Organelles and their functions Organelles- are specialized structures inside the cell that perform specific cel

lular processes. The principal parts of a cell are (1) the cell membrane, (2) the protoplasm and its oraganelles, and (3) the nucleus (in some types of cells). Cell membrane or Plasma Membrane A plasma membrane appears to be a double layer of phospholipids molecule s. Each phospholipid is composed of a lipid, a phosphate group, and a small amou nt of carbohydrate (oligosaccharide). Protein molecules are also found embedded in phospholipids. Thus, the membrane is composed of both protein and phospholipi d molecules. The Lipid Bilayer The lipid is a phospholipid and each molecule has a polar "head" region and a nonpolar "tail" region. The head portion is hydrophobic ("water fe aring" or not attracted to water) . They position themselves to face toward the watery environment outside and inside the cell. While the tail portion is hydrop hilic ("water loving" or attracted to water). They turn inward toward one anothe r, where there is no water. At body temperature, the phospholipid bilayer is a liquid. It ha s the consistency of olive oil. The proteins are able to change their position b y moving laterally. The fluid-mosaic model is a working description of membrane structure. It states that the protein molecules form a shifting pattern within the fluid phospholipid bilayer. Choles terol lends support to the membrane. The Proteins There are proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer that form passa ge ways for materials. Some are embedded in the outer surface, inner surface, an d some extend all the way from one side to another. These proteins often recogni ze specific materials and allow them to pass through the membrane or they transp ort them across - selectively permeable. Short chains of sugars are attached to the outer surface of some protein and lipid molecules. These are called glycoproteins and glycolipids, respective ly. These carbohydrate chains, specifi c to each cell, help mark the cell as belonging to a particular individual. They account for why people have different blood types, for example. Other glycoproteins have a special confi guration that allows them to act as a receptor for a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. Some plasma membrane prote ins form channels through which certain substances can enter cells. Others are e ither enzymes that catalyze reactions or carriers involved in the passage of mol ecules through the membrane. Functions of Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane: 1. It surrounds and protects the cell and its protoplasmic conte nts. 2. It serves as a boundary between the environment and the insid e of the cell. 3. It gives form and shape to cells. 4. It aslo plays the role of connecting one cell to two or more adjacent cells.

Plasma Membrane Function Since the plasma membrane is said to be selectively permeable, Small, lipid-soluble molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can pass thro ugh the membrane easily. The small size of water molecules allows them to freely cross the membrane by using protein channels called aquaporins. Ions and large molecules cannot cross the membrane without more direct assistance. I. Passive Mechanisms for Transport Across Cell Membranes A. Diffusion Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentrati on to an area of lower concentration, until they are equally distributed. Diffus ion is a passive way for molecules to enter or exit a cell. No cellular energy i s needed to bring it about. B. Osmosis or The Diffusion of water Osmosis is the net movement of water across a semipermeablemembrane, from an are a of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. The membrane separa tes the two areas, and solute is unable to pass through the membrane. Water will tend to flow from the area that has less solute (and therefore more water) to t he area with more solute (and therefore less water). A solution with the higher concentration of solutes is said to be hypertonic. A solution with the lower solute concentration is hypotonic. A solution with solute concentrations on both sides that are equal is said to be isotonic. C. Facilitated Diffusion of Solutes Facilitated Transport During facilitated transport, a molecule is transported across the plasma membra ne from the side of higher concentration to the side of lower concentration. Thi s is a passive means of transport because the cell does not need to expend energ y to move a substance down its concentration gradient. Each protein carrier, sometimes called a transporter, binds only to a particular molecule, such as glucose.Type 2 diabetes results when cells lack a s ufficient number of glucose transporters. Active Transport Its the movement of substances across the membrane that requires the expenditure of energy by the cell. In active transport, membrane proteins actively pump spec ific solutes across the membrane against the solutes concentration gradient. Exocytosis and Endocytosis A cell uses the process of exocytosis, to export bulky materials from its cytopl asm to the outside. Exocytosis is the movement of materials out of the cytoplasm of the cell via mem branous vesicles. To import large molecules, the cell uses a transport process c alled endocytosis Endocytisis is the movement of materials into the cytoplasm of the cell via memb

ranous vesicles. Phagocytosis, or "cell eating" is a special kind of endocytosis.

