Contemporary Trends within the Commonwealth

by Charlotte Gogstad for Dr. Gina Hames PLU, May 1999 Colonialism1 and Imperialism2 were significant factors in world affairs during the nineteenth century3. Great Britain in particular increased its power through building an empire of fifty colonies throughout the world. As a result, the British Empire controlled about one-forth of the worlds states. Great Britains colonialization strategy was used to achieve power and control over a vast amount of the worlds resources. These colonies allowed Britain to become a major player in world trade and foreign affairs. However, in the period between 1929 and 1956, British power declined. Thereafter, British colonies started to gain independence, and the British Empire was turned into the British Commonwealth of Independent States. The following definition of the Commonwealth was put forth in the Commonwealth Yearbook of 19984:
The Commonwealth is an association of governments set up so that the member countries can support each other, and work together towards international goals. It is also a family of nations, originally linked together in the British Empire, and now building on their common heritage in language, culture, law and education - which enables them to work together in an atmosphere of greater trust and understanding than generally prevails among nations.

In light of the Commonwealth, what role does post-colonialism play in todays world of globalization? More specifically, what is the Commonwealth, and how is the Commonwealth significant in regards to globalization? Historic events show that while the political ties between Commonwealth member-states and Great Britain continue to separate, the economic ties are again becoming increasingly important. In addition, this political separation has resulted in states reaffirming their neighbor alliances through the establishment of regional groupings. Great Britain is and has been a major player in international affairs over the past couple of centuries. Its position and power throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created a global environment of Pax Britannica, in which Great Britain was the major world power. However, that position changed in the mid twentieth century when the United States became the leading power. Before India became independent in 1947, the British Empire covered a quarter of the globe and contained a population of some 500,000,000 people5. Now, with Hong Kong gone since July 1997, the overseas
1

Colonialism is defined as the policy and practice of a strong power extending territorial control over a weaker nation or people. 2 Imperialism is defined as the imposition of colonial rule by European countries at the expense of colonized state. 3 McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.83 4 Commonwealth Yearbook 1998. What is the Commonwealth. Available from: http://www.tcol.co.uk/cmnwlth.htm 5 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p. 17

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possessions of the British Crown will soon amount to a few scattered islands, and the total population of these remaining territories will be counted in the thousands. However, the British dominions, that being one of a number of self-governing territories united in a community of nations6, are the most significant members of the Commonwealth. The British dominions of Australia, Canada and New Zealand are important due to their strong economies and their importance as the most powerful members of the Commonwealth. These three states are monarchies with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. Lately, there have been republican movements in all of these areas. Australia in particular has a very strong republican movement which has called for an election in the latter part of 1999. This is to decide whether Australia should become a republic within the Commonwealth or whether it should remain a monarchy with a British monarch as head of state. A similar debate exists in the Commonwealth on whether the British monarch should be the head of this international organization. That debate is significant because it reflects how the British monarch is no longer considered a significant institution in international political circles. Thus, the historic tradition of the British Crown being head of state of numerous world states, conflicts with current political trends of republicanism and political independence. Several theories have been developed in respect to colonialism and the effects of colonialism on globalization and the world today. Neocolonialism, dependency and theories from Immanuel Wallerstein, Samuel Huntington, and Karl Marx are important in respect to Commonwealth issues. In the postcolonial area, neocolonialism has become a significant theoretical term. Neocolonialist theory claims that the state which is subject to neocolonialism is in theory independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality, its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside7. Dependency theory relates to the relationship between first and third world states, and focuses on the economic penetration by large capitalist states of the third world states8. Wallerstein on the other hand believes that the global division of labor integrates the world into a single production system that reflects exploitation and inequalities9. Further, Wallerstein argues that the elite in the core countries, like Great Britain, use math tricks to persuade peripheral peoples that wealth inequality is decreasing. Also he believes that capitalism tends to polarize people by steadily widening the gap between the rich and the poor. Wallerstein shows how political and economic conditions after the breakdown of feudalism transformed northwestern Europe into the worlds predominant commercial and political power. The geographic expansion of the capitalist world economy altered political systems and labor conditions wherever it was able to penetrate10. Currently the world consists of states being in either the core or the periphery. The core, like first world industrialized states, expropriates much of the capital
6

