Siege of Budapest

1944 - 2014

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Contents
Articles
Siege of Budapest Operation Margarethe Mikls Horthy Ferenc Szlasi Arrow Cross Party Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch Ivn Hindy Raoul Wallenberg Kroly Szab Pl Szalai Otto Fleischmann Shoes on the Danube Promenade Budapest Ghetto Gerhard Schmidhuber 1 9 10 28 32 37 40 41 58 63 65 66 70 73

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 76 78

Article Licenses
License 80

Siege of Budapest

Siege of Budapest
Siege of Budapest
Part of the Budapest Offensive (Eastern Front of World War II)

A Soviet soldier writing "Budapest" in Cyrillic on a signpost after the siege. Date 29 December 1944 13 February 1945 (1 month, 14 days)

Location Budapest, Hungary Result Soviet victory

Belligerents
Germany Hungary Soviet Union Romania

Commanders and leaders

K. Pfeffer-Wildenbruch(POW) Ivn Hindy(POW) Gerhard Schmidhuber Rodion Malinovsky Fyodor Tolbukhin Nicolae ova

Strength
180,000 (90,000 for city defense) 500,000+ (170,000 for city assault)

Casualties and losses

99,000150,000 dead, wounded or captured Soviet: 80,026 dead and missing [1][2] 240,056 wounded and sick 40,000 civilians dead

The Siege of Budapest refers to the Soviet Union's capture of the Hungarian capital city of Budapest towards the end of World War II in Europe. Part of the broader Budapest Offensive, the siege began when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 29 December 1944 by the Red Army and the Romanian Army. The siege ended when the city unconditionally surrendered on 13 February 1945. It was a decisive victory for the Allies in their push towards Berlin.

Siege of Budapest

General situation
Suffering from nearly 200,000 deaths in three years fighting the Soviet Union, and with the front lines approaching its own cities, by early 1944 Hungary was ready to exit the war. As political forces within Hungary pushed for an end to the fighting, on 19 March, 1944, Germany preemptively launched Operation Margarethe and entered Hungary. For nearly two months, the front line on the Eastern Front stabilized and the world awaited the Allied invasion to "Fortress Europe" in the west. At this point, the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Mikls Horthy, temporarily put Hungary's attempts to quit the war on hold. In October 1944, after successive Allied victories at Normany and Falaise, and after the collapse of the Eastern Front following the stunning success of the Russian summer offensive, Bagration, Horthy again attempted to negotiate a separate peace with the Allies. Upon hearing of Horthy's efforts, Hitler launched Operation Panzerfaust to keep Hungary on the Axis side, and forced Horthy to abdicate. Horthy and his government were replaced by "Hungarist" Ferenc Szlasi, led by the far-right National Socialist Arrow Cross Party. As the new right-wing government and its German allies prepared the defense of the capital, IX SS Mountain Corps, consisting of two Waffen SS divisions, was sent to Budapest to strengthen the city's defense.

The Siege
Fighting forces
The besieging Soviet forces were part of Rodion Malinovsky's 2nd Ukrainian Front. Formations that actually took part in the fighting appear to have included the 53rd Army, 7th Guards Army, portions of the 3rd Ukrainian Front, including the 46th Army, and the Romanian 7th Army Corps. Arrayed against the Soviets was a collection of German Army (Heer), Waffen-SS, and Hungarian Army forces. The Siege of Budapest was one of the bloodiest campaigns of World War II.

Hungarian troops man an antitank gun in a Budapest suburb.

Encirclement of Budapest
On 29 October 1944, the Red Army started its offensive against the city. More than 1,000,000 men, split into two operating maneuver groups, advanced. The plan was to cut Budapest off from the rest of the German and Hungarian forces. On 7 November 1944, Soviet and Romanian troops entered the eastern suburbs, 20 kilometers from the old town. The Red Army, after a much-needed pause in hostilities, A counterattack of Soviet infantry and tanks of the 18th tank corps resumed its offensive on 19 December. On 26 December, a road linking Budapest to Vienna was seized by Soviet troops, thereby completing the encirclement. The "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezet), Ferenc Szlasi, had already fled on 9 December. As a result of the Soviet link-up, nearly 33,000 German and 37,000 Hungarian soldiers, as well as over 800,000 civilians, became trapped within the city. Refusing to authorize a withdrawal, German dictator Adolf Hitler had declared Budapest a fortress city (Festung Budapest), which had to be defended to the last man. Waffen SS General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, the commander of the IX Waffen SS Alpine Corps, was put in charge of the city's defences.

Siege of Budapest Budapest was a major target for Joseph Stalin. The Yalta Conference was approaching and Stalin wanted to display his full strength to Churchill and Roosevelt. He therefore ordered General Rodion Malinovsky to seize the city without delay.[3] During the night of 28 December 1944, the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Front contacted the besieged Germans by radios and loudspeakers and told them about a negotiation for the city's capitulation. The Soviets promised to provide humane surrender conditions and not to mistreat the German and Hungarian prisoners.[4] They also promised that the emissaries' groups would not bring weapons and would appear in cars with white flags. The next day, two groups of Soviet emissaries appeared as expected. The first one, belonging to the 3rd Ukrainian Front, arrived at 10:00 AM in the Budafok sector and was taken to the headquarter of general Karl Pfeffer von Wildenbruch. Their negotiating effort was a failure, though, as General Wildenbruch refused the surrender conditions and sent the Soviet agents back to the battlefield. When the emissaries were on the way back to their camps, the Germans suddenly opened fire, killing Captain I. A. Ostapenko. Lieutenant N. F. Orlov and Sergeant Ye. T. Gorbatyuk jumped into the trench in a timely manner and narrowly escaped. Due to heavy German fire, only during the night of 29 December did the Soviets manage to retrieve Ostapenko's body. He was buried at Budafok with full military honors.[5][6][7] The second group of emissaries belonged to the 2nd Ukrainian Front and arrived at 11:00 AM in the Kispest sector. They had an even less fortunate fate as, when the emissaries arrived, the German garrison fired at them. The leader of the emissaries, Captain Mikls Steinmetz, appealed for a negotiation, but to no avail. He was killed together with his two subordinates when the German fire struck the Soviet car.[8]

The start of the siege and the first German offensive

The Soviet offensive began in the eastern suburbs, advancing through Pest, making good use of the large central avenues to speed-up their progress. The German and Hungarian defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow down the Soviet advance. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping to take advantage of the hilly nature of Buda. In January 1945, the Germans launched a three part counter-offensive codenamed Operation Konrad. Operation Konrad was a joint German-Hungarian effort to relieve the encircled garrison of Budapest. Operation Konrad I was launched on 1 January. The German IV SS Panzer Corps attacked from Tata through hilly terrain north of Budapest in an effort to break the siege. Simultaneously, Waffen-SS forces struck from the west of Budapest in an effort to gain a tactical advantage. On 3 January, the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat. This Soviet action stopped the offensive near Bicske, less than 20 kilometers west of Budapest. The Germans were forced to withdraw on 12 January. They then launched Operation Konrad II on 7 January. The IV SS Panzer Corps attacked from Esztergom towards Budapest Airport. They tried to capture it in order to improve supplying the city by air. This offensive was halted near the airport. On 17 January, Operation Konrad III was launched. The IV SS Panzer Corps and the