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School Leadership & Management: Formerly School Organisation

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Job Satisfaction and the Secondary Headteacher: The creation of a model of job satisfaction
David Mercer Published online: 25 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: David Mercer (1997): Job Satisfaction and the Secondary Headteacher: The creation of a model of job satisfaction, School Leadership & Management: Formerly School Organisation, 17:1, 57-68 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13632439770168

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School Leadership & Management, Vol. 17, N o. 1, pp. 57 67, 1997

Job Satisfaction and the Secondary Headteacher: the creation of a model of job satisfaction
DAVID M ERCER
Department of Curriculum Studies, U niversity of H ong K ong, Pokfulam Road,

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H ong K ong

The research described in this paper identi es those aspects of the work of the headteacher in secondary schools which make for job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. It then considers the relationship of those aspects and, building upon the work of other researchers in this eld, offers a model of job satisfaction which is unique. In view of the current dif culties experienced in attracting applications for headship and in retaining experienced headteachers, such an understanding of what makes for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction is of paramount importance. The paper ends with a brief consideration of how this model might be used as the basis for further research efforts aimed at deepening our understanding of headship.
ABST RAC T

Introduction Job satisfaction is concerned with the affective reaction of an individual to his or her work. There can be little doubt that it is an aspect of the work situation which is worthy of study: W hat happens to people during the work day has profound effects both on the individual employee s life and on the society as a whole, and thus these events cannot be ignored if the quality of life in society is to be high . (Lawler, 197 3, p. 63) W hat is true of em ployees generally is true of the group which is the subject of this paper. W ithin the m icrocosm of society which is the school, the headteacher s in uence can be profound and consequently it is of interest to all concerned that that individual obtains satisfaction from the work situation. T he indication that this migh t not be the case is indicated by Howson (1995) in Englan d and W ales and W hitaker (1996) in the United States, who note early retirem ent rates of alm ost 30 and 25% respectively. At the sam e tim e, the perception of less senior staff that the headship is not an attractive proposition is suggested by Howson, who notes that the number of applications for deputy headships and headships is generally low. If this is the case there would appear to be an urgent need to consider the job satisfaction of this group of individuals.
1363-2434 /97/010057-11 $7.00

1997 Journals Oxford Ltd

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Satisfa ction in an Educational Context Although job satisfaction has long been an area of interest in individual situations (see, for exam ple, Locke 197 6), in education it has rarely been a prim e focus of interest. Rather, it has tended to have been subsumed within a wider consideration of lives and careers (Poppleton, 1988). In the case of the work situation faced by the headteacher, much of the published material deals with aspects which m ight im pact on job satisfaction but without referring to the concept speci cally. For exam ple, in a discussion of the process by which m ixed ability grouping in the rst years at Beachside Com prehensive cam e about, Ball (1981) writes about the place of the headteacher in m aking this happen.

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The headmaster wanted it and appointed people who were sym pathetic to it and who he thought would support him and he m anipulated things so it happened. (p. 170) and It was a desire of the staff, the desire willin gness of the headmaster. He pushed the school, he bent over backwards so the staff would want it too. (p. 171) The fact that the m ove away from banding to a m ixed ability grouping `worked in Beachside Com prehensive was presum ably a source of satisfaction to the headteacher. The problem is that it was never speci cally mentioned as such and this failure to consider m any of the aspects of the headship in terms of job satisfaction appears to be the norm in m ost other publicatio ns by individ uals researching headship. However, there have been some developm ents in the United Kingdom (Hardy, 1977; N ias, 198 1; Jones, 1987; Hill, 1994) and abroad (Friesen et al ., 1983, 1984; Sm ilan sky, 1984; Gunn & Holdaway, 1985; Borg & Riding, 1993; Johnson & Holdaway, 1994) which would suggest that there is a growing body of literatu re on the topic. W hat this work appears to be high lightin g is the view that the individual s affective reaction to work is large ly dependent on an interaction between that individual and his or her environm ent. Thus, G unn & H oldaway (1985) identify teachers and sources outside the school as the m ajor dissatis ers, with superordinates, school trustees, Departm ent of Education of cials and their policies also adding to this dissatisfaction. Sim ilarly, Leithw ood et al. (19 90) offer such factors as the quality of teachers with whom they have to work, role ambiguity and role com plexity, the school system in which they have to operate and aspects such as interest of parents and the pressure of special interest groups. In both cases the research dealt with Canadian principals, but similaritie s can be seen in the situation faced by headteachers in Englan d and W ales. One developm ent which has also com e from Canada is the m odel of job satisfaction proposed by Johnson & Holdaway (1994) . This is interesting because these researchers have draw n on a num ber of form ulatio ns of job satisfaction, such