Flexner, Stuart and Leonore Crary Harick. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. New York: Random House, Inc. 1987. p.582 7 McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.237 8 McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.134 9 Bodley, John H. Cultural Anthropology; Tribes, States and the Global System. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1997. p.312 10 The Development of a World Economic System. Handout from Dr. Hames p.4

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surplus generated by the periphery, former colonies, through unequal trade relations11. Wallerstein also argues that the developments of states are embedded in an overarching system of capital, commodities, information and human resources. For instance, in the case of the Commonwealth, Britain reflects the core while the former African colonies are in the periphery. The capital of first world states like Britain and its dominions, exploit the commodities and the human resources in former Asian and African colonies. Alternatively, according to Marxist theory, the dependency relationship is the result of the ruling elites exploitation of workers. Marx claimed that colonialism was all about class struggles rather than the extension of power through political control. His theory states that the ruling elite, otherwise known as the colonial power, exploited the less privileged. In the case of British colonialism, imperialists dominated the colonial workers who provided cheap labor to produce goods to be consumed by the ruling elite. Samuel Huntington provides a more contemporary perspective on Commonwealth issues. In the case of Commonwealth members, their trade relations differ from those of the world at large due to a shared business culture. Commonwealth members can take advantage of this shared business culture by acting as its own economic region. Viewing the post-Cold-War landscape, Samuel Huntington predicts that in the future global conflicts will primarily be cultural. He argues that economic regionalism is increasing, and that the success of economic trade areas rely on a shared culture. In respect to the Commonwealth, its member states share a business culture that has been established through decades of continued trade. That business culture stems from the period of colonial rule when Britain established a relationship of trade with its colonies. That business culture has remained strong despite changes in Britains relationship to its former colonies. British history provides examples of imperialism as well as decolonialization. In the late eighteenth century Britain transformed itself from an agrarian society to an industrial society. The country developed a powerful navy and merchant fleet. Through this fleet, Britain could import and export goods to and from markets abroad. In 1776, Adam Smith argued that the colonial market was important for the surplus produce of the European nations, especially for Britain, which was already embarking on industrialization12. His theories have had major effects on British economic policies. From 1800 to 1945, Britain became the major world power. Its empire included countries on every continent, encompassing roughly one-fourth of the worlds land area and population. The empire included the Britain, Canada, New Zealand, India, Australia, South Africa, and the various crown colonies, dependencies and protectorates. The British Empire was primarily a loose federation held together by diverse political connections and the common British origin and English language of the ruling elite in each political unit13. In most of the colonies, a very small minority of European colonists enjoyed a privileged status over the majority of the native population. Coercive military power
11 12

The Development of a World Economic System. Handout from Dr. Hames p.4 Baumgart, Winfried. Imperialism. Oxford, Oxford Univeristy Press, 1982. p.93 13 Bodley, John H. Cultural Anthropology; Tribes, States and the Global System. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1997. p.319

