If for a round bar cross section of the chosen diameter the cooling curves are calculated at three or five

characteristic points (surface, (3/4)R, (1/2)R, (1/4)R, center), using the HEATTRANSF module, the CCT-DIAGR module enables the user to read off the hardness values after quenching at those points and to obtain the hardness distribution curve displayed graphically on the computer screen. In the case of delayed quenching with discontinuous change of cooling rate, the prediction of structural transformations and hardness values after quenching from an ordinary CCT diagram is not correct because the incubation time consumed (at any point of the cross section) before the cooling rate abruptly changes has not been taken into account. For a detailed explanation see Shimizu and Tamura [11].

6.3.3 RETAINED AUSTENITE

AND

CRYOGENIC TREATMENT

The martensite start (Ms) and martensite finish (Mf) temperatures for unalloyed steels depend on their carbon content, as shown in Figure 6.119. As can be seen from this diagram, when steels of more than 0.65% C are quenched the austenite-to-martensite transformation does not end at room temperature (208C (688F)) but at some lower temperature, even at temperatures much lower than 08C (328F). Consequently, after these steels are quenched to room temperature, a portion of austenite will remain untransformed; this is referred to as retained austenite. The greater the amount of carbon in the steel, the greater the amount of retained austenite after quenching, as shown in Figure 6.120c. Retained austenite, which is a softer constituent of the structure, decreases the steels hardness after quenching. If present in amounts of more than 10%, a substantial decrease in the hardness of the quenched steel may result (see curve a of Figure 6.120a). When quenching hypereutectoid steels from the usual hardening temperature (Figure 6.120b) i.e., from the g Fe3C region, the same hardness will result independently of carbon content (curve b in Figure 6.120a), because the hardness of martensite depends only on the carbon dissolved in austenite (g), which further depends (according to the solubility limit, line SE) on the hardening temperature. The structure of hardened hypereutectoid steels therefore consists of martensite Fe3C retained austenite. When quenching hypereutectoid steels from the region of pure austenite (g), i.e., from above the Acm temperature (which is not usual), the structure after hardening consists only of martensite and retained austenite, and the hardness decreases with carbon content as shown

600 500 Temperature, 8C 400 300 200 100 20 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 C, wt% Mf Ms

FIGURE 6.119 Martensite start (Ms) and martensite finish (Mf) temperatures vs. carbon content in unalloyed steels.

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

c 1000 b Hardness, HV10 800 a 600 (a) Quenched from region to 0C (b) Quenched from + Fe3C region to 0C (c) After transformation to 100% martensite 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

400

200 0.0

(a)
Temperature, C
1000 900 800 700 600

Usual hardening temp.

+ S

A cm + Fe3C

(b)
Retained austenite, vol%
40 30 20 10 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

(c)

Carbon content, %

FIGURE 6.120 (a) Hardness of carbon (unalloyed) steels depending on carbon content and austenitizing temperature; (b) the range of usual hardening temperatures; (c) volume percent of retained austenite. rmebehandlung von Stahl, 2nd ed., VEB Deutscher Verlag (From H.J. Eckstein (Ed.), Technologie der Wa r Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1987.) fu

by curve a of Figure 6.120a. If the retained austenite is transformed (e.g., by subsequent cryogenic treatment) to 100% martensite, the hardness would follow curve c in Figure 6.120a. When after hardening the steel is kept at room temperature for some time or is heated to the temperature range corresponding to the first tempering stage, the retained austenite is stabilized, which implies that it has become more difficult to transform when subjected to cryogenic treatment. The stabilization of retained austenite is assumed to be due to the dissolution, at the arrest temperature, of the martensite nuclei formed during cooling from the austenitizing temperature. When martempering is performed, i.e., the quenching process is interrupted somewhere around the Ms temperature, a similar stabilization of retained austenite occurs. When the cooling to room temperature is then continued, the same effect, in principle, results as that obtained by the subzero cryogenic treatment with respect to the transformation of retained austenite to martensite. The initial amount of retained austenite (after quenching) is dependent to a very large extent on the austenitizing (hardening) temperature. The higher the hardening temperature, the greater the amount of retained austenite, but greater amounts of retained austenite may also be transformed to martensite by subzero cryogenic treatment for the same stabilizing temperature and same stabilizing time as shown in Figure 6.121. The stabilizing effect

