Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
USB
Universal Serial Bus
Width: 1 bit
Capacity 12 or 480
Mbit/s (1.5 to
60 MByte/s)
Style: Serial
Hotplugging? Yes
External? Yes
A USB Series “A” plug, the most common USB plug
USB is intended to help retire all legacy varieties of serial and parallel
ports. USB can connect computer peripherals such as computer
mouse, keyboards, PDAs, gamepads and joysticks, scanners, digital
cameras, printers, personal media players, and flash drives. For many
of those devices USB has become the standard connection method.
USB was originally designed for personal computers, but it has become
commonplace on other devices such as PDAs and video game
consoles. As of 2008, there are about 2 billion USB devices in the
world.[1]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Overview
• 3 Host controllers
• 4 Device classes
o 4.1 USB mass-storage
o 4.2 Human-interface devices (HIDs)
• 5 USB signaling
• 6 USB protocol analyzers
• 7 USB connector properties
o 7.1 Usability
o 7.2 Durability
o 7.3 Compatibility
• 8 Types of USB connector
o 8.1 Proprietary connectors and formats
• 9 USB cables
o 9.1 Maximum Useful Signalling Distance
• 10 Power
o 10.1 Non-standard devices
o 10.2 PoweredUSB
• 11 USB compared with FireWire
• 12 Version history
o 12.1 Prereleases
o 12.2 USB 1.0
o 12.3 USB 2.0
o 12.4 USB 3.0
• 13 Related technologies
• 14 See also
• 15 References
• 16 External links
[edit ] Hist or y
The USB 1.0 specification was introduced in November 1995. USB was
promoted by Intel (UHCI and open software stack), Microsoft (Windows
software stack), Philips (Hub, USB-Audio), and US Robotics. Originally
USB was intended to replace the multitude of connectors at the back
of PCs, as well as to simplify software configuration of communication
devices.
The original Apple "Bondi blue" iMac G3, introduced 6 May 1998, was
the first computer to offer USB ports as standard [2], including the
connector for its new keyboard and mouse.[3] USB 1.1 came out in
September 1998 to help rectify the adoption problems that occurred
with earlier iterations of USB.[4]
Smaller USB plugs and receptacles for use in handheld and mobile
devices, called Mini-B, were added to USB specification in the first
engineering change notice. A new variant of smaller USB plugs and
receptacles, Micro-USB, was announced by the USB Implementers
Forum on January 4, 2007.[5]
[edit ] Ov er view
USB devices are linked in series through hubs. There always exists one
hub known as the root hub, which is built-in to the host controller. So-
called "sharing hubs", which allow multiple computers to access the
same peripheral device(s), also exist and work by either switching
access between PCs automatically or manually. They are popular in
small-office environments. In network terms, they converge rather than
diverge branches.
When a new USB device is connected to a USB host, the USB device
enumeration process is started. The enumeration process first sends a
reset signal to the USB device. The speed of the USB device is
determined during the reset signaling. After reset, USB device setup
information is read from the device by the host and the device is
assigned a unique host-controller-specific 7-bit address. If the device is
supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating
with the device are loaded and the device is set to configured state. If
the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all
connected devices.
The host controller polls the bus for traffic, usually in a round-robin
fashion, so no USB device can transfer any data on the bus without an
explicit request from the host controller.
The computer hardware that contains the host controller and the root
hub has an interface geared toward the programmer which is called
Host Controller Device (HCD) and is defined by the hardware
implementer.
VIA Technologies licensed the UHCI standard from Intel; all other
chipset implementers use OHCI. UHCI is more software-driven, making
UHCI slightly more processor-intensive than OHCI but cheaper to
implement. The dueling implementations forced operating system
vendors and hardware vendors to develop and test on both
implementations, which increased cost.
HCD standards are out of the USB specification's scope, and the USB
specification does not specify any HCD interfaces. In other words, USB
defines the format of data transfer through the port, but not the system
by which the USB hardware communicates with the computer it sits in.
