similar levels of importance can also be applied to the processing methods. For example, frequency of ultrasound is of primary importance when treating viscous liquids, whereas for nonviscous liquids this parameter is of secondary or even tertiary importance. In pulse-uidization the frequency is of tertiary importance as it does not affect the drying process in the range of developed uidization (see Gawrzynski and Glaser[18]). At present, there is no method to assign absolute values to the levels of importance, so the quantication is based on the subjective comparison less important than and more important than for a given parameter or property. Moreover, such quantication is not permanent but depends on the process under examination as exemplied by the aforementioned frequency. The use of various processing methods Ui,x, represented ~x , allows transformation of the inlet by the symbol U ~ ~ in the apparatus of design streams X into outlet ones Y ~ characteristics signied by K . The examples of such design characteristics are the hybrid and combined technologies, multistage dryers, dryers with varying temperature and hydrodynamic regimes, dryers with pulsating ow, and dryers with localized energy input. Another example is the conguration of a drying chamber that, for instance, affects the material ow pattern (e.g., in dryers with inert particles) or sound wave propagation (anechoic or reverberation chamber) that could lead to the acoustic resonance, as in the case of pulse combustion (the so-called resonancedriven drying), or the generation of shock waves.[14,17] It should be noted here that the overhead arrows at symbols X ; Y ; U and K do not necessarily express the vector per se but indicate the direction of material streams and processing methods. Figure 2 presents a conceptual grid from which the possible interactions between the material and processing methods for a discretionary technology could be identied and enumerated. Although arbitrarily assigned for the illustration purpose, the symbols (), (), and (0) signify the effect of a processing method on the material properties. Namely, the neutral symbol (0) indicates that a given method (Ux) does not affect the material properties. The positive symbol () indicates that a given processing method (Ux) alters the property of interest

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toward the desired value and thus intensies the process under consideration, so it can be termed the intensication method. By contrast, the negative sign () denotes that such a processing method (Ux) weakens the present susceptibility of this property and thus impedes the process of interest. When none of these symbols can be assigned explicitly, a given eld remains empty. The symbols less than (<) and more than (>) indicate that a given method yields in addition to positive () or negative () effects a critical (threshold) value, either the lower or the upper one. The combined symbol (< . . . <) points to the existence of both critical values for this processing method. These critical values result from the process=material constraints such as thermal stability, runaway effect, breakdown, and others. Regarding drying and dewatering, ultrasound irradiation is an example of a processing method with the upper critical value because it is widely accepted that intensication of mass transfer occurs when the sound intensity exceeds the threshold value of about 140145 dB.[17] Another example of the upper critical value is excessive intensity of evaporation as a result of high drying temperature. According to the drying theory, the rate of drying increases with temperature. However, at excessive drying temperature, a dry layer (the crust) may rapidly be formed on the material surface, so the drying rate will decrease because the moisture must diffuse through this crust.[1921] The crust formation is specic to most food products. An example of restricted evaporation due to crust formation is spray drying of milk, where the mix of lactose and protein in raw milk forms the shell through the glass transition that limits the evaporation of water from the droplet core. This negative phenomenon can, however, be benecial as a method of microencapsulation without the deliberately added shell-forming material.[20] An example of the lower critical value is the maximum temperature in biologically enhanced drying (biodrying), where the temperature that enhances the drying rate is limited by microbial activity of bacteria to 48 C (mesophiles) or 68 C (thermophiles).[22,23] Among several examples of both lower and upper critical values is the air pulsation frequency in a pulsed uid bed dryer, because below 4 Hz and above 15 Hz this frequency does not affect the drying rate.[18] Another example is the ultrasound processing time because its positive effect on water diffusivity during ultrasound pretreatment prior to osmotic dehydration is insignicant below 10 min and above 3045 min.[24] By analyzing such interactions along with the process= apparatus constraints, certain processing methods can be excluded or others can be considered. Moreover, if a given processing method (Ux) positively affects several material properties, it should be subjected to further analysis to select the property that permits reaching the target, but also other parameters of interest; for example, the ones needed

