1

Technical Goals and Requirements

David Tipper
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Graduate Telecommunications and
Networking Program Networking Program
University of Pittsburgh
Slides 2
http://www.sis.pitt.edu/~dtipper/2110.html http://www.sis.pitt.edu/~dtipper/2110.html
Last Week
Network Design is not a precise science.
Many different types of problems
Size: LAN vs. MAN vs WAN
Technology: wired vs wireless Technology: wired vs. wireless
Lifecycle Stage: greenfield, incremental, etc.
There can be many good answers - no best solution
Design involves trade-offs among cost vs. performance
Top Down Design approach useful as a framework
Conceptual Model
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Conceptual Model
Logical Model
Physical Model
Implementation, Testing, Tuning, and Documentation
2
Analyze
requirements
Top-Down Network Design Steps
Develop
logical
design
Develop
Monitor and
optimize
network
performance
Implement
physical
design
Test,
optimize, and
document
design
Implement
and test
network
Source: P. Oppenheimer
Conceptual Model Network Design
Conceptual Model Design
At end of conceptual model design should have
gathered/identified gathered/identified
Objectives
Business Goals (e.g., make sales force more responsive to
customers on sales calls)
Technical Goals (e.g., provide wireless access to corporate
data to sales force)
Requirements
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Business (e.g.,support XYZ application)
Technical (availability, delay, bandwidth, etc.,)
Constraints
Business (organizational, budget, etc.,)
Technical (vendor, technology, sites to connect, security,etc.)
3
Technical Requirements & Constraints
From surveys/questionnaires, meetings etc. application
data determine technical requirements and constraints
Technical goal is to build a network that meets users
requirements + some they may not know they need. requirements some they may not know they need.
Technical Goals
Scalability
Availability/reliability
Network Performance
Utilization, Throughput, Delay, Delay Jitter, packet loss rate,
call/connection blocking rate
Traffic Estimation is needed to estimate performance
Security
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Security
Manageability/Interoperability
Affordability $$
Need to determine reasonable goal for each category and
the relative importance of each.
Scalability
Scalability
how much growth a network design can support?
can the design adapt to changing network load and QoS ca t e des g adapt to c a g g et o oad a d QoS
requirements?
Can the network be expanded easily in the future?
Need to examine the network needs out a few years
Key points to understand
How many more sites will be added?
How extensive will networks be at each site?
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How extensive will networks be at each site?
How many more users will be added?
How many more servers, etc will be added?
How many and what applications will be added?
Technology migration path?
4
Scalability
Scalability
For logical network design how much additional
traffic can be added without substantial additional traffic can be added without substantial additional
investment
For physical design - thought of as expandability and
upgrade capability
For example,
Given specific Router
Can interface bit rate be upgraded
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Can interface bit rate be upgraded
Can number of I/O ports be increased?
Can additional software features be added (e.g, VLAN
capability, IP Sec, etc.)
Try to set reasonable scalability goals
Availability
Availability (A)
Ability of an item to perform stated function at over time
Fraction of the time that an item can be used when needed
Value in the 0.0 to 1.0 range or 0 - 100%
Uptime
g
165 hours uptime in 168 hours/week = 98.21% availability
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
Average time to restore full functionality to an item
This may include time to travel to item, diagnose, isolate, remove and replace parts
MTTF: Mean-Time To Failure
MTBF: Mean-Time Between Failures
Variables are related as shown in figure below
lim
obs T
obs
Uptime
A
T