During the design phase of USB 2.0, the USB-IF insisted on only one
implementation. The USB 2.0 HCD implementation is called the
Enhanced Host Controller Interface (EHCI). Only EHCI can support hi-
speed (480 Mbit/s) transfers. Most of PCI-based EHCI controllers
contain other HCD implementations called 'companion host controller'
to support Full Speed (12 Mbit/s) and Low Speed (1.5 Mbit/s) devices.
The virtual HCD on Intel and VIA EHCI controllers are UHCI. All other
vendors use virtual OHCI controllers.
Physical Interface
05h Interface force feedback joystick
Device (PID)
Though most computers are capable of booting off USB Mass Storage
devices, USB is not intended to be a primary bus for a computer's
internal storage: buses such as ATA (IDE), Serial ATA (SATA), and SCSI
fulfill that role. However, USB has one important advantage in that it is
possible to install and remove devices without opening the computer
case, making it useful for external drives. Originally conceived and still
used today for optical storage devices (CD-RW drives, DVD drives, etc.),
a number of manufacturers offer external portable USB hard drives, or
empty enclosures for drives, that offer performance comparable to
internal drives. These external drives usually contain a translating
device that interfaces a drive of conventional technology (IDE, ATA,
SATA, ATAPI, or even SCSI) to a USB port. Functionally, the drive
appears to the user just like another internal drive. Other competing
standards that allow for external connectivity are eSATA and FireWire.
Mice and keyboards are frequently fitted with USB connectors, but
because most PC motherboards still retain PS/2 connectors for the
keyboard and mouse as of 2007, they are often supplied with a small
USB-to-PS/2 adaptor, allowing usage with either USB or PS/2 interface.
There is no logic inside these adaptors: they make use of the fact that
such HID interfaces are equipped with controllers that are capable of
serving both the USB and the PS/2 protocol, and automatically detect
which type of port they are plugged into. Joysticks, keypads, tablets
and other human-interface devices are also progressively migrating
from MIDI, PC game port, and PS/2 connectors to USB.
Apple Macintosh computers have been using USB exclusively for all
external wired mice and keyboards since January 1999 (Powerbooks
used ADB keyboards until 2005[citation needed]). The original iMac raised
public awareness of USB considerably in August 1998, as it discarded
legacy ports to use only USB. PCs had USB ports prior to the iMac's
introduction, but they were included with a full complement of
traditional ports which limited USB's adoption. The iMac's influence
can be seen in the number of USB peripherals with matching
translucent, colored plastic enclosures that were available in the late
'90s and early '00s.
• A Low Speed (1.1, 2.0) rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (187.5 kB/s) that is
mostly used for Human Interface Devices (HID) such as
keyboards, mice, and joysticks.
• A Full Speed (1.1, 2.0) rate of 12 Mbit/s (1.5 MB/s). Full Speed was
the fastest rate before the USB 2.0 specification and many
devices fall back to Full Speed. Full Speed devices divide the
USB bandwidth between them in a first-come first-served basis
and it is not uncommon to run out of bandwidth with several
isochronous devices. All USB hubs support Full Speed.
• A High-Speed (2.0) rate of 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s).
• A Super-Speed (3.0) rate of 4.8 Gbit/s (600 MB/s). The USB 3.0
specification will be released by Intel and its partners in mid-
2008, according to early reports from CNET news. According to
Intel, bus speeds will be 10 times faster than USB 2.0 due to the
inclusion of a fiber-optic link that works with traditional copper
connectors. Products using the 3.0 specification are likely to
arrive in 2009 or 2010.
USB signals are transmitted on a twisted pair data cable with 90Ω
±15% impedance,[7] labeled D+ and D−. These collectively use half-
duplex differential signaling to combat the effects of electromagnetic
noise on longer lines. D+ and D− usually operate together; they are not
separate simplex connections. Transmitted signal levels are 0.0–0.3
volts for low and 2.8–3.6 volts for high in Full Speed and Low Speed
modes, (and ±400mV in High Speed (HS) mode) this phrase is ambiguous. In FS
mode the cable wires are not terminated, but the HS mode has
termination of 45Ω to ground, or 90Ω differential to match the data
cable impedance.
The USB standard uses the NRZI system to encode data, and uses "bit
stuffing" by always injecting one artificial "zero" bit if the stream of
data contains six consecutive "ones" before converting the bit stream
to NRZI.