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established and maintained administrative control, but the common objective was the capitalist ideals of productive resources, growing markets, and the expansion of trade. About thirty-five percent of the empire was controlled indirectly from London, but local colonial governments often enjoyed considerable autonomy. Up until the late nineteenth century, while colonial territories were still being easily taken over, imperialism proved profitable for both governments and private business interests. However, after 1880, colonial expansion became costly due to both increased costs and rebellions by colonized peoples14. Rivalries between competing colonial powers like France, Germany, and the Netherlands forced Britain to maintain large armies and navies. The first true signals portraying a weakness in the British Empire arose when the Boer War broke out in 1899. The Boers were farmers of Dutch decent who had arrived in South Africa during the sixteenth century, and their interests were in conflict to those of Britain. The Boer war served as a turning point in that it signaled a weakness in the British Empire15. The British managed to defeat the Boers in 1902. However, despite its victory, the conflicts in the area were a threat to the empires stability since it spurred movements for independence in other British territories. The first advancements towards independence were made during the colonial Conference of 1907. It was then decided that Canada, Australia and New Zealand could send their own delegations to non-political international forums, while the British Government preserved diplomatic unity by retaining its right to reject the agreement subscribed by these representatives16. However, it was the years of the First World War that truly served as a transition period changing the relationship between Britain and her colonies. With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Britain had to focus its resources on military forces. During the spring of 1915, Great Britain sent for Australian and New Zealand troops to fight on the Gallipoli Peninsula of Turkey, an event that resulted in the loss of almost 8,000 Australians and New Zealanders17. The Gallipoli incident resulted in resistance by both Australia and New Zealand in regards to British actions during warfare. Demonstration against British war policies arose in Australia and New Zealand due to the deaths from the Gallipoli fightings. To compensate for these losses, Britain invited the Prime Ministers of the its dominions to sit in the UK War Cabinet in 1917. That event was an astonishing advance, which in one bound raised South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand from colonies to full partners18. These states could then emphasize their separateness from Britain by advocating their own foreign policies, which often differed from British policies. These actions by the British dominions were only the first in a series of efforts to gain independence.

14

Bodley, John H. Cultural Anthropology; Tribes, States and the Global System. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1997. p.319 15 Gramfors, Bo and Anders Rhr. Verdens historien i kart, tekst og bilder. Oslo, Norway: Cappelens Forlag, 1991. p.97 16 Walker, Eric A. The British Empire; its structure and spirit. Oxford: Bowes & Bowes, 1953. p. 139 17 Davies, Susanne. Women, War, and the Voilence of history: An Australian perspective. Violence Against Women. Dec. 1996. p.1 18 Underhill, Frank H. The British Commonwealth: An Experiment in Cooperation Among Nations. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1956. p.49

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Respecting the transformation from British Empire to Commonwealth, the years between the two world wars were a time of fundamental change that arose out of the growing independence of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland19. It was during these years that the dominions ties to Britain truly started to weaken. In 1926 these countries showed significant advancement by becoming self-governing dominions. The Balfour Report of the 1926 Imperial Conference declared: The dominions are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any respect by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations20. This famous definition stresses the independence of each member state and was the first step in the direction of the colonies independence from Britain. Then in 1931, the Statute of Westminster confirmed the dominions status as quasi-sovereign states, bound together voluntarily by the British Crown. Thus, with the Balfour report and the Statute of Westminster, the Commonwealth was established. The 1930s turned out to be a decade of further political separation from Britain. The early 1930s were reflective of economic decline and high unemployment rates in Britain primarily due to the crash on Wall Street in 1929. However, the British economy suffered less than other European states due to free trade agreements with the colonies21. But those free trade agreements did not last that much longer. Protectionist fiscal policies were adopted by the dominions and actually directed against Britain. In response to those economic movements, Britain imposed a ten percent tariff on goods from the dominions in 193222. These actions posed a considerable risk that goodwill between Commonwealth countries would soon be destroyed in the atmosphere of a trade war. Overall the inter-war period was a time of independence for the dominions. During this period, British policy towards most of the Middle Eastern countries was very liberal by international standards23. Iraq and Transjordan became self-governing and the British protectorate over Egypt was abandoned. In South Africa there were also significant developments during the 1930s, which were evidence that the bonds linking the country to Britain were becoming perceptibly weaker24. The world depression effected South Africa politically as in most other countries and in 1933 the nationalistic Purified Nationalist party was formed, creating further pressure for South African national identity and independence. A lack of clarity over what was happening during this time period arose because the dominions did not agree about the extent to which they wanted to loosen the ties to Britain. Even those who advocated the change were not altogether clear about their final goal. None seemed ready to end their bonds to Britain. Nonetheless, by 1939, the dominions were in a different position than after World War

19

Lloyd, Lorna. Loosening the apron strings: the dominions and Britain in the inter-war years. BISA/PSA Political Science Group Workshop conference. Warwick, July 1998. p.1 20 Underhill, Frank H. The British Commonwealth: An Experiment in Cooperation Among Nations. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1956. p.56 21 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p.12 22 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p. 127 23 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p.136 24 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p.131