=
`
)
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Failure Repair Failure Repair
MTBF
MTTR MTTR MTTF
MTTF
A
MTTF MTTR
=
+
MTBF
MTTR
A = 1
5
Component Availability
Consider an IP router
MTBF 100,000 Hours
MTTR 6 hours (depends in part on location and type of failure)
A = 1 MTTR/MTBF = 0 99994 A 1 MTTR/MTBF 0.99994
Some representative values of networking equipment
Equipment MTBF Range (hr) MTTR (hr)
Web Server 10
4
- 10
6
1
IP Interface Card 10
4
- 10
5
2
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IP Router 10
5
- 10
6
6
WLAN AP ~10
5
2
WDM OXC or
OADM
~10
6
6
Other Metrics
POFOD
Probability of failure on demand the likelihood that a systems will fail
when a service request is made.
Used in systems where services requested infrequently (e.g., shut down of
chemical plant) chemical plant)
ROCOF
Rate of fault occurrence the frequency of occurrence of failures failure
intensity rate
Used in systems with frequent requests for services (e.g., transaction
processing of credit cards)
Unavailability (U)
The fraction of the time that an item cannot be used when needed
U = 1 A U
Other expressions for unavailability
Downtime per year
Downtime in units of minutes per year
Obtained by multiplying U by minutes in a year
0.99999 availability (5 `9s` availability),
0.00001 unavailability,
5.256 downtime per year (in minutes)
6
Availability Goals
Availability level Downtime per year Downtime per Week
90% 36.5 days 16.8 hours
95% 18.25 days 8.4 hours
99% 3.65 days 1.68 hours
99.9% 8.76 hours 10.1 hours
99.99% 52.6 min 1.01 min
99.999% 5.25 min 6.05 seconds
99.9999% 31.5 seconds 0.605 seconds
Telecom equipment traditionally five 9 availability carrier class equipment
Availability
Availability Goals depend on application and user
requirements may vary with location
Highly available voice service at customer support call center
Five 9s at call center
Lower available voice over IP (VoIP) service in engineering dept.
Three 9s availability for engineering dept.
Challenge how to provide higher availability for only
certain services/applications
Network/System availability is the amount of time a
network/system is available to users
Can be expressed as percent uptime or downtime
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Can be expressed as percent uptime or downtime
Need to work with users to set reasonable goals
Higher availability goal more costly design
Given component availability how to find network/system
availability?
7
System Availability
System availability calculated from component
availability A
i,
and unavailability U
i,
If devices in series If devices in series
If devices in parallel
1 2 n

1
1
n
series i
i
A A
=
=
[
n
[
1
n
s i
i
U U
=
~

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1
2
n

1
1 (1 )
n
parallel i
i
A A
=
=
[
1
parallel i
i
U U
=
=
[
System Availability - Example
W
D
M
S
y
s
t
e
m
OA
W
D
M
L
i
n
e

S
y
A single bidirectional line in WDM optical network
OA
The availability of the
bidirectional line
system = ?
W
L
i
n
e

O M
y
s
t
e
m
80km
100km 80km
O
Equipment MTBF (hrs) MTTR (hrs)
Bidirectional OA 5*10
5
24
Bidirectional 5*10
5
6
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WDM Line
System
Equipment CC (km) MTTR (hrs)
Terrestrial Fiber
Optic Cable
450 24
8
MTBF Physical Cable
Physical cables
MTBF can be specified using the Cable Cut (CC) metric
Average cable length that results in a single cable cut per year Average cable length that results in a single cable cut per year
CC = 450 km means that per 450 km cable, there will be on
average on cable cut each year
Example, given CC = 450km and cable length = 260 km,
( 365 24)
( )
length of the cable (km)
CC
MTBF hours

=
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450 365 24
15161.5
260
cable
km h
MTBF h
km

= =
System Availability - Example
Devices in series
Availability of bidirectional line (A
line
)
2 2
2 2
2 2
(1 ) (1 ) (1 )
24 24 6
(1 ) (1 ) (1 )
line cable OA line system
line system
cable OA
cable OA lline system
A A A A
MTTR
MTTR MTTR
MTBF MTBF MTBF
h h h

=
=
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2 2
5 5
(1 ) (1 ) (1 )
15161.5 5 10 5 10
0.998297
h h h
=