to attain the required moisture content at the maximum yield. Furthermore, sequential or parallel processing methods should be examined, especially when the same material property is receptive to different methods (e.g., distribution of liquid moisture in a drying material affects not only the internal heat generation during MW drying [EM processing] but also the heat transfer characteristics during convective drying [T]). A useful tool to analyze various options for process intensication is the so-called TRIZ approach, which allows creative examination of difcult-tosolve technical problems[25,26] as well as the commercially available or custom-built databases on physicalchemical phenomena, apparatus and equipment, material properties, and methods and algorithms for data processing. Because of complex material properties, it is obvious that different processing methods intensify a given technology to a different extent. Figure 3 illustrates the degree of process intensication by acoustic and electromagnetic processing, dened as the ratio of a process rate subjected to a given processing method to the rate when this method was not applied.[27] Whereas the heat and mass transfer processes can be intensied to the same degree by using either the acoustic or electromagnetic method, acoustic processing is a much more effective for mechanical and hydromechanical processes as opposed to chemical and microbiological processes, which can be intensied to a greater extent through the EM methods. Because drying is the simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, the following effects, induced by various processing methods and modes of applications, result in process intensication: 1. Physical effects  Acoustic (infrasound, sound, ultrasound)  Shock waves (pressure, hydraulic)

FIG. 3. Intensication degree of basic processes by using the acoustic (A) and electromagnetic (EM) processing methods (from Kardashev[27]).

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2.

3.

4.

5.

Cavitations, local turbulence Resonance (mechanical, acoustic) Nonstationary effects  Pulsation, vibration, oscillation, cycling (thermal hysteresis)  Acceleration=deceleration, reverse and opposite ow Energy elds  Magnetic, electric, electromagnetic (IR, UV, RF, MW)  Electro-technologies (electro-membranes, electro-plasmolysis) Targeted energy supply  Microwave, ohmic heating  Electric discharge (electrohydraulic effect)  Discrete-impulse energy supply Synergistic effects  Hybrid processes=hurdle approach.
 

Extending interfacial area (foaming, inert particles)  Changing the mode of heat=mass transfer (e.g., adding solid carriers to change liquid materials into capillary-porous ones, spraying of partially foamed liquids onto inert particles)  High-pressure processing and processing using alternating pressure.


With respect to drying, the following process upgrade methods can be considered for process intensication, aside from the aforementioned processing methods:


Reducing resistance to heat=mass (superheated steam, solid inserts)

transfer

Whereas some of these intensication methods have been studied to a limited extent, others, such as microwave drying, ultrasound drying, pulse combustion drying, or intermittent drying, have been the subject of extensive research.[2833] For example, the use of power ultrasound for orange peel drying enhances diffusion and mass transfer coefcients respectively by 34.10 and 51.85%, which shortens the drying time by 48.60%.[33] When ultrasound was applied to carrot and lemon the drying time was also signicantly shortened (3540%).[32] As seen in Fig. 1, process intensication encompasses both equipment (hardware) and methods (software). In drying, the hardware examples are the pulsed uid bed dryer, impinging stream dryer, or rotating-jet spouted bed dryer; drying in acoustic or electromagnetic eld,

FIG. 4.

General process intensication methodology.

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drying with shock waves, or sound-assisted drying can be given as examples of intensication methods. In certain cases, the PI in drying is of a dual nature. An example is pulse combustion drying recognized as a process of pulsed combustion (effect of sound wave, enhanced turbulence, hydrodynamic dispersion of the feed, and the like) but also as an apparatus because pulsed combustion calls for a special dryer or, at least, a pulse combustor.[14,17] Another example is drying on inert particles, seen as a process performed in a specialized apparatus such as jet spouted bed dryer or modications of the rotary, uid bed, and vibrating-uid bed dryers. Figure 4 depicts the general methodology that can be used for process intensication. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS INTENSIFICATION Dairy Industry Aside from direct consumption, milk is the raw material for the production of a variety of food products made in dairy processing plants.[34] These plants are commonly divided into two categories: Milk processing, which involves the pasteurization of liquid milk for direct consumption, as well as further processing into buttermilk, creams, chocolate, and other types of avored milk  Milk conversion, where liquid milk is transformed through chemical and biochemical processes into value-added products, including cheese, butter, ice cream, condensed and evaporated milk, dried milk powder, yogurt, and other cultured milk products.