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I25. When war broke in 1939 the old doctrine of unity of the crown had vanished26. It was generally acknowledged that the dominions and India must make their own declarations of war. The years following the Second World War then became a time of decolonialization and further separation from Britain by the colonies. By the end of the Second World War in 1945, anti-colonial feelings were present throughout the world and especially in the United States. When W.W.II ended, the United States concluded that the British Empire and all the other colonial empires must be abolished as quickly as possible. For the next twenty years, successive U.S. presidents devoted a great deal of time and energy towards the achievement of that ambition27. To this end, the U.S. aided liberation or anti-colonial movements in all parts of the world. Apparently the Americans regarded colonialism as a doctrine that supplied nations with a reason to support Communism. Therefore, if colonialism was removed and a democratic government put in place, many fertile fields for Communist expansion would become barren ground28. The U.S. succeeded in these efforts primarily due to pressuring Great Britain. In 1945, Britain was heavily in debt to the United States and needed American support to stabilize the pound29. Thus, the U.S. used its position to push Britain into granting independence to the colonies. In 1947, the colonies of India, Pakistan and Ceylon became dominions and thereby members of the Commonwealth. Two years later, India became a republic, but wished to remain within the Commonwealth, seeing that established historical links could still function for the development of free trade with common concerns due to shared historical background30. That visionary conception of India profoundly changed the character of what had been essentially a British Commonwealth. Indias wish to stay in the Commonwealth was accepted in the London Declaration and agreed upon at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 194931. The London Declaration made it possible for Asian and African colonies, most of which wished to become republics, to remain within the Commonwealth upon attaining independence. Those decisions formed the initial standards which led to the development of the contemporary multi-racial Commonwealth. Over the next two decades following the London declaration, British rule ended in many parts of Africa, Asia and the Caribbean, the Mediterranean and the Pacific. With a few exceptions (such as Myanmar), the newly independent countries joined the Commonwealth and accepted the British Crown as the symbol of their association.

25

Lloyd, Lorna Loosening the apron strings: the dominions and Britain in the inter-war years. BISA/PSA Political Science Group Workshop Conference. Warwick, July 1998. p. 1 26 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p.131 27 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p.33 28 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p.34 29 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p.37 30 The Commonwealth Available from: http://209.182.11.29/english/projects/commonwealth/commonwealth.html 31 Origins of the Commonwealth Available from: http://www.munitions.com/~rory/di/www.royal.gov.uk/today/origins.htm

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The Suez crisis of 1956 marked a point in time when British leadership as a world power was no longer significant. At this time, the major world power of Pax Americana, was created. The United States was a large driving force behind its inception. By 1956 it was plain enough that the remains of the British Empire would eventually be dismantled32. What was far less defined was how Britain could fit herself into the international society. Britains international trading pattern was radically different from that of the continental European Economic Community countries. Until after the Second World War, Britain had survived for several decades with practically no European trade33. In the decades following W.W.II, however, Britain started focusing on trade with Europe. While increasing its cooperation with Europe, Britain also let go of most of its colonies throughout the world. Since their independence, Britains former colonies, even those that fought to survive, have managed to survive reasonably well. Their survival is especially significant when they are compared with those of the French, Belgian, Dutch and Portuguese colonies34. In most of the places once under British rule, the Empire ended quietly. According to Robin Neillands, the British record in the decolonialization decades stands comparison with any and is not one to be ashamed of. The problems of Northern Ireland remain unresolved but elsewhere the post-colonial signs are encouraging.35 The Commonwealth of today stems from the progress of colonies towards selfgovernment during the twentieth century. Until 1949, the member states of the Commonwealth were united through applied allegiance to the crown. Today, the Commonwealth symbolizes the transformation of the Crown from an emblem of dominion into a symbol of free and voluntary association according to a speech of Queen Elizabeth II36. Currently, the Commonwealth is dominated numerically by poor states in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific who joined on obtaining independence in addition to its developed first world dominion members. Heads of government meet biennially to discuss a broad agenda. The Commonwealth operated by consensus and persuasion, rather than by binding vote37. According to Nicholas Bayne, the Commonwealth can do more for its members than the global institutions in some respects. It works by direct exchange of experience, helped by common tradition in government. It can cover the politics of economic reform and has a strong non-governmental component. It is accessible to its smallest members. It works by persuasion and example, not by compulsion.38 As an international organization, the Commonwealth has seen the need for restructuring in order to achieve a status of significance. The Harare Summit of 1991 served as a forum planning the future of the Commonwealth as an organization. Stricter membership rules were applied for new members. These stricter rules were a result of
32 33

Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p.269 Douglas, Roy. World Crisis and British Decline, 1929-56. New York: St. Martins Press, 1986. p. 296 34 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p.609 35 Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat: the British Empire, 1947-97. London: Hodder, 1996. p.609 36 Origins of the Commonwealth Available from: http://www.munitions.com/~rory/di/www.royal.gov.uk/today/origins.htm 37 McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.86 38 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p.473

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countries becoming members due to their relations with former British colonies rather than Britain itself. Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, became a member due to its close affinity with the Commonwealth countries immediately surrounding it. The Harare summit declared the twin principles of historic linkage and of adherence to Commonwealth principles. Key Commonwealth principles include democracy, human rights, multi-racialism and racial equality39. It is mandatory that these principles be reflected by its member states. The difficulty with these two principles is that numerous states qualify for membership. Under Harare Summit rules even Cuba could become a member due to historic linkage. One aspect of globalization is the growth of regional economic groupings. It is often easier for countries to remove trade barriers with their nearest neighbors. The pioneer within such regional organizations is the European Union. Through the European Union, fifteen European states share a common market of goods, labor and currency. Other regional groupings have multiplied since the late 1980s and now embrace all areas of the world. The most important trade agreements in economic terms are: the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), the Association of South East Asian Nations Free Trade Area (AFTA), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) groupings, and the projected Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)40. Exclusive regional groupings raise two types of problems for the Commonwealth. First of all, the current pattern of regional groupings is unbalanced41. None of the major trade agreements includes the four most populous Commonwealth countries of South Asia - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka- though they contain over seventy percent of the inhabitants of the Commonwealth42. Further, the Commonwealth members in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific are also at a disadvantage due their lack of influence compared to other heavyweights in negotiation processes. However, due to the influence that the Commonwealth has economically, these states are better off economically then they would have been without the Commonwealth. The best interest of the Commonwealth and its members are served by the concept of open regionalism. Under this concept, market openings negotiated within the regional group are made available to all other trading partners. For instance, Britain ensures that non-European as well as European firms gain the benefits of the removal of barriers within the common European market43. Thus, Britain stays very committed to its former colonies despite its agreements with the European Union. Members of the Commonwealth are realizing the advantages of continued economic relations between members. According to the editorial of The Round Table issue of April 1995, there is considerable knowledge of and commitment to the Commonwealth within British society44. The British pre-1965 Commonwealth made something of a cult. It was considered a highly Anglophone club of certain selected

39 40

Mole, Stuart. Issues of Commonwealth Membership The Round Table. (1998) p.308 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p.475 41 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p. 476 42 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p.476 43 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p.476 44 Britain and the Future Role of the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1995) p. iii