=
450 365 24
Note. 15161.5
260
cable
km h
MTBF h
km

= =
9
Series-Parallel Reduction
For complex systems need to apply series parallel
reduction to determine overall availablity
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+ series
|| parallel
Availability Analysis
General Methodology:
1) Get unavailability values of all components and sub-
systems.
2) Draw parallel and series availability relationships
3) Reduce the system availability model by repeated
applications of the parallel/series availability
simplifications.
4) If not completely reduced
Use approximation methods to estimate availability.
Typically take a conservative approach and go with a
lower bound
10
Availability Analysis
Lower bound on unavailability
The contributions of parallel elements to the unavailability is
not taken into account
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Lower bound of U
s
: U
A
+U
H
Quick evaluation of a lower bound on U can be enough to conclude Quick evaluation of a lower bound on U can be enough to conclude
that the system does not meet the availability requirements
Several software packages for calculation of availability
have approximation methods and simulation support for complicated
network availability analysis
Availability and Design
How do availability goals affect network design?
Basic Techniques to increase availability Basic Techniques to increase availability
1. Increased component/system availability
Use components with larger MTTF and/or shorter MTTR
In general increased component reliability increased cost
2. Redundancy
Duplicate system components and services
Can be partial/fully redundant systems Can be partial/fully redundant systems
For example Space Shuttle has 3 fully redundant flight
computers (+ manual operation!)
Incurs additional cost due to spare
components/capacity
11
Availability and Design
Increasing system and component availability/reliability
MTTF
A
MTTF MTTR
=
+ MTBF
MTTR
A = 1
Increase either MTTF, MTBF or decrease MTTR
Techniques to improve ICT equipment hardware MTBF well known
Adoption of fault tolerant hardware architectures (hot
swappable line cards, backup switch cards, redundant cooling,
backup power, etc)
Expense is major concern and market who will buy most
reliable system when replacing often? Who wants to pay for a reliable system when replacing often? Who wants to pay for a
WLAN AP with 10 year MTBF?
Software availability a bigger issue increasing lines of code
how to make more reliable (increase MTTF or MTBF)?
Micro-reboots, process redundancy, hot upgrades/patch
installation, model checking code analysis, etc.
Availability and Design
MTTR is often a Network Operations and
Management issue some what out of the
control of equipment manufacture
MTTR includes
Mean time to detect failure
Mean time to diagnose failure
Mean time to fix and return to service
Today typically have fast mean time to detect
Often dont bother with diagnosis > fast replacement
rather than repair
B d b Board swap, reboot, reset, etc.
Human in the loop and travel is often the bottleneck
Communication links have large MTTR due to need to
locate and physically repair link
12
Availability and Design
Redundancy/Diversity Techniques seek to increase system
availability not individual component
Combat independent faults by duplicate equipment/services
F l id 24 h b k b tt l t t k For example provide 24 hour backup battery supply to core network
equipment in order to combat electrical power outages
Redundancy higher COST
Tradeoff between Availability and COST
Redundancy Effects
Primary
Router
Back-up
Router
Scenario Single Router
Availability
Availability with
Redundancy
1
1 (1 )
n
parallel i
i
A A
=
=
[
24
Availability Redundancy
1 0.90 0.9900
2 0.95 0.9950
3 0.99 0.9999
13
Redundancy Example
BP
A
i
is an availability of link i
Availability of a connection between S-D:
WP
Source (S) Destination (D)
A A =
[ no protection i
i WP
A A

e
=
[
Given A
i
= 0.998297 for all links yields
A
no-protection
= 0.996597, A
protection
= 0.999983
[ [
e e
=
WP i BP i
i i protection
A A A ||
Availability Example
Consider Availability of Internet Connection
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A = .99999 x (1 - (1-.999)(1 -.999)) x (1 (1-.99) (1-.99)) =
0.999889
14
Network Performance
Several Performance measures
Utilization
Throughput
Accuracy (BER, Packet Loss)
Efficiency
Delay and Delay Jitter
Call Blocking for circuit switched networks
Typically look at measures during the busy period of the
day set threshold values
Need to know how to estimate values
A h h d i i t k
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Approaches when designing network are
Queueing Analysis analytical models
Simulation measurements on computer model of the network
design
Benchmarking existing network then predict behavior - with
empirical model, queueing model or simulation
Network Performance
Typically have a camelback shape to network traffic (both
packet and circuit switched networks)
Busy time period will vary with network type and
application (e g is commuting time in urban cellular application (e.g., is commuting time in urban cellular
networks)
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15
Network Performance
Busy time period can be defined in several ways
Time period (15 min period, 1 hour, 2hours, etc.)
Location (system wide, switch, access net, cell tower, link, etc.)
Service (data voice SMS etc ) Service (data, voice, SMS, etc.)
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Network Performance - Utilization
Utilization is the percent of total available
capacity (bandwidth) on a link in use (0-100%)
Bandwidth utilization is measured over a time Bandwidth utilization is measured over a time
interval to determine the amount in use (e.g. the
busy time period or some fraction of it)
Link/equipment utilization identifies network
bottleneck points
Data networks usually have utilization < 40 -
60% ft th h ld
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60% are often thresholds
Telephone network utilization much higher
80 90 %
Utilization goals will effect resulting delay
16
Network Performance - Throughput
Throughput is defined as the quantity of error-free
data successfully transferred between nodes per
unit of time (Goodput or Layer 2/3 throughput) ( p y g p )
Depends on network access method, the load on
the network and the error rate
Throughput can be expressed
in Packets per Second (PPS) than can be sent by a
device with dropping any packets or bps for data
networks
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networks
Carried load in Erlangs for circuit switched networks
Example IEEE 802.11b wireless LAN channel rate 11
Mbps typical max throughput 7 Mbps
Network Performance -Accuracy
Accuracy is a measure to ensure that the data
received at the destination must be the same as
the data sent by the source the data sent by the source
Data errors are caused by power surges, or
spikes, poor physical connections, failing devices,
electrical noise, interference, etc.
Accuracy can be expressed in Bit Error Rate
(BER) or packet error rate (PER)
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(BER) or packet error rate (PER)
Target values of BER depend on physical
medium used wireless link 1 in 10
4
, optical
fiber 1 in 10
10
17
Network Performance -Accuracy
Packet Loss occurs when
buffers overflow at routers or
gateways in wired networks
In wireless networks packet
origin
servers
In wireless networks packet
loss due to interference, poor
signal quality, collisions
Packet Loss results in
retransmission in applications
that require reliability
In real-time applications
retransmission is not an
ti ft k t l
public
Internet
1.5 Mbps
access link
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option after packet loss
Some low level of packet loss
can be made up by human
brain from context in
audio/video
institutional
network
10 Mbps LAN
Network Performance -Accuracy
Quality drops quickly with increasing packet loss rate
For example for VoIP to have quality comparable to
PSTN need very low loss rate < 0.5%
Packet Loss increase is highly nonlinear with load Packet Loss increase is highly nonlinear with load
increase
limited shared
Host A

