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Neuroandragogy: Making the Case for a Link with Andragogy and Brain- Based Learning
Clive Wilson

Research in neuroscience which informs us about the brains functions is a fascinating study. The brain-based knowledge we have today has been acquired over the past 200 years. Between the 1950s and the 1980s brain imaging technology immerged as a tool to understand the brain. In the early 1990s efforts were first made to link the research with education. This connection regarding the neurophysiology of learning to childhood education was dubbed, brain-based education. However, in spite of the brilliant accomplishments of some researchers there remains a gulf between the neurosciences and adult education. In this paper a discussion on Neuroandragogy as a bridge for this existing gap is explored. To begin with research in the neurosciences found to be applicable to adult learning and memory is discussed. Then an outline of the implications to theory and practice is presented. The need for a paradigm shift in adult education is the focus of the paper, arguing that current research in the neurosciences does provide adequate means to maximize the use of brain based principles for better teaching practice. Limitations and recommendations for further studies are included in the conclusion. Introduction As technology advances so too does the knowledge of brain-based learning: Which is a new paradigm with tremendous implications for education practice. Regretfully very little interest has been given to andragogy regarding such concerns. What are the most recent findings, and can andragogy also benefit from this growing scientific knowledge regarding the brain and learning? This paper attempts to answer these questions, by first examining the research in the field that best translates to adult learning and second, by investigating the implications of this research to the theory and practice of adult education. Limitations and recommendations are presented for the purpose of future research. Discussion Shortly after the brain awareness initiative in the 1990s enthusiastic educators sought to make relevant connections with the research and classroom practice in spite of rigorous criticism. The critics said that educators had crossed a bridge too far and that the concept of brain-based learning was oversold (Bruer, 1997). Researchers were told they were wasting their time and that they were making a huge mistake in trying to develop a curriculum that is brain-based. However the harsh criticism did not stop a growing number of educators who strongly believed that education was long overdue for a paradigm shift. In 2005 the US National Science Foundation decided to join the fight to span the great divide between neuroscience and education, by granting four large research teams, which incorporate cognitive neuroscientists, psychologists, computer scientists and educators, over $90 million. Some believe this will put the way children are taught on a sounder scientific footing, devising practical teaching methods that complement the brains natural development (Gura, 2005).
Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011

Brain-based learning: A new paradigm Research in neuroscience is confirming what many teachers have been saying about learning theories for decades. In the last 20 years significant findings have emerged about how learning occurs. With the help of brain imaging, researchers have been able to see the brain at work, thus providing information most valuable to those working with the human brain; such as educators, scientists, psychologist and medical doctors. It is this advance in technology and gain in knowledge that has led to the development of brain-based learning, a new paradigm that holds a wealth of information for teachers and students alike (Cercone, 2006). The main interest of brain-based learning is discovering how the brain was designed to learn in its natural form. It is biologically driven and open to change, so too are some of the conclusions to brain-based learning. They are not definitive and open to change. The brain-based learning concept is not necessarily framed for all learning adventures, as it places its attention mainly on class-room learning and best teaching practices. It observes the anatomy and physiology of the brain, the chemistry, the structure and its connections to the body. Proponents of this field believe that to understand how the brain learns we must first understand its anatomy and physiology (Cercone, 2006; Wilson, 2006). Of special interest to brain-based learning are studies in neurophysiology, neurodevelopment, neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. The following is a close examination of these areas. Neurophysiology and the adult brain. Once it was believed (Roger Sperry 1913-1994) that the brain developed connections independent of activity or experience programmed by a set of recognition molecules, one on the presynaptic neuron and the other on the postsynaptic neuron of the synapse. As it turns out this is true for path selection and target region selection such as the optic nerve choosing the right path. But now an additional stage has been found known as cellular selection. Here each presynaptic axon is matched to a specific postsynaptic target neuron through activity-dependent mechanisms. These connections are flexible; they can be modified by further activity throughout the adult life. This illustrates a temporal continuity between adult development and the learning process. In the adult brain significant synaptic connections undergo an associative increase in synaptic strength; this is known as LTP, long-term potentiation. A high-frequency train of action potentials produced in a small population of neurons creates LTP. This can last for hours, days, or weeks. Neuroscientists hold that this brain activity is very important for some types of learning to occur. This discovery disproves a long held belief in science that as we age the brain becomes rigid (Kandel and ODell, 1992 and Okano et al., 2000). Neurodevelopment and the adult brain. Neuroscientists are finding dynamic flexibility in the brain even as we age. New neural connections will grow as a result of stimulation even into old age. In addition to the brain adding new circuits pruning has been observed. This removes any connections that are no longer needed. Because these new connections are temporary they must be put to use if they are going to last. Newly formed synapses are weak and require immediate activity to last. If there is no action the axon will retreat or degenerate, causing the neuron to start over with a new budding. The brain must put to work any new connections made or it stands the chance of losing it, the more it is used however the more secure it becomes (Cercone, 2006). Thus the sayings coined by Canadian psychologist D.O. Hebb (1949) use it or lose it. Neuroplasticity and the adult brain. Hebb (1949) is also known for holding the best theory of neuroplasticity. He argued that the brains ability to change by learning new
Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011