Though Hi-Speed devices are commonly referred to as "USB 2.0" and
advertised as "up to 480 Mbit/s", not all USB 2.0 devices are Hi-Speed.
The USB-IF certifies devices and provides licenses to use special
marketing logos for either "Basic-Speed" (low and full) or Hi-Speed
after passing a compliance test and paying a licensing fee. All devices
are tested according to the latest spec, so recently-compliant Low-
Speed devices are also 2.0 devices.
USB Connectors
There are several types of USB connectors, and some have been added
as the specification has progressed. The original USB specification
detailed Standard-A and Standard-B plugs and receptacles. The first
engineering change notice to the USB 2.0 specification added Mini-B
plugs and receptacles. The data slots in the A - Plug are actually
farther in the plug than the outside power wires to prevent data errors
by powering the device first, then transferring data.
The Mini-B, Micro-A, Micro-B , and Micro-AB connectors are used for
smaller devices such as PDAs, mobile phones or digital cameras. The
Standard-A plug is approximately 4 by 12 mm, the Standard-B
approximately 7 by 8 mm, and the Micro-A and Micro-B plugs
approximately 2 by 7 mm.
Miniplug/Microplug
1 VCC Red +5 V
2 D- White Data -
3 D+ Green Data +
permits distinction of
The data cables are a twisted pair to reduce noise and crosstalk.
[edit ] Power
In addition to limiting the total average power used by the device, the
USB specification limits the inrush current (to charge decoupling and
bulk capacitors) when the device is first connected; otherwise,
connecting a device could cause glitches in the host's internal power.
Also, USB devices are required to automatically enter ultra low-power
suspend mode when the USB host is suspended; many USB hosts do
not cut off the power supply to USB devices when they are suspended
since resuming from the suspended state would become a lot more
complicated if they did.
There are also devices at the host end that do not support negotiation,
such as battery packs that can power USB powered devices; some
provide power, while others pass through the data lines to a host PC.
USB Power adapters convert utility power and/or power from a car's
electrical system to run attached devices. Some of these devices can
supply up to 1 A of current. Without negotiation, the powered USB
device is unable to inquire if it is allowed to draw 100 mA, 500 mA, or
1 A.
These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of the
two buses: USB was designed for simplicity and low cost, while
FireWire was designed for high performance, particularly in time-
sensitive applications such as audio and video. Although similar in
theoretical maximum transfer rate, in real-world use, especially for
high-bandwidth use such as external hard-drives, FireWire 400
generally, but not always, has a significantly higher throughput than
USB 2.0 Hi-Speed.[19][20][21][22] The newer FireWire 800 standard is twice
as fast as FireWire 400 and outperforms USB 2.0 Hi-Speed both
theoretically and practically.[23] The chipset and drivers used to
implement USB and Firewire have a crucial impact on how much of
bandwidth prescribed by the specification is achieved in the real world,
along with compatibility with peripherals.[24] Audio peripherals in
particular are affected by the USB driver implementation.[citation needed]
[edit ] Pr er el ea ses
•
o enabled and suspended states, which allows devices to sleep while idle.
o High-Speed Inter-Chip USB Electrical Specification Revision 1.0: Released
in September 2007.
• USB 3.0 (Future version): On September 18, 2007, Pat Gelsinger demonstrated USB
3.0 at the Intel Developer Forum. USB 3.0 is targeted at ten times the current
bandwidth, reaching roughly 4.8 Gbit/s (600MB/s) by utilizing two additional high-
speed differential pairs for "Superspeed" mode, and with the possibility for optical
interconnect.[25][26] The USB 3.0 specification is planned to be released early in the
second half of 2008,[27] and commercial products are expected to arrive in 2009 or
2010.[28]
The PictBridge standard allows for interconnecting consumer imaging devices. It typically
uses USB as the underlying communication layer.
The USB Implementers Forum is working on a wireless networking standard based on the
USB protocol. Wireless USB is intended as a cable-replacement technology, and will use
ultra-wideband wireless technology for data rates of up to 480 Mbit/s. Wireless USB is well
suited to wireless connection of PC centric devices, just as Bluetooth is now widely used for
mobile phone centric personal networks (at much lower data rates).