in
: original
data
H t B

out
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limited shared
output link buffers
Host B
18
Network Performance -Efficiency
How much overhead is needed to send traffic across the network
Overhead is due to several factors lets look at some of them:
Packetization Overhead
Network Protocol Overhead
R ti P t l O h d Routing Protocol Overheads
Remember data is packaged in protocol frames that contain overhead
data, some have more overhead than others
Ethernet - 38 bytes per frame
IP - 20 bytes per frame
TCP - 20 bytes per frame
ATM - 5 bytes per cell
IP RIP - every 30 seconds sends 532 byte packets
Overhead effects delay and link sizing
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Overhead effects delay and link sizing
Example VoIP (IP/UDP/RTP) Payload efficiency: P/(P+Header)% 20-40%
Header
20 Bytes
UDP packet
Header
8 Bytes
IP packet
RTP packet
Header
12 Bytes
Data payload
Network Performance - Delay
Interactive applications demand minimal delay
when receiving a data stream
Delay must be constant for real-time applications y pp
like voice/audio and video applications other wise
you will get jitter causing disruptions in audio
quality and jumpiness in video streams
Delay Jitter is the variability in the delay from a
constant
Delay caused by network devices that move the
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Delay caused by network devices that move the
data within a network (e.g., router)
For example consider Voice over IP
19
IP Telephony Delays
Consider VoIP only network (no gateways or PSTN)
Major Delays in IP Telephony Systems
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Major Delays in IP Telephony Systems
Coding
Packetization/Serialization
Queueing at Routers
Propagation
Dejitter
Decoding
IP Telephony Delays
Coding Delay
Time to gather speech sample compute vocoder
model values for transmission
Value depends on vocoder utilized (0-50ms)
Packetization and Serialization
Packetization: Time to gather data from coder for
packet payload, attach headers
Remember the protocol stack for VoIP
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p
Output of Vocoder packed in Real Time Protocol (RTP) packets
Which are payload for User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets
Which are payload for Internet Protocol packets (IP)
20
Packetization Delay
VoIP packet (RTP/UDP/IP)
total header =40 Bytes
Assume
total header = 40 Bytes
Header
20 Bytes
UDP packet
Header
8 Bytes
IP packet
RTP packet
Header
12 Bytes
Data payload
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Assume
Delay: N voice samples T ms -> payload P
Payload efficiency: P/(P+Header) %
Net data rate: (P+Header)/T = R Kbps
Packetization and Delay
Data stream
(Compressed)
Buffer
Accumulation
delay
For example: 10Byte payload from 4-to-1 compression
t d
Header
20 Bytes
UDP packet
Header
8 Bytes
IP packet
RTP packet
Header
12 Bytes
Data payload
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rate vocoder
Coding Delay: 10Byte 40 samples: 40125s = 5ms
Packet efficiency: 10/(40+10) = 20%
Net data rate: 50Bytes/5ms = 80 Kbps
(>64 kbps DSO!)
21
Serialization and Transmission
Serialization Delay: time to transmit on access line
both from caller to network also have this at the other
end of network to called party
1 byte on 64kbps line => 125 sec 1 byte on 64kbps line 125 sec
G.723a VoIP codec over modem: 64byte packet
/56kbps=11ms
1byte on OC-3 optical fiber to home line (155Mbps) => 0.05
sec
Insignificant on high-speed links
Propagation Delay
Time to propagate packet down link - depends on distance of
link and medium
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link and medium
Satellite Hop wireless link 250 ms
Coast to Coast in North America fiber optic propagation 24 ms
For example fiber optic cable propagates at roughly 2/3 speed of
light (3 x 10
8
) meter/sec - so 200km link has propagation delay
less than 200/(3 x 10
8
) = 0.66 ms
Small enough on short fiber links to ignore
Network Delays
Router delay
Time for router to process/transmit packet + delay in router
queues
Time to process/transmit packet depends on router switch p p p
speed and link speed for high bandwidth links and core
network routers small amount of time 10 20 secs
15
20
25
Queueing Delay
Time waiting in router buffers for
processing and transmission
Value highly dependent on load and
QoS mechanisms deployed in router
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0
5
10
0
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.
6
0
.
7
0
.
8
0
.
9
QoS mechanisms deployed in router
10s msec to 10s secs
Queueing Delay nonlinear with
increases of network load
22
Network Delays
Delay Jitter defined as the variation of the delay for two
consecutive packets
Due to variation of
Routes of packets Routes of packets
Router delay (processing time + queueing time)
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Network Delays
Jitter buffer
Jitter buffer to smooth out playout of packets to destination
Allows packet delivery times to vary Allows packet delivery times to vary
Allows packets to arrive out of order
Note 30 ms holds one G.723 packet, typical values 30-100 msec
C
O
D
Receive Buffer
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D
E
C
Jitter eliminated if
buffer is sufficiently large
23
Example of End-to-End Delay Budget
Often design on basis of a Target Delay Budget
Sender
Coding Delay 5
Packetization delay 30
Serialization delay 11
Network
Routers 5 @ 7ms each 35
Propagation 25
Receiver
Jitter buffer 30
If no congestion.
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Jitter buffer 30