Protoplasm and its organelles A Protoplasm is a mass of jellylike material that encloses by the plasma membrane. It is colorless or somewhat grayish, transluscent, viscous substance that is capable of flowing. Also, it is a colloid, so that it can change its sta te from a semisolid gel to a semiliquid solution. Its texture also varies. It is composed 20 percent carbon, 3 percent nitrogen, and 5 percent trace elements. Cytoplasm and Karyoplasm or Nucleoplasm If nucleus is present, the protoplasm is differentiated into two: (1) Cy toplasm, the protoplasm lying inside the nucleus; and (2) karyoplasm or nucleopl asm, the protoplasm inside the nucleus. Organelles in the Protoplasm Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion): Powerhouse of the Cell They are microscopic rod-shaped bodies in the cytoplasm. Center of Cellu lar Respiration, a process in which the energy-rich Adenosine Triphosphate or AT P, a high energy compound in cells that functions in energy storage and transfer , is produced. The mitochondrion is enclosed by 2 membranes The mitochondrion has only 2 compartments 1. The inner membrane space forms one fluid filled compartment 2. The inner membrane encloses the second compartment, containin g a fluid called the mitochondrial matrix The inner membrane is highly folded and has enzymes embedded in it that are responsible for the production of ATP. Each fold is called a crista (e); they greatly increase the membranes s urface area for ATP production. Ribosomes: Protein Factories of the Cell A tiny dotlike structures. It composed of nucleic acids (RNA) and protei ns. They are numerous in cells that manufacture great amounts of protein. The sy nthesis of proteins occurs in ribosomes. The Endomembrane System Endoplasmic Reticulum: Manufacturers and Shippers of the Cell The endoplasmic reticulum has two portions. Rough ER is studded with rib osomes on the side of the membrane that faces the cytoplasm. Here, proteins are synthesized and enter the ER interior, where processing and modifi cation begin. Some of these protein s are incorporated into membrane, and some are for export. Smooth ER, continuous with rough ER, does not have attached ribosomes. Smooth ER synthesizes the phospholipids that o

ccur in membranes and has various other functions, depending on the particular c ell. Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Bodies: Packaging counters of the Cell The Golgi apparatus is named for Camillo Golgi, who discovered in 1898.S ome believe that they are part of the ER and that it is in them where membranes for the ER are manufactured. They are also believed that they prepare proteins f or secretions after they are released from ER. Vacuoles: Storage Tanks of the Cell It is a fluid-filled cavities that are surrounded by membranes. The vacu olar membrane regulates the molecular traffic between vacuole ad the cell substa nces. Food vacuole - Stores food taken in by cells and later works in conjunct ion with the lysosomes. Central vacuole (plants) - serve as a large lysosome; help plants grow i n size; store vital chemicals. Contractile vacuole - Found in a number of protests and play a role in o smoregulation Lysosomes: Suicide Bags of the Cell Lyso means "dissolving power," and some means "body." It is discovered o nly in 1952. They are found to be rich in strong hydrolytic enzymes which are ke pt intact by a thick lysosomal membrane. The enzymes are capable of breaking dow n and destroying a number of important cellular constituents. Centrosomes and Centrioles: Helpers in Cell Division A mass or dense protoplasm with structures called centrioles. As part of the cytoplasm, centrioles duplicate and form at the center for the spindle fibe r formation during cell division. Cytoskleton: Framework of the cell A cytoskeleton supports the internal system and gives the cell its shape . 1. Microfilaments Solid helical rods composed mainly of the globular protein actin These filaments can help cells change shape and move by assembli subunits)at one end and disassembling (losing subunits)

ng (adding at the other

2. Intermediate Filaments They are made up of fibrous proteins and have a rope-like struct ure. They often help to anchor. 3. Microtubules They are straight hollow tubes composed of globular proteins cal led tubulins. They are very easily assembled and disassembled in various parts

of the cell. Nucleus:The Control Center of the Cell The DNA inside the nucleus is the cells heredity blueprint. Most of the DNA is attached to proteins forming long fibers called chrom atin. During cell division it becomes coiled structures called chromosomes. Also in the nucleus is a mass of fibers and granules called the nucleolu s. The nucleolus is a combination of DNA, RNA, and proteins, and its where r ibosomes are made. Enclosing the nucleus and separating it from the rest of the cell is a n uclear envelope. Reference: Biology by Carmelita Capco and Gilbert Yang highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073525464/.../chapter03.pdf