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states. However, with its current fifty-three member-states, trade is being advocated among members. The former British colonies in the Caribbean have been slow in loosening their ties with Great Britain; however, certain events in recent times have served as means to end of the political links to Britain. The British Empire has definitely taken its time dying. A generation or more after independence, eleven ex-British Caribbean countries still allowed legal appeals to be made to the judicial committee of Britains Privy Council in London45. However, in early 1997, ex-British Caribbean countries agreed to set up a Caribbean Court of Appeal. The set-up of this council was a further step towards political separation from Great Britain. However, from an economic standpoint, Britains ties to ex-Colonies remain strong. The Commonwealth serves as an important supported for trade to and from member states and promotes economic relations between its members. About seventy percent of Britains state-to-state development aid continues to go to Commonwealth states46. In the early 1990s, the Commonwealth launched debt relief initiatives for poor ex-colonies, which then became established instruments of the IMF and World Bank47. Through such economic linkage, the Commonwealth defends the concept of open regionalism in all the regional groupings to which it belongs. These efforts by the Commonwealth are significant in that small countries that often feel neglected in the global institutions can get a hearing in the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth is important in case of support for economic development in the regional communities of CARICOM, the South Pacific Forum and SADC. The states within these organizations often turn to the Commonwealth in the case of support for economic development rather than focusing on their regional organization. These states acknowledge the importance of the Commonwealth as a means to aid in the economic development of its member states48. CARICOM, the Caribbean Community and Common Market, and the South Pacific Forum, primarily consist of small states. CARICOM works towards the attainment of a viable, internationally competitive and sustainable community49. The South Pacific Forum works towards enhancing the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific50. SADC, the Southern African Development Community, works towards economic liberation for its nine founding members as well as acting as a funnel for Commonwealth activities in South Africa51. All of these three regional organizations are closely linked to the Commonwealth and share values and ideas with that of the Commonwealth at large. In the 1990s a strong movement has evolved in Great Britain where British businesses are refocusing on trade with ex-colonies. Political scientist Katharine West, at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, argues that the Commonwealth is becoming
45 46

A Relic of Empire. The Economist. London, February 8, 1997. p.43 McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.86 47 Bayne, Nicholas. Globalization and the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1997) p.482 48 Britain and the Future Role of the Commonwealth The Round Table. (1995) p. vii 49 CARICOMs Mission Statement. Available from: http://www.caricom.org/expfmain.htm 50 South Pacific Forum Secretariat Home Page. Available from: http://www.forumsec.org 51 Corporate Profile. Southern African Development Community (SADC). Available from: http://www.sadc.int/

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fashionable again52." Apparently more people within British politics regret that they have been emphasizing Europe since the 1960s at the expense of taking full advantage of the many less controversial opportunities in the outside world. A result of that advocacy would be a more globally oriented Britain. Since the 1960s, British governments have given the impression that they were happy putting all their eggs into the European regional basket. Actually, the investments in the European Union have not proved as fruitful as expected. Exports to the EU are lower than anticipated, even though fifty-six percent of Britains export went to the EU in 199253. Further, the EU is a low growth zone compared to areas like Australasia. In 1993, Britains exports rose by a low fivepercent to EU states, while it increased by twenty-two percent to Australasia and by twenty-nine percent in the rest of the world54. Such figures make British officials turn their heads towards emerging markets in trying to increase trade relations. In case of the Commonwealth, numerous emerging states are former British colonies, and Britain can take advantage of this opportunity by tightening its relationship to Commonwealth states rather than the EU. Historically, Britain has been economically strongest when its outlook has been global and economically weakest when it is merely regional55. As an organization, the inter-regional Commonwealth states share a unified business culture. In a sense, the Commonwealth can be described as a global sub-system of world states that share a historic past intertwined with cultural similarities. According to Samuel Huntington, close economic cooperation normally requires a common cultural base.56 In this context, the global reach of the Commonwealth business culture has a significance, which should be more widely acknowledged. For regardless of the cultural differences that obviously exist to varying degrees between Commonwealth states, the shared Commonwealth business culture is a link between them. The British Empire consisted of numerous colonies throughout the world. Of these colonies, Australia, New Zealand and Canada make out the three most significant, because they all are industrialized democratic states and share Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. However, their relationship to Britain slightly differs from each other. Canadians tend to have a more positive view of Britain despite the Quebecois movements that have been taking place. Australia on the other hand is one of Great Britains primary trade partners, but there is still a strong republican movement. All of these countries have been tightening their relationships to neighboring states while also reaching to establish closer relations with the United States. When it comes to Canada, this state has a slightly different motive than most other Commonwealth member states. Despite Canadas close link to Great Britain, the trend throughout the past decades has been that of loosening it political ties to Great Britain. Republican movements are not as strong in Canada as they are in Australia and New Zealand. Canada has had a very fruitful and good relationship with Great Britain and therefore has not pursued the option of republicanism. Canadas ulterior motive is related
52 53