Serialization, de-packet, decode 46
Total 182 ms
ITU recommend max of 400ms for VoIP and target
ideal of 150ms
Network Performance - Response Time
Response time is a network performance goal that
users care about
Users recognize the amount of time to receive a response Users recognize the amount of time to receive a response
from the networked system
Users begin to notice when response time is 100ms
(.1 seconds) or greater
Get interaction delay when have to wait on the networked
system
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24
Queueing Theory
Queueing theory : Mathematical analysis of waiting
lines
Queueing Theory is the primary analytical framework
for evaluating performance in the initial stage of system
design.
Analytical Model of the system based on stochastic
processes
Approximates real system by focusing on contention at
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shared resources.
Examples: shared medium router, window flow controlled session,
time shared computer system
Model of Router
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25
Nomenclature of a Queueing System
The input process how customers arrive
The system structure waiting space number of servers, etc.
The service process
Kendalls Notation 1/2/3/4/5/6
A Shorthand notation to describe a queueing system containing a
queueing system.
1 : Customer arriving pattern (Interarrival time distribution).
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2 : Service pattern (Service time distribution).
3 : Number of parallel servers.
4 : System capacity.
5 : Queueing discipline.
6: Customer Population
Characteristics of the Input Process (1)
1. Arrival pattern or Arrival Process
Customers may arrive at a queueing system either in some regular
pattern or in a random fashion pattern or in a random fashion.
When customers arrive regularly at a fixed interval, the arrival
pattern can be easily described by a single number the rate
of arrival
When customers arrive according to some random fashion,
the arrival pattern is described by a probability distribution.
Arrival process characterized by interarrival distribution
50
26
Characteristics of the Input Process
Probability distributions that are commonly used
to describe the arrival process are:
M M k i ( l ) i li th P i M : Markovian (or memoryless), implies the Poisson
process for arrivals means the number of arrivals
over a time interval has a Poisson distribution this is
equivalent to the time between customers arriving
being exponentially distributed.
D : Deterministic, fixed interarrival times
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E
k
: Erlang distribution of order k
G : General probability distribution
GI: General and independent (inter-arrival time)
distribution.
Characteristics of the Input Process
Behavior of the arriving customers
Customer arriving at a queueing system may behave g q g y y
differently when the system is full (due to finite waiting queue)
or when all servers are busy.
Blocking System :
The arriving customers when system is full are
considered lost dropped from systems
Non-Blocking System :
52
The arriving customers are placed in queues of infinite
size.
Balking or Discouraged arrivals : customers refuse to join
queue when line too long or the arrival rate decreases with
line length
27
Characteristics of the Service Process
2. Service distribution describe the time take by a server to
process a customer. Can be deterministic or probabilitistic
In fashion similar to interarrival process use abbreviations to
describe common cases
M : Markovian (or memoryless), implies the exponentially
distributed service times.
D : Deterministic, constant service times
E
k
: Erlang distribution of order k service time distribution
PH phase type distribution
53
PH phase type distribution
G : General service time distribution
Characteristics of the System Structure
3. Physical number and layout of servers
Default assumption of parallel and identical servers p p
Integer number of servers
A customer at the head of the queue can go to any server who
is free, and leave the system after receiving service from that
server.
4. The system capacity
The system capacity is the maximum number of customers that a
54
The system capacity is the maximum number of customers that a
queueing system can accommodate, inclusive of those customers
at the service facility
Finite (integer value) - maximum number of customers in the
systems
Infinite (default value)
28
Characteristics of the Service Process
5. Queueing discipline how customers are selected for service
from the line
Fi t C Fi t S d (FCFS/FIFO) First-Come-First-Served (FCFS/FIFO)
Last-Come-First-Served (LCFS)
Priority
Process sharing
Random
Longest Queue First
Etc.
55
6. The size of the customer population
Infinite : the number of potential customers from external sources is
very large as compared to those in the system.
Finite : the arrival process (rate) is affected by the number of
customers already in the system.
Example of Notation
M/D/2/50/FIFO/
1. Exponentially distributed interarrival times 1. Exponentially distributed interarrival times
2. Deterministic service times
3. Two parallel servers
4. Waiting space for 48 customers + 2 in service
5. First in First Out processing from the queue
6 Infinite population of customers 6. Infinite population of customers
What one can say generally about queueing
systems?
56
29
Nomenclature
Standard notation
mean arrival rate of customers/time unit
i t i t /ti it mean service rate in customers/time unit
n(t) number of customers in the system at time t