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F IG . 1. The Johnson Holdaway m odel of job satisfaction.

as the com prehensive value approach (Locke, 1976) and facet satisfaction theory (Lawler, 1973). The end result is the m odel illustrated in Figu re 1. It should be noted that the theoretical fram ework shown in Figure 1 is an adaptation of what is contained in the Johnson & Holdaw ay artic le in that in the research undertaken with headteachers in the North East of Englan d, no evidence was found for the need for a separate consideration of the im portance of job facets for overall job satisfaction. For this reason, that feature was removed from the diagram shown. This theoretical fram ework guided research undertaken with 195 elementary and junior high school principals. The authors found that satisfaction with job facets such as relatio nships with staff and students were of partic ular importance in term s of overall job satisfaction. On the negative side, the least satisfying job facets were con ict, bureaucratic procedures, powerlessness, funding and workload. However, the chief interest of this work lies not so m uch in the actual ndings as in the theoretical model which Johnson & Holdaw ay have produced. By draw ing together variou s aspects of the work situation faced by school principals they have made us more fully aware of what m akes for job satisfaction. However, because the situation faced by the Canadian principal differs from that faced by the headteacher in Englan d and W ales it is suggested that the m odel as it stands could be developed in such a way as to m ake it m ore closely describe features of headship as they exist in these countries.

The Development of a N ew M odel of Job Satisfa ction Analysing the Data The new model of job satisfaction is based on interview data with 39 secondary headteachers located in the N orth East of Englan d conducted during a 13 m onth period ending M arch 1993. M ethodologically a grounded theory approach (G laser & Strauss, 1967) was used and the actual data were obtained by m aking use of the critical incident technique developed by Flanagan (1954) . Speci cally, the head-

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Job sa tisfaction Sense of pride in overcoming dif culties Seeing oneself as a teacher C ollegiality, protection of staff Local M anage m ent of Schools Q uality of education C om parison with other schools Staff developm ent Self-esteem, personal worth Headteacher as change agent View of signi cant oth ers Relations with pup ils Relations with parents Relations with staff Relations with go vernors Relations with headteachers C ontrol Pow er C urriculum developm ent Sense of m ission Seeing oneself as a m anager Role t Relations with the com m unity M icropolitical activity Job D issa tisfa ction Lack of collegiality Societal changes W ork pressure on staff W ork pressure on headteachers Bureaucracy M esopolitics Individual/organisation m ismatch Individual/com m unity m ismatch Attitude of signi cant others Personality/role m ismatch G overnors M icropolitics M acropolitics Local M anagem ent of Schools Interpersonal relations (including with staff) Self esteem Lack of self ef cacy, impotence C om petition (including for resources) Leading professional to chief executive Insecurity Effect on hom e life Failure to achieve m ission Lack of resources Professional isolation Lack of control Reduction in teaching role