and industrial dairy products), the energy consumption is on the order of 12.0 PJ=year. In the case of uid milk processing, the total specic energy consumption in 17 plants varies from 600 to 820 kJ=L. Table 2 presents the specic energy consumption for small, medium, and large dairy plants.[35] A recent process integration study performed by NRCan=CanmetENERGY in two Canadian dairy plants has demonstrated potential of fuel savings on the order of 20 to 30%, corresponding to $0.44 to 1.10 million, as well as the potential of CO2 emissions reduction of 4,000 to 5,000 tons=year. Figure 5 illustrates a general owchart of a dairy processing plant. Clearly, homogenization, pasteurization, cooling, preheating, evaporation, drying, and agglomeration are the key cross-cutting steps that could be intensied. The analysis of heating and cooling requirements of various process streams reveals that, in an optimal design, no steam, natural gas, or hot air should be used as a heating medium in processes performed at temperatures below 70 C. In such an optimal design, glycol, chilled water, or lake water should not be used to cool a material stream that has a temperature higher than 8 C. To achieve an optimal heat recovery in the entire production process, all heat exchangers should have a temperature difference between cold=hot streams of 510 C. The major process inefciencies spotted in various dairy plants can result from: No preheating of the drying air No energy recovery from the humid air exiting the dryer  Mixing of drying air at approximately 210 C with dehumidied air at 2530 C  No energy recovery from ue gases at the boiler exhaust  Inefcient preheating of the milk in the upstream to pasteurization using waste heat recovered from the evaporator.
 

The sequence of basic steps in a dairy process is shown in Table 1. Energy consumption in the food and beverage industry represents about 4% of total energy consumed by the Canadian manufacturing sector. Within this subsector, the dairy industry as a whole (i.e., uid milk processing

TABLE 1 Dairy industry: Key processing steps Steps 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Transfer of momentum Heat transfer Mixing Phase separation Molecular separation Processes Pumping and ow of all materials and ingredients Heating and cooling Stirring, atomization, homogenization, and recombination Skimming, separation of milk powder from drying air, churning Evaporation, drying, membrane processes (ultraltration, nanoltration, etc.), and crystallization Gel formation, butter making, and ice cream Production of fermented products, cheese, and ripening Pasteurization, sterilization, cooling, and freezing

6. Physical transformation 7. Microbiological and enzymatic transformation 8. Stabilization

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TABLE 2 Average energy prole of 17 Canadian dairy plants Throughput (106 L=year) 2050 50100 >100 Specic energy consumption (106 J=L) 0.82 0.60 0.73

The inefciencies can also result from the equipment and apparatus. For instance, on the cheese production line, the heat exchanger that transfers energy between the whole milk and the pasteurized milk is not often optimally placed from the energy recovery viewpoint. A redesign of the present energy regeneration system is, however, technically feasible and economically viable; integration of four additional heat exchangers linked with milk pasteurizing, cream cooling, whey cooling, and milk vats would offer the respective annual energy savings of 540, 113, 450, and 163 kW.

Bakery Industry The bakery industry is one of the major energy-intensive food processing industries. In 2007, Canadian bakeries consumed 10.5 PJ of energy supplied by electricity (41.3%) and natural gas (58.7%). In bakeries, about 8085% of the total energy is consumed for the baking process as thermal energy at 180360 C,[36] of which a great fraction is used for water evaporation. Radio frequency (RF) heating has recently found use as intensication technique in the food industry for cooking, baking, and drying applications. The main reasons for the use of radio frequency electromagnetic eld instead of microwaves are (1) lower attenuation of the electromagnetic wave by the processed material and therefore more uniform heating, (2) larger contribution of power absorption by ionic conduction than dipoles rotation, and (3) safety, simplicity, and exibility of the RF system, especially if 50-ohm technology is used.[17] In the food industry, RF heating has already found applications in after-baking drying of cookies, crackers,

FIG. 5. Simplied diagram of generic dairy process equences.