i
= lim
t
P{n(t) = i}
= / is server utilization remember < 1 for stability
L Average number of customers in systems
L
q
- Average number of customers in the queues
know L = L
q
+
W Average delay in system (includes server + queue)
W
q
Average delay in queue
know W = W
q
+ 1/
Littles Law
L = W
57
Nomenclature
Standard notation - relationships
30
Basic Queue Analysis
Consider single queue case focus on basic models widely
used in network performance analysis
Data networks and database systems
M/M/1
M/M/1/K
Telephony
M/M/C Erlang C
59
M/M/C/C Erlang B
All are Markovian queues, study using Birth Death process CTMC
Markovian Queues Analysis
Develop state transition diagram
System state is indicated by the number of
i h i { ( ) 0} customers in the system at time t {n(t), t>0}
Flow Balance Equations
Derive steady state probability t
i
= P{n(t) = i}

= out flow in flow

= 1 t
TELCOM 2110 60
Apply Littles theorem to obtain mean
performance metrics. L = W

=
i
i
1 t
31
Single Queue Analysis (M/M/1)
Most basic Markovian queue is the M/M/1//FIFO/ queue
Customers arrive according to a Poisson process with exponentially
distributed interarrival times (IAT)
P{ IAT t} = 1 e
-t
, mean interarrival time = 1/
Customers are served by a single server with exponential service time
distribution P(service time < t ) = 1 e
-t

61
mean service time = 1/
The arrival rate () and service rate () do not depend upon the number of
customers in the system or time
Consider behavior of n(t) number of customers in the system at time t
forms a Markov Process
M/M/1 Queue
From state transition diagram flow balance get the
equations to solve for the steady state probabilities
1 0
t t =
0 = j

flow out state j = flow in state j

62
0 > j
1 1
) (
+
+ = +
j j j
t t t
1 0
t t =
j

=
i
i
1 t
Also use Normalization equation
32
M/M/1 Continued
) 1 ( t =
n
n
Geometric distribution
1 <
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

where
Mean Number in System L Mean Delay W = L/
) 1 (
/ 1
) (
1

= W
) 1 (

t = =
i
i L
Stability Condition
TELCOM 2110
63
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 (
i
Variance of number in system o
L
2
) 1 (

=
L
Variance of Delay o
W
2 2
) 1 (
1

o

=
W
M/M/1 Queue - Mean Behavior
At heavy load small
changes in rho result
in large change in L
64
1/
33
M/M/1 Example
Consider a concentrator that receives messages
from a group of terminals and transmits them
over a single transmission line over a single transmission line.
The packets arrive according to a Poisson
process with one packet every 2.5 ms and the
packet transmission times are exponentially
distributed with a mean of 2 ms. That is the
arrival rate = 1 packet/2.5 ms = 400 packets/sec
TELCOM 2110 65
Service rate = 1packet/2ms = 500 packets/sec
Find the average delay through the system
Utilization = = 400/500 = .8
Delay W = 1/(500 400) = .01 secs = 10 msecs
M/M/1/K
The system has a finite capacity of size K.