Streaming media
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Streaming bandwidth and storage
• 3 Protocol issues
• 4 See also
[edit] History
Attempts to display media on computers date back to the earliest days of
computing, in the mid-20th century. However, little progress was made for several
decades, primarily due to the high cost and limited capabilities of computer
hardware.
• having enough CPU power and bus bandwidth to support the required data
rates
• creating low-latency interrupt paths in the OS to prevent buffer
underrun[citation needed]
However, computer networks were still limited, and media was usually delivered
over non-streaming channels, such as CD-ROMs.
In general, multimedia content is large, so media storage and transmission costs are
still significant; to offset this somewhat, media is generally compressed for both
storage and streaming.
A media stream can be on demand or live. On demand streams are stored on a server
for a long period of time, and are available to be transmitted at a user's request.
Live streams are only available at one particular time, as in a video stream of a live
sporting event.
Unicast Connections require multiple connections from the same streaming server
even when it streams the same content
Streaming media storage size (in the common file system measurements megabytes,
gigabytes, terabytes, and so on) is calculated from streaming bandwidth and length
of the media with the following formula (for a single user and file):
storage size (in megabytes) = length (in seconds) · bit rate (in kbit/s) /
8,388.608
One hour of video encoded at 300 kbit/s (this is a typical broadband video for 2005
and it's usually encoded in a 320×240 pixels window size) will be:
If the file is stored on a server for on-demand streaming and this stream is viewed
by 1,000 people at the same time using a Unicast protocol, you would need:
This is equivalent to around 125 GiB per hour. Of course, using a Multicast protocol
the server sends out only a single stream that is common to all users. Hence, such a
stream would only use 300 kbit/s of serving bandwidth. See below for more
information on these protocols.
Designing a network protocol to support streaming media raises many issues, such
as:
• Datagram protocols, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), send the
media stream as a series of small packets. This is simple and efficient;
however, there is no mechanism within the protocol to guarantee delivery. It
is up to the receiving application to detect loss or corruption and recover
data using error correction techniques. If data is lost, the stream may suffer a
dropout.
• The Real-time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), Real-time Transport Protocol
(RTP) and the Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP) were
specifically designed to stream media over networks. The latter two are built
on top of UDP.
• Reliable protocols, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
guarantee correct delivery of each bit in the media stream. However, they
accomplish this with a system of timeouts and retries, which makes them
more complex to implement. It also means that when there is data loss on the
network, the media stream stalls while the protocol handlers detect the loss
and retransmit the missing data. Clients can minimize the effect of this by
buffering data for display.
•
Multicasting broadcasts the same copy of the multimedia over the entire
network to all clients
Unicast protocols send a separate copy of the media stream from the server
to each client. In terms of difficulty of implementing technically, these
protocols are the most simplistic. At the cost of this simplicity, there can be
massive duplication of the data being sent on the network.
• Multicast protocols were developed to try to cut down on the duplication that
Unicast protocols cause. These protocols send only one copy of the media
stream over any given network connection, i.e. along the path between any
two network routers. Many of these protocols require special routing
hardware capable of broadcasting the stream. These multicasts are one-way
connections which very closely mirror the functionality of over the air
television in that viewers lose their on-demand viewing abilities. Some of
these lost viewing abilities include rewinding and fastforwarding a media file.
There exist streaming media servers which combine Unicast and Multicast
solutions to both cut down on the bandwidth requirements and provide users
most of the on-demand functionality of a pure unicast.[1]
• IP Multicast, the most prominent of multicast protocols, must be
implemented in all nodes between server and client including network
routers. As of 2005, most routers on the Internet however do not support IP
Multicast, and many firewalls block it.[citation needed] IP Multicast is most
practical for organizations that run their own networks, such as universities
and corporations. Since they buy their own routers and run their own
network links, they can decide if the cost and effort of supporting IP
Multicast is justified by the resulting bandwidth savings.
• Peer-to-peer (P2P) protocols arrange for media to be sent from clients that
already have them to clients that do not. This prevents the server and its
network connections from becoming a bottleneck. However, it raises
technical, performance, quality, business, and legal issues.