3 information happens because of changes that occur at the level of the nerve cells. This remodeling of the brain is achieved by changing of connections at the level of the synapse. If several nerve cells receive a stimulus at the same time they will fire and produce action potential. They then begin to share more and more synaptic connections. Another way to look at neuroplasticity according to Howard is that it is the capacity of the brain to learn, remember, reorganize, and recover from damage (2000, p.779). Neurogenesis and the adult brain. Current research is also showing that an enriched environment is crucial to the learning brain. Hill says, for the duration of the life span the brain continues to change and reorganize in response to environmental stimulation (2001, p.75). The brains activity is controlled by genetics, development, experience, culture, environment, and emotions. This is constantly stimulating the brain to change. Also the environment is so important to the operation of the brain that it determines to a large degree its functional ability (Cercone, 2006). Empirical tests on adult mice given enriched living conditions show that they grew sixty percent more new neurons and performed better on learning tests. These same results are now being reported for educated adults fifty to seventy years old. This new growth is found in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb regions, two key areas to learning and memory (Wilson, 2006). We now know that for maximum growth our brains must have enriched environments. The synaptic usage relies on environmental stimulation Neuroandragogy Linking the above scientific data, regarding the adult brain and its cognitive functions, with theory and practice in adult education also leads to the development of a new paradigm. Neuroandragogy moves the practitioner from the analytical to the synthetic, as it makes practical links with theory, scientific facts and good practice. Implications for theory formation The theory of adult learning must be revisited as many existing theories are based on controlled tests on animals and children. Most of the conclusions make no distinction between children and adults. The science used in the past to substantiate our learning theories has been based mainly on psychology and philosophy, very little if any neuroscience. Brookfield once said it is still not clear how adults learn. He was responding no doubt to the fact that current learning theories did not address all aspects of how adults learn. Now we are privileged to surmountable evidence of the difference in learning between children and adults and to the biological processes of adult learning practices. The physical and neurological changes that occur as we age will affect how we learn (Cercone, 2008). It is important for research and learning that an age of demarcation be recognized between childhood development and the beginning of adulthood. Bloom et al., (2003) in keeping with research in the neurosciences has placed this development in three stages, the wiring that takes place during the years childhood, the frontal lobe development which occur during adolescence, and finally when the brain is ready for more plasticity. It is at this stage adult education begins with life lessons, the forming of new habits, adjusting to new situations, and learning new ways. Most researchers see this change beginning for some as early as age 20. Pseudo-stupidity, irrational decision making, emotional outburst, and compulsive behavior becomes less as the frontal lobes become more fully militated. Carter (1999) also reminds us that the older we get the more distinctive we are resulting from the development of our mental landscape. Making us understand and learn things in a different way. Thus adults often show
Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011