) 1 (
b e
P =
b
P
TELCOM 2110 66
The state space will be truncated at state K.
34
M/M/1/K (2)

K j < s 1
1 1
) (
+
+ = +
j j j
t t t
1 0
t t = 0 = j
Flow Balance Equations
67
1
=
j j
t t
K j =
Also use Normalization equation

=
i
i
1 t
M/M/1/K
K n s
0
t t
n
n
=
h
Solving equations yields
< < 0
) 1 (
=
n
n

t

=
where
Normalized offered load
Solving normalization equation one gets
1 =
68
1
1
+

K
n

t
1
1
+
=
K
n
t
1 =
1 =
From LHopital rule get
35
M/M/1/K
Behavior of state probabilities t
i
with
< 1 t
0
largest > 1 t
K
largest =1 t
i
discrete uniform
69
M/M/1/K
Probability of blocking (P
b
) = Loss Rate
) 1 (
K
P

1 =
1
1
) (
+

= =
K
k b
P

t
1
1
+
= =
K
P
k b
t
1 =
1 =
Portion of traffic dropped/rejected = P
b
70
Effective throughput of the system

e
= (1-P
b
) : effective arrival rate
Example M/M/1/10
Notice how it is nonlinear
36
M/M/1/K

e b
e
P
=

=
) 1 (
Effective server utilization : (actual utilization of the system)

e
1
1
0
1
) 1 (
1
+
+
=

+

= =

K
K K
i
i
K
i L

t
1
1
0 0
K
i i L
k
i
K
i
i
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =

= =
t
Average number in the system
1 =
1 =
71
2
1
1
0
K
i
K
k
i
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

=
M/M/1/K
Other performance measures
q
e
W W
L
W

=
=
1
Mean Delay
Mean Queueing Delay
TELCOM 2110 72
e q
q
L L

=
Mean Number in Queue
37
M/M/1/K
Compare with M/M/1/ results
73
M/M/1/K Example
Consider the queue at an output port of router. The transmission link
is a T1 line (1.544Mbps), packets arrive according to a Poisson
process with mean rate = 659.67 packets/sec, the packet lengths are p p , p g
exponentially distributed with a mean length of 2048 bits/packet.
If the system size is 16 packets what is the packet loss rate?
model as M/M/1/16 queue with
= 659.67 , = 1.544 Mbps/2048 bits per packet =753.9 packets/sec
= / = 0.875
Thus the packet loss rate =blocking probability
TELCOM 2110 74
0165 . 0
875 . 1
875 ). 875 . 1 (
1
) 1 (
17
16
1
=

=
+ K
K
b
P

38
Teletraffic Modeling
Historically in the telephone system traffic measured or
specified in Erlangs (in honor of A.K..Erlang)
Denote Erlangs by E or Erl and the offered load in erlangs by a
ll t h ldi ti t a = average call rate x average holding time = x t
h
One Erlang = one completely occupied channel
Example: a radio channel occupied for 30 min. per hour carries 0.5 Erlangs
Total traffic intensity a = traffic intensity per user x number of users
= a
u
x n
u
Example 100 subscribers in a cell
20 make 1 call/hour for 6 min => 20 x 1 x 6/60 = 2E
20 make 3 calls/hour for min => 20 x 3x .5/60 = .5E
60 k 1 ll/h f 1 i > 60 1 1/60 1E
Telcom 2700 75
60 make 1 call/hour for 1 min => 60 x 1 x 1/60 = 1E
100 users produce a = 3.5 E load or a
u
= 35mE per user
Given T traffic channels - what is GoS? or How many users can be
supported for a specific GoS? or given load how many channels for GoS?
Basic analysis same for all circuit switched telephony (wired or wireless)
Erlang B model
M/M/C/C Erlang B model
C identical servers process customers in parallel.
Customers arrive according to a Poisson process with rate
Customer service times exponentially distributed with mean 1/
The system has a finite capacity of size C customer arriving when The system has a finite capacity of size C - customer arriving when
all C servers are busy is dropped
Called Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC) model

76

) 1 (
b e
P =
b
P
e

39
M/M/C/C

Analysis parallels M/M/1/K. Consider n(t) behavior get birth-death
state transition diagram below

3
2
C ) 1 ( C
C j < s 1
1 1
) 1 ( ) (
+
+ + = +
j j j
j j t t t
1 0
t t = 0 = j
flow out state j = flow in state j
77
C j < s 1
1 1
) 1 ( ) (
+
+ + = +
j j j
j j t t t
C j =
1
) (

=
c c
C t t
1
0
=

= j
j
t Normalization condition
M/M/C/C
Solving the equations for t
i
, one gets
C i
a
i
i
s s = 1
0
t t
Where is the offered load
in Erlangs
a
time holding call x rate arrival call a =
i
i
!
0
1
0
=

= j
j
t
Plugging into the normalization condition
One gets
time holding call x rate arrival call a =
78
c i
n
a
i
a
i
a
c
n
n
i
i
i
,... 2 , 1
!
!
!
0
0
= = =

=
t t
=

=
c
n
n
n
a
0
0
!
1
t
40
c
a
Probability of a customer being blocked B(c,a) = t
i
Erlang B Formula