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and pasta.[37] Accepting that high-temperature heating is needed to accomplish certain transformations (e.g., conversion of starch, caramelization of sugars), the addition of heat through RF irradiation enhances water evaporation and consequently shortens time of baking. As indicated by Clark,[38] by integrating RF heating, the throughput of the baking production line can be increased by 30 to 40%. Even though in the food sector energy consumption is not a major component of costs, rising energy prices will force companies to consider savings through process intensication aside from higher yields, product quality, and food safety. The potential benets of PI that have been identied in the food sector roadmap include[13]: Higher energy efciency in water removal leading to 25% of energy savings in the short-=mid-term (510 years) and 75% in the long-term (1015 years; INFOOD)  Lower costs through intensied processes throughout the value chain: 30% (in 10 years) and 60% (in 3040 years; INFOOD)  Higher energy efciency in preservation processes amounting to 1015% (in 10 years) and 3040% (in 40 years) of energy savings that comprises a 60% through capacity increase and 30% (in 40 years) through the transfer the mode of operation from batch to continuous processes (CONFOOD).


NOMENCLATURE EM Electromagnetic GHG Greenhouse gas IR Infrared Mt CO2-eq Mega tones of CO2 equivalent MW Microwave PI Process intensication PJ Peta joules (1015 J) PSE Process systems engineering RF Radiofrequency UV Ultraviolet REFERENCES
1. Jachuck, R.J.; Lee, J.; Kolokotsa, D.; Ramshaw, C.; Valachis, P.; Yanniotis, S. Process intensication for energy saving. Applied Thermal Engineering 1997, 17, 861867. 2. Aoune, A.; Ramshaw, C. Process intensication: Heat and mass transfer characteristics of liquid lms on rotating discs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1999, 42, 25432556. 3. Ramshaw, C. Process intensication and green chemistry. Green Chemistry 1999, 1, G15G17. 4. Stankiewicz, A.I.; Moulijn, J.A. Process intensication. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2002, 41 (8), 19201924. 5. Tsouris, C.; Weatherley, L. Process intensication and innovation process (PI) 2 conference IICleaner, sustainable, efcient technologies for the future. Chemical Engineering Journal 2007, 135, 12. 6. Boodhoo, K.V.K.; Jachuck, R.J. Process intensication: Spinning disc reactor for styrene polymerisation. Applied Thermal Engineering 2000, 20 (12), 11271146. 7. Brechtelsbauer, C.; Lewis, L.; Oxley, P.; Ricard, F. Evaluation of a spinning disc reactor for continuous processing. Organic Process Research & Development 2001, 5, 6568. 8. Dautzenberg, F.M.; Mukherjee, M. Process intensication using multifunctional reactors. Chemical Engineering Science 2001, 56, 251267. 9. Nigam, K.D.P.; Larachi, F. Process intensication in trickle-bed reactors. Chemical Engineering Science 2005, 60, 58805894. 10. Stankiewicz, A.I. Reactive separations for process intensication: An industrial perspective. Chemical Engineering and Processing 2003, 42 (3), 137144. 11. Stankiewicz, A.I.; Moulijn, J.A. Re-Engineering the Chemical Processing Plant: Process Intensication; Marcel Dekker: New York, 2004. 12. Keil, J.F., Ed. Modeling of Process Intensication; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH&Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2007. 13. Creative Energy. European Roadmap for Process Intensication; The Netherlands. Available at: http://www.creative-energy.org (accessed August 2009). 14. Kudra, T. Pulse-combustion drying: Status and potentials. Drying Technology 2008, 26 (12), 14091420. 15. Pal, P.; Sikder, J.; Roy, S.; Giorno, L. Process intensication in lactic acid production: A review of membrane based processes. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensication 2009, 48 (1112), 15491559. 16. Moulijn, J.A.; Stankiewicz, A.; Grievink, J.; Gorak, A. Process intensication and process systems engineering: A friendly symbiosis. Computers and Chemical Engineering 2008, 32 (12), 311. 17. Kudra, T.; Mujumdar, A.S. Advanced Drying Technologies, 2nd Ed; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2009. 18. Gawrzynski, Z.; Glaser, R. Drying in pulsed-uidized bed with relocated gas stream. Drying Technology 1996, 14 (5), 11211172.

The realization of the PI-forecasted benets will require endeavors varying from technology R&D to scale-up and industrial implementations.