4 frustration in subjects they do not readily understand, or have no interest in, because they cannot make connections with their life experiences. In the past the literature on adults has presented aging as debilitating. This decrementalistic view held by some in the field of psychology and psychometrics has given adults very little hope for future development. Research in the neurosciences is restoring this hope. New theories of brain plasticity see adult hood as positive and with the potential for continual change and growth. Now that we know new cell growth is possible into old age we must define adult intelligence according to brain plasticity and not brain stability or rigidity. Kline (1998) and Baltes (1999) along with other researchers call for a paradigm shift in the approach of measuring adult intelligence, and state that we must seek to find the latent reserves and plasticity of aging: Exchanging psychological measurements of intelligence for biological ones. Finally adults must be encouraged that because of brain plasticity memory can be improved and the intelligence score changed through intervention (Salthouse, 1998). Implications for teaching practice Adult education should no longer just be for the socioeconomic benefits but also for better brain health. With access to information regarding neural development, teachers of adults can now change the landscape of the adult brain in more ways than one: They can help to increase brain cells, and reserve. An enriched education environment that involves teaching with novelty, teaching with controversy and in conflict to myths and standard beliefs, employs meaningful activities or practices that include the use of all five senses. Curriculums must be created to encourage complexity, novelty, and creativity. Students interest, experience and expertise should be taken into consideration (Wilson, 2006). Hebbs (1949) theory of plasticity must be incorporated in the teaching plan. Adults should be encouraged to use the new information gained as early as possible to maintain the new cell growth gained through the learning process. This new learning must be transferred into everyday life for memory to remain. Long term memory relies on the survival of the newly formed cells. New cells die in a matter of weeks if not used. It is the learning activity that keeps the cells alive. Learning a new language, or music is a good example to demonstrate how new memories are kept or lost. Without application or use new lessons learned are quickly lost because of the pruning of the unused new cells (Hyland, 2003). High frequency activities in the lesson plan increases brain reserve as the brain does best when challenged. Some researchers are now saying that more education increases brain health, meaning intellectual abilities increase and brain reserve gets greater. However the process of developing brain reserve is lifelong. While high frequency activities strengthen the synapse low frequency does the complete opposite by weakening the synapse. Low frequency activities must be avoided at all costs. (Wilson, 2006). It is important that adults understand how their brains learn. Myths of learning must be unlearned. Adults can be encouraged into new learning and challenged with new brain possibilities. On the other hand teachers should depart from the decrementalistic views of inevitable decline and give hope to students by showing them how they can compensate for losses. This includes teaching students how to learn and the art of memorizing.

Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011

5 Conclusion Even Bruer who once criticized linking the two now believes that a link could lead to advances. However he still cautions against over enthusiasm (Gura, 2005). The strongest criticism at this time remains the fact that we still do have a full picture of the brains ability and function. So to design education policies, theories and teaching techniques on the little we do know is ludicrous. However in spite of limitations faced by the linking process, research and application must continue. Future empirical studies should include new brain-based approaches including adult brain imaging. Since new learning changes the brain modifying neural networks the potential for good brain health through education is huge. References Baltes, P. B. and Mayer, K. U. (Ed.). (1999). The Berlin aging study. Aging from 70 to 100. Berlin, Germany: Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. Bloom, F. E. Beal, F. and Kupfer, D. (2003). The DNA guide to brain health. New York: DANA Press. Bruer, J. T. (1999). In search of Brain-based education. Phi Delta Kappa: 649-657. Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AAACE Journal. 16(2). 137-159. Cercone, K. (2006). Brain Based Learning. In E. K. Sorensen and D. O. Murchu, Enhancing Learning Through Technology. Idea Group, Inc. Gura, T. (2005). Big plans for little brains. Nature. 435, 1156-1158. Proquest Medical Library. Retrived July 2011, www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7046/full/4351156a.html Hebb, D. O. (1994). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Hill, L H. (2001) The brain and consciousness: Sources of information for understanding adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, n89 p73-81 www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch Howard, P. J. (2000). The owners manual for the brain, (2nd ed.). Austin: Bard Press. Hyland, K. P. (2001). New neurons in brain shown to help form new memories. UniSci-Daily University Science News. Kandel, E. R. and ODell, T. (1992). Are adult learning mechanisms also used for development? Science. 258, 5080, 243-245. Proquest Medical Library. Kline, P. (1998). The new psychometrics. London: Routledge. Wilson, C. A. (2006). No one is too old to learn: Neuroandragogy: A theoretical perspective on adult brain functions and adult learning. New York: iUniverse, Inc. Clive A. Wilson, Department of Social Sciences, Finger Lake Community College, Canandaigua, NY 14424, USA., E-mail: Andragogy1@aol.com Special thanks go to M. Graham, M. Nash, Y. Capozzi and my wife, Dureen for their valuable input and assistance with the editing of this work. Presented at the Midwest Research-to Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education, Lindenwood University, St. Louis, MO, September 21-23, 2011.
Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011