=
= =
c
n
n
c
n
a
c
a
a c B
0
!
!
) , ( t
B(c,a) :Erlangs B formula, Erlangs blocking formula
Erlang B formula can be computed from the recursive formula
:Valid for M/G/c/c queue
TELCOM 2110 79
Erlang B formula can be computed from the recursive formula
) , 1 (
) , 1 (
) , (
a c B a c
a c B a
a c B
+

=
Usually determined from table or charts
Traffic Engineering Erlang B table
Telcom 2700
80
41
Erlang B Charts
TELCOM 2110
81
M/M/C/C
)) ( 1 ( a c B =
The carried load
Other metrics
)) , ( 1 ( a c B
e
=
)) , ( 1 ( a c B
c
a
e
=
)) , ( 1 ( a c B
a
L =

:Effective throughput of the system

Mean server utilization
Mean number in the system
TELCOM 2110 82
Average delay in the system
Distribution of delay is just the exponential service time

1
= W
42
Traffic Engineering Example
A T1 line can support 24 circuit switched phone calls?
What is the maximum load a T1 link can support while
providing 0.5% call blocking?
F th E l B t bl ith 24 h l d 0 5% ll bl ki From the Erlang B table with c = 24 channels and 0.5% call blocking
the maximum load = 11.56 Erlangs
A company has a PBX that connects to the local phone
company. During the busy hour PBX handles 410 calls
with an average call length of 200 seconds
(a) What is the average load in Erlangs?
Load = 410 call per hour x 200 sec/call x 1/3600 sec = 22.78 Erlangs
(b) Given that the local phone sells bandwidth only in units of T1
TELCOM 2110 83
( ) p y
lines (i.e. 12 DS0s), how many T1 lines are needed to achieve 1%
call blocking? From the Erlang B table 33 DS0s are needed to
support 22.91 Erlangs of load the nearest multiple of 12 that is
greater than 33 is 36 which is 1 T1 lines
Security
Security design is becoming one of the
most important aspects of network design most important aspects of network design
Network design must ensure against loss
of business data or disruption of business
activity
Need to understand the risk of data loss
TELCOM 2110 84
Security Concepts
COMMSEC: security at communications level
INFOSEC: security at information level
43
Security Threats
System Intrusion
Improper access to network and hosts resources
Denial of service Denial of service
Disable network and hosts
Snooping
Spoofing
Data manipulation
Physical damage
TELCOM 2110 85
Physical damage
Information Assurance info security + info
availability
Security Impact on Network
Security Mechanisms must be put in place
to provide security
Physical Security Measures
Servers/cabling in locked rooms
Backup power and storage, etc
Impacts physical design
Electronic Security Measures
TELCOM 2110 86
Authentication, packet filters, encryption
Firewalls
Impacts network performance => greater
delays and requires more capacity
44
Typical Security Topologies
Internet
Firewall
Enterprise Network
DMZ
Proxy Web Server DNS, Mail Servers, IDS
Manageability
There are various ways to manage a network and
different things to manage
Fault, accounting, configuration, performance, security
etc.
Management architecture needs to be determined
In-band versus out-of-band monitoring/signaling
Centralized vs. distributed monitoring and management
Estimate additional traffic due to management flows and
security mechanisms needed
TELCOM 2110 88
y
Number of platforms supported, tools needed etc.
Also need to consider interoperability with existing
infrastructure and management
45
Affordability
Affordability is sometimes called cost-
effectiveness
Want to carry the maximum amount of
traffic for a given financial cost
Financial costs include non-recurring
equipment costs and recurring network
i
TELCOM 2110 89
operating costs
Campus, Metro and WAN costs are areas
where a good design can save $
Ranking
Useful to have users/management rank
performance goals
Low delay more important than availability
Ease of management more important than security
Comparative ranking or absolute
One approach is assume 100 point to be distributed
among the categories of interest and users must
allocate the points among the performance categories
TELCOM 2110 90
allocate the points among the performance categories
(scalability, availability,delay, security, etc.)
Provides Guidance to optimizing network design
46
Making Tradeoffs
Scalability 20
Availability 30 Availability 30
Network performance 15
Security 5
Manageability 5
Usability 5 Usability 5
Adaptability 5
Affordability 15
Total 100
Summary
From surveys/questionnaires, meetings etc.
application data determine technical requirements and
constraints
Technical goal is to build a network that meets users Technical goal is to build a network that meets user s
requirements + some they may not know they need.
Technical Goals
Scalability
Availability/reliability
Network Performance
Utilization, Throughput, Delay, Delay Jitter, packet loss rate,
call/connection blocking rate
T ffi E ti ti b d d
TELCOM 2110 92
Traffic Estimation may be needed
Security
Manageability/Interoperability
Affordability $$
Need to determine reasonable goal for each category
and the importance of each.