CONCLUSIONS The application of various techniques for process intensication can result in appreciable technical and economic benets due to enhanced heat and mass transfer coefcients, internal heat generation, combined driving forces, and others. Based on food processing data, the potential use of alternative sources of energy as a method for process intensication appears to be very promising. For example, the application of power ultrasound and radio frequency heating leads to enhanced diffusion and mass transfer coefcients by 34.10 and 51.85%, respectively, which shortens the drying time by 3540%. In drying it is a common to work on advanced technologies by a priori selection of the apparently suitable intensication method. However, up-front identication and evaluation of possible intensication methods could lead to the selection of a particular method best suited to the drying technology to be intensied. Such identication and evaluation could be accomplished with the guidelines presented in this article.

DRYING PROCESS INTENSIFICATION 19. Dolinsky, A. Theory and Practice of Processes of Spray Drying; Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences: Kiev, 1989. 20. Gharsallaoui, A.; Roudaut, G.; Chambin, O.; Voilley, A.; Saurel, R. Applications of spray-drying in microencapsulation of food ingredients: An overview. Food Research International 2007, 40, 11071121. 21. Young, S.L.; Sarda, X.; Rosenberg, M. Microencapsulating properties of whey proteins. 1. Microencapsulation of anhydrous milk fat. Journal of Dairy Science 1993, 76, 28632877. 22. Krzystek, L.; Zawadzka, A.; Ledakowicz, S. Biodrying of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. In Proceedings of the 8th World Congress of Chemical Engineering, Montreal, Canada, August 2327, 2009 (on USB). 23. Navaee-Ardeh, S.; Bertrand, F.; Stuart, P.R. Emerging biodrying for the drying of pulp and paper mixed sludge. Drying Technology 2006, 24 (7), 863878. 24. Fabiano, A.; Fernandes, N.; Rodrigues, S. Application of ultrasound and ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration in drying of fruits. Drying Technology 2008, 26 (12), 15091516. 25. Altshuller, G.S. Creativity as an Exact Science; Gordon and Breach Science Publishers: New York, 1984. 26. Srinivasan, R.; Kraslawski, A. Application of the TRIZ creativity enhancement approach to design of inherently safer chemical processes. Chemical Engineering and Processing 2006, 45, 507514. 27. Kardashev, G.A. Physical Methods of Process Intensication in Chemical Technology; Khimia: Moscow, 1990 (in Russian). 28. Chua, K.J.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Chou, S.K. A review on intermittent drying processes. Bioresource Technology 2003, 90, 285295.

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29. Dev, S.R.S.; Padmini, T.; Adedeji, A.; Gariepy, Y.; Raghavan, G.S.V. A comparative study on the effect of chemical, microwave, and pulsed electric pretreatments on convective drying and quality of raisins. Drying Technology 2008, 26 (10), 12381243. 30. Feng, H.; Tang, J. Microwave nish drying of diced apples in a spouted bed. Journal of Food Science 1998, 63 (4), 679683. 31. Garcia-Perez, J.V.; Carcel, J.A.; Riera, E.; Mulet, A. Inuence of the applied acoustic energy on the drying of carrots and lemon peel. Drying Technology 2009, 27 (2), 281287. 32. Garcia-Perez, J.V.; Carcel, J.A.; Benedito, J.; Mulet, A. Power ultrasound mass transfer enhancement in food drying. Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, Food and Bioproducts Processing 2007, 85 (C3), 247254. o, C.; Pe rez-Munuera, I.; Puig, A.; Riera, E. Inuence of power 33. Ortun ultrasound application on mass transport and microstructure of orange peel during hot air drying. Physics Procedia 2010, 3, 153159. 34. Speer, E. Milk and Dairy Product Technology; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1998. 35. Energy Performance Indicator Report: Fluid Milk Plants; Natural Resources Canada, Cat. No.: M92228=2001E. Natural Resources Canada Ofce of Energy Efciency: Ottawa, Ontario, 2001. 36. Kannan, R.; Boie, W. Energy management practices in CMECase study of a bakery in Germany. Energy Conversion & Management 2003, 44, 945959. 37. Orsat, V.; Raghavan, G.S.V. Radio frequency processing. In Emerging Technologies for Food Processing; Sun, D.W., Ed.; Elsevier Academic Press: Amsterdam, 2005; 445468. 38. Clark, P. Pulsed electric eld processing. Food Technology 2006, 60, 6667.

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