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F IG . 2. Concepts of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

teachers were asked `Can you think of a tim e when you felt really good/bad about your job? Tell m e about it . T he response to this question was considered and the interview then took the form of an exploratio n of aspects, or concepts, which em erged. Throughout, use was m ade of what Glaser & Strauss refer to as the constant comparison of data , which m eant that while som e concepts were accepted as valid features of job satisfaction, others were rejected as being an anom aly, important only to a single individual. In this way, a total of 23 satis ers and 26 dissatis ers were identi ed. These are shown in Figu re 2. These concepts were then grouped by using what Ball refers to as `a literal manipulation of the data (Ball, 1991, p. 182) to create the general categories shown in Figu re 3. These categories were measured for relative im portance by undertaking a word count of the concepts which were identi ed in the interview data. For exam ple, when a headteacher m ade a com m ent which was deemed to relate to a particular concept, the relevant piece of the transcript was electronically transferred to a separate le under the heading `Local M anagem ent of Schools or whatever. T he com puter autom atically counted this wordage and this provided a com parison of the

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F IG . 3. C ategories of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

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relative importance of the variou s categorie s. For exam ple, the dissatisfaction concept `m acropolitic s is approxim ately six tim es that of the concept `m icropolitic s . Fairly obviously, such quanti cation of data should be treated with caution. However, the approach should be welcom ed on two grounds. In the rst place it alerts the researcher to the fact that the headteachers had a great deal to say about dissatisfaction when it came to the im pact of political in uences and changes at a national level and this could well be an indication of the importance of this concept. Secondly, this approach adds a quantitative dim ension to the norm al approach used by qualitative researchers. W hile the importance of `macropolitics or any other concept could be indicated by the norm al process of selective quotations, the inclusion of a word count give s weight to such a selection. To return to Ball, in his book The M icropolitics of the School (1987) he writes about identifying `data-bits which are then sorted into categories. W hen this process had been carrie d out it was found that `some categories fail to develop much analytical bulk and they m ay be abandoned . In effect, what has been described in this article is an electronic version of what Ball did in his research. The result of this analysis is as shown in Figu res 4 and 5. W hat can be seen from this inform ation is the very great importance of the

F IG . 4. The constituents of job satisfaction.

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F IG . 5. The constituents of job dissatisfaction.

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categories which involve how m uch in control of the situation the headteacher feels him /herself to be. O n the satisfaction side, `control of one s enviro nm ent is the m ost important, while on the dissatisfaction side `contexts within which schools operate and `ability to function as s/he sees as being im portant are the most im portant by far. In fact, by bringing together satisfaction and dissatisfaction it is possible to further condense the data, based upon degrees of sim ilarity, to suggest that we can group the categories listed in Figu re 2 into `sense of ef cacy , `perception of self and `relatio nships . In this way we have identi ed the major elem ents with which we can develop the Johnson Holdaway m odel.

Developing the Model The new m odel differs from the Johnson Holdaway m odel in a num ber of im portant ways, as can be seen by com parin g Figures 1 and 6. In the rst place, it is suggested that central to any model of job satisfaction should be `personal needs and values . This is in contrast to the Johnson H oldaway model which has `personal needs and values as apparently having similar im portance to `personal and organizational characteristics and `job facets . W hile there is little doubt that all these aspects of the job situation are im portant, it is proposed

F IG . 6. The new model of job satisfaction.

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that `personal needs and values are more central than Johnson & Holdaway would seem to suggest. Certainly, there is substantial support from the literature on job satisfaction for the centrality of needs and values. R esearchers such as Lawler (1973) , Herzberg (1966) and Locke (1976) all point to the im portance of need and value satisfaction with regard to the work situation. As Locke points out: Job satisfaction results from the appraisal of one s job as attaining or allo wing the attainment of one s im portant job values providing these values are congruent with or help to ful l one s basic needs. (Locke, 1976 , p. 1319 )