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

120

80
x

5% transt. 40
x x

40% 0

30

20

10

(a) Stablizing temperature, C

120
x

101

Stablizing time, min

x

102

103

104

80
x x

20%

40 70% transt. 0 101

x

60

50

40

30

(b)

Stablizing time, min

102

103

104

120

x x

30% 40
x

80

50 40
x x

70% transt. 0 101

60

(c)

Stablizing time, min

102

103

104

FIGURE 6.121 Influence of stabilizing temperature and time on the amount of retained austenite that transforms on being subzero treated at 1808C for the ball bearing steel AISI 52100. (a) Austenitizing temperature 7808C; 9.4% retained austenite after quenching; (b) austenitizing temperature 8408C; 18% retained austenite after quenching; (c) austenitizing temperature 9008C; 27% retained austenite after quenching. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

increases as the stabilizing temperature and time increase. After quenching from, say, 8408C (15448F) (Figure 6.121b), there is 18% retained austenite. If the subzero treatment is carried out within 5 min after the temperature of the steel has reached 208C (688F), about 70% of the retained austenite will be transformed. If 40 min is allowed to pass before the subzero treatment, 60% will be transformed, and after 50 h holding at 208C (688F) only 30% of the retained austenite will respond to the subzero cryogenic treatment. If the steel is held after quenching at a higher temperature, e.g., at 1208C (2488F), for only 10 min before subzero treatment, only 30% of the retained austenite will be transformed. In order to transform the greatest possible amount of retained austenite, the subzero cryogenic treatment should be performed immediately after quenching before tempering. The question of whether the retained austenite in the structure is always detrimental or whether in some cases it can be advantageous has still not been answered unambiguously. When dealing with carburized and case-hardened components, because of the high carbon content in the case, the problem of retained austenite is always a real one, especially with steels containing nickel. The higher alloy nickel steels, such as types AISI 4620, 4820, and

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

2400 2000 Load, kg 1600 1200 800

50% retained 0% retained austenite austenite 16MnCr5 (1.13Mn, 1.00Cr) 14NiCr14 (3.67Ni, 0.78Cr) 20MoCr4 (0.49Cr, 0.5Mo)

Ck15 (Carbon steel)

400 104

105 Cycles

106

107

FIGURE 6.122 Improvement of contact fatigue of carburized and case-hardened steels containing 50% retained austenite, according to C. Razim. (From J. Parrish, Adv. Mater. Process. 3:2528, 1994.)

9310, are particularly likely to have retained austenite in their microstructures after heat treatment because nickel acts as an austenite stabilizer. Tests performed by M. Shea (cited in Ref. [24]), showed marked improvement in tensile bending strain values when retained austenite was present in the 2030% range for AISI 8620 and 4620 steels and up to 40% for AISI 3310 steel. This report indicated that the transformation of retained austenite in the range of more than 20% allows more plastic strain to be accommodated before crack initiation because the austenite deforms and subsequently transforms to martensite. The graph in Figure 6.122, taken from work done by C. Razim, shows where large quantities of retained austenite (in the range of 50%) improve contact fatigue of carburized and case-hardened steels. In another publication [24], several grades of carburized and casehardened steels were compared (both before and after subzero treatment), and a clear improvement in bend ductility is reported for those having retained austenite. As a result of the above-mentioned investigations, when dealing with carburized and casehardened gears, an amount of 1020%, and in some instances up to 25%, of retained austenite is not objectionable for most applications and may be beneficial. On the other hand, retained austenite can be detrimental, causing premature wear of sliding on the components surface or of sliding and rolling of gear teeth, because it is a softer constituent of the microstructure. The presence of retained austenite in cases of carburized and case-hardened components that are to be subsequently ground is definitely detrimental because under certain grinding conditions it causes severe grinding burns and cracking. The susceptibility of carburized and casehardened components to cracking during grinding becomes greater, the greater the amount of retained austenite, this amount further depending on the steel grade and carburizing temperature as shown in Figure 6.123. 6.3.3.1 Transforming the Retained Austenite When steels are tempered, retained austenite decomposes to bainite during the second tempering stage (2302808C (4465368F)). For high-alloy chromium steels, hot-work steels, and high-speed steels, the range of decomposition of retained austenite is shifted toward higher temperatures. The product of decomposition, i.e., whether it is bainite or martensite, depends on the tempering temperature and time. Bainite formation occurs isothermally, i.e., at

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.