West, Katharine. Britain, the Comonwealth and the Global Economy. The Round Table. (1994) West, Katharine. Britain, the Comonwealth and the Global Economy. The Round Table. (1994) 54 West, Katharine. Britain, the Comonwealth and the Global Economy. The Round Table. (1994) 55 West, Katharine. Britain, the Comonwealth and the Global Economy. The Round Table. (1994) 56 Huntington, Samuel. The Clash if Civilizations Foreign Affairs. (1993)

p. 407 p. 408 p. 409 p. 411

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to its culture of Anti-Americanism. Thus, Canada has remained slow in separating from Britain in large part out of deep fear of engagement with the United States57. Indeed, Canadians were late in creating independent national symbols. Until 1947 there was no Canadian citizenship and Canadians remained British subjects carrying British passports. Until 1949, final Canadian judicial appeal was to the Privy Council in London, and until 1952 the governor general was a British peer. Canadians replaced the Unions Jack with the Maple Leaf flag only in the mid-1960s, and until 1982 Canadas constitution was a legislative act of the British parliament58. Anglo-Canadians have long maintained an increasingly inaccurate sensibility that they were somehow British, as well as not Americans. Canada has in several incidents voted against the proposed view of both the Great Britain and the United States. At the Commonwealth Review meeting in London in August of 1986, Canada agreed to apply a number of economic sanctions against South Africa. That sanction marked a Canadian divergence from the policies of its key allies of which Great Britain is one of the main players59. Even though Canada remains closer to Great Britain than most other former colonies, the trend of Canadas relationship to Great Britain is that of weakening political ties. Another state that has tried to move away from Great Britain politically is Australia. Historically, Great Britain has been the greatest influence on Australian foreign policy. The course of the twentieth Century has witnessed a change from a situation in which Australian foreign policy concerns were expressed through the British government acting on behalf of the British Empire to one where the relationship with Britain is important in respect to trade to Australia but certainly not a dominating political influence. Current British-Australian relations can be considered as a complex interdependence. However, the political ties between Great Britain and Australia are slowly pulling apart. On November 11, 1975, the Governor-General Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Australian Prime Minister, Gogh Whitlam60. A sense of national hostility against Kerrs decision was widespread due to suspicion of British manipulation. That event spurred movements in regards to decreasing the power of the Governor-General in the next decade. Important constitutional changes were made by the Australian Acts in 1986 passed by both the Australian parliament and the Parliament of the United Kingdom61. Previous to that act, the Queen had important powers of overriding the Governor, which in practice meant the British government had those overriding powers. After the passing of the Australian Act, the Governor performs entirely independently of the Queen and the British government. Instead the governor acts on the advice of the Australian Prime Minister62. Thus, the British monarch has had no direct influence over Australia as of 1986. Still, the British monarch is the head of state in Australia. However, the role of the British monarch might change in the near future due to high support by Australians towards republicanism. During the 1990s this issue of republicanism has emerged into a
57 58

Fellman, Michael. Sam I am. Saturday Night. Toronto, Oct 1996. p.43 Fellman, Michael. Sam I am. Saturday Night. Toronto, Oct 1996. p.43 59 Cameron, Ian O., Canada, the Commonwealth and South-Africa. Millennium. 18 (1989): 205-225. p.205 60 Brett-Crowther, M.R., The Future of the Crown. Round Table. April (1993): 119-126. p. 121 61 McGarvie, Richard E. Governorship in Australia today. The Parliamentarian. July 1994. p.150 62 McGarvie, Richard E. Governorship in Australia today. The Parliamentarian. July 1994. p.150