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In the research under consideratio n there were certainly a num ber of concepts `sense of m ission , `seeing oneself as a teacher , `quality of education on the positive side and `societal changes , `personality/role m ism atch , `m acropolitic s , `lack of collegiality on the negative side which related directly to need and value satisfaction. To take one exam ple relating to `macropolitics : I think M r Patten is serving his own ends, and I would say that quite openly. I don t think he has the interests of the kids any person who says schools should be treating the clients and those clients are parents and not children is a man whom I couldn t com municate with. It would seem that the actions of the Secretary of State are such as to challenge a deeply held personal belief on the part of this headteacher about the prim acy of the child. By stressing the importance of `personal needs and values , the question is raised regard ing which features of headship im pinge upon such needs and values. The answer is the grouped categories of `sense of ef cacy , `perception of self and `relatio nships . If the overall centrality of `personal needs and values is accepted, it follow s that there are aspects of headship which im pinge upon those personal needs and values, mediated through these grouped categories. Johnson & Holdaw ay suggested that the important characteristics in this respect are `organisational and `personal (see Figu re 1). By `organisational they mean such aspects as size of school, location of school (rural/urban), prom otion prospects, job challenge, relationships with superiors and, related to this last, autonomy. By `personal they m ean gender, age, tim e in post, self-esteem and educational quali cations. However, the situation faced by headteachers in Englan d in the last decade or so is suf ciently different from that faced by Canadian principals as to require the inclusion of a further charac teristic of the work situation the wider `contextual features. The argument for the inclusion of this dim ension centres around the idea that while the notion of organisational and personal charac teristics are acceptable, these do not operate in lim bo. Instead, based on the interview data, it has to be accepted that government policy has had, and continues to have, a m ajor im pact on the job satisfaction of headteachers. In term s of this research, the Education Act (1986) and the Education Reform A ct (19 88)

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were of partic ular im portance. Thus while Johnson & Holdaw ay suggest that `organisational charac teristics and `personal characteristics are suf cient to cover the situation as faced by principals in Canada, in order to take account of the situation in Englan d and W ales it is necessary to add a third aspect `contextual characteristics . Certainly, a consideration of Figures 4 and 5 would con rm the pre-em inence of those categories which m ake up the `context group. Given that we have a num ber of charac teristics im pacting on personal needs and values and mediated through the characteristic groupings of `self perception , `relatio nships and `sense of ef cacy , how does this affect overall job satisfaction? To answer this it is necessary to consider the idea that an indvidual s perception of his/her work situation relates to the thought processes which this perception calls into play. It is this which provides the link between the m ain part of the m odel and the nal outcom e. Of particular im portance in this respect are Lawler s discrepancy theory (Lawler, 1973), Argyris ef cacy theory (Argyris , 1964) and the vario us equity theories which have been proposed (Lawler, 1971 ; Locke, 1976). It would appear from the literature that discrepancy theory and ef cacy theory are closely linked in that both deal with the perception of the worker as to how the returns s/he obtains from employm ent match what s/he feels ought to be obtained. It is the extent to which a match occurs that leads to the perception of job satisfaction. The extent to which the two approaches are linked is suggested by Locke (1976) , who proposes that the theories involve two different levels of explanation of the same thing, with discrepancy theory positing a m odel of job satisfaction with equity theory providing the content for that m odel (p. 1321). A s far as ef cacy theory is concerned, Argyris is of the opinion that job satisfaction is a direct result of a sense of pride in the worker s own achievem ents (Argyris, 1964). In each case, the theoretical rationale for the job perception/job satisfaction relatio nship is that job perceptions mediate relations between environm ental events (in the widest sense) and affective reactions to these events. Certainly, a consideration of the interview data collected for this research would appear to support the view that the extent to which personal needs and values are perceived to be satis ed is the key constituent of job satisfaction. Thus for exam ple, in situations where the concept `control is not perceived as being obtainable, job dissatisfaction is a consequence. This is illu strated in the words of one headteacher: I think m ost heads would say that there have been m ore dissatisfying incidents than satisfying ones. Simply because, from talkin g to other heads, they hate this feeling about being out of control of the situation. A nd that s how so m any of us have felt over the last few years, through no fault of our own. Referrin g to the confusion surrounding the inclusion of Technology in the N ational Curric ulum , he continues I feel that I have no control over what is happening in the area of technology. It s all being dictated by the D fE anyway, and it s such a

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Job Satisfaction m uddle, it s such a confusion. I hate to work like that. I hate to be in a position where I have to have a meeting with parents next m onth to discuss options and I can t tell them what s going to be there! I hate that feeling of being out of control and I m afraid that s happening more and m ore, sim ply because of the outside factors. I often liken my job to the old plate spinner on television, going around starting plates up and then keeping them spinning and rushing back. A nd now we ve reached the point where half a dozen of them are crashing to the ground, alm ost because I just haven t got the tim e to go and check that they re spinning still. That feeling of helplessness alm ost and I know that other heads have felt this they just don t feel totally in control of what s happening.

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It is as though the personal need to be in control of one s life is under attack and consequently this particular facet of headship is a source of dissatisfaction. The other concepts which make up the variou s facets of headship could be treated in a sim ilar manner and the relatio nship between job facet and overall job satisfaction greatly strengthened. In this way, the overall logic of the m odel illu strated in Figure 6 can be dem onstrated.

The Value of the M odel of Job Satisfaction The research described in this paper can be viewed as a starting point for a num ber of developm ents which, if carried through, would extend our knowledge of both job satisfaction and headship. The words of Van D alen are particularly relevant to this notion. In his comparison of m odels and theories he states: In sum m ary, some scholars argue that models are judged by their usefulness and theories by their truthfulness; m odels are not theories but tools that are used as a basis for form al and rigo rous theory construction. (Van D alen, 1979, p. 55 56) By using the m odel developed in this paper it would be possible to focus on a variety of research areas, an understanding of which would allow the creation of form al and rigorou s theories, as suggested by Van D alen. Exam ples of such areas include job satisfaction and tim e in post, job satisfaction and career, the characteristics of headship, the growing gap between headteachers and other staff, autonom y and job satisfaction, job satisfaction and gender and job satisfaction and school effectiveness. Some of these have already been touched upon by researchers, but there are still rich opportunities for us to deepen our understanding of headteachers and the job they do.

Applying the M odel of Job Satisfa ction An important feature of headteacher developm ent in Englan d and W ales in recent months has been the introduction of a N ational Professional Quali cation for Headship (N PQ H). As has been pointed out by H ufton (1996) , within this

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quali cation there are a total of 45 identi able tasks, 18 of which are related to leadership, 19 to managerial aspects, with the rem aining eight being a crossover between the two. However, the research described in this article indicates that m uch of the concerns of the headteacher relate to m anagerial rather than educational aspects of the job they do. If it is correct that these individuals are m ore m anager than educator, m ight it be the case that the T eacher Training Agency has got its plans wrong? Has it m isjudged the situation and is it preparin g potential headteachers for a job which no longer exists? W ith the em phasis in Englan d and W ales on self-managem ent of schools, it m ay be that an overem phasis on leadership aspects will leave new headteachers without the m anagerial skills they so badly need. On the other hand, it may be that as headteachers set up ef cient m anagerial systems within their schools they m ay nd them selves with the opportunity to revert to the traditional role of headteacher as leading professional (Hughes, 1972). It will be interesting to see how this tension works itself out and how individuals who go through the proposed program m e feel about the job they do in terms of the key aspects of the m odel contained in this paper `sense of ef cacy , `relationships and `self-perception .

Conclusion The overall effect of the changes identi ed in this paper is to offer a m odel of job satisfaction which more closely m irro rs the situation faced by secondary headteachers in Englan d than either the varie ty of generic m odels which have been developed in the business eld or the speci c model offered by Johnson & Holdaway. This increase in accuracy is im portant because it allo ws educationalists and policy m akers to identify features of headship which can be developed in such a way as to increase the job satisfaction of headteachers.
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