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very important political point of discussion. A referendum will be held in 1999 discussing this issue due to the build up a momentum to transform Australia from constitutional monarchy to a republic. Republican support has firmed around fifty-five percent, with support for the status quo at thirty-five percent63. Despite these political forces towards republicanism, the economic relationship between Great Britain and Australia is stronger than ever. The importance of the Australian-Britain investment relationship is far beyond what could be expected from the sizes of the two economies. Australia sends about thirty-five percent of its offshore direct investment to Britain, which is eight times more than could be expected from the size of the British economy64. Britain sends about seven percent of its offshore direct investment to Australia, which is five times more than could be expected from the size of the Australian economy. Further, Britain is by far the major destination for Australian offshore investment, and Australia is the third most significant destination for British offshore investment. Australias exports to Great Britain had a trend rate of fourteen percent over the five years to 1993. All these statistics reveal a firmly based economic relationship between the two countries. New Zealands political ties to Britain are becoming less important both due to New Zealands increased interest in the South Pacific and the United States and to an increased movement of republicanism. Still, New Zealand looks towards the United Kingdom for trade. New Zealand has also been tightening its relations with Australia through free trade agreements. The foreign policies of New Zealand, can be largely explained in terms of a gradual evolution from the dependence on security offered by British policies to a dependence on the United States as the effective guarantor of New Zealands strategic interests65. In respect to trade, however, New Zealand continued its reliance on the United Kingdom. However, when Britain joined the EEC in New Zealand viewed Britains membership as a threat to its economy. At that time, fifty-four percent of New Zealands agricultural exports went to Britain, which is a significant amount when agriculture makes out ninety-six percent of all total exports66. Thus, the Commonwealth was less important for political than economic reason in respect to New Zealands relations. The developments in Britains relationship to Canada, Australia and New Zealand, reflect that trade between these states continues to be important while political ties are weakening. We currently live in a world of globalization where trade between states is one of the major components influencing inter-state relations. Australia and New Zealand have tightened their links to Asian states through different trade organizations. At the same time, it looks like trade between Commonwealth states might increase despite the regional differences inherent in the institution. The Commonwealth states share business values and cultural traits, and trade between such states is therefore likely
63

Orr, Graeme. Tinkering with Convention: Voluntary Voting at Australias 1997 Constitutional Convention Election.. Electoral Studies. 17 (Dec. 1998): 575-581. p.575 64 West, Katharine. Britain, the Comonwealth and the Global Economy. The Round Table. (1994) p. 415 65 Clements, Kevin P. New Zealands relations with the UK, the US, and the Pacific. Alternatives 10 (1985): 591-605. p.591 66 Clements, Kevin P. New Zealands relations with the UK, the US, and the Pacific. Alternatives 10 (1985): 591-605. p.592

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to occur despite geographic difficulties. This assessment agrees with Samuel Huntington who claims that most conflicts will appear between groups that are of different civilizations. If one could make the claim that the Commonwealth of independent states share vision of cultural traits and history, conflicts between states of the Commonwealth are not that likely to occur. Thus, the Commonwealth might play role as a peacekeeping institution. The Commonwealth will continue to be an important institution economically, especially for its smaller member states. Even though Australia might dismiss its current status as a monarchy and become a republic, Australia will still be a member of the Commonwealth, and would then accept Queen Elizabeth II as head of the Commonwealth. Thus, any change in Australian constitution would not impact the Commonwealth to the extent that it might impact the importance of the Crown as an institution. Global trade and the emergence of international trade association are important factors which will decide whether the Commonwealth will sustain as an association. Currently, trade is very frequent between members of the Commonwealth, and it is likely that these trade patterns will continue to exist. It is important to recognize the effects the remnants of the British Empire have on current global issues. Colonialism has resulted in the current economic differences between Northern and Southern states, where North reflect the relatively wealthy and industrialized states like Great Britain and Australia, while the developing states are considered as the South67. Thus, the Commonwealth draws its members both from the North and the South. As an international organization, the Commonwealth can make use of the resources within the organization to relieve some of the economic tension in former British colonies by initiating development programs in needy member states. The trends in recent times have been that economic ties to Great Britain have stayed strong despite political separation. Thus, the relationship between Great Britain and its ex-colonies is that of a simultaneous disintegration of political means and an integration of economic trade relations.

67

McLean, Iain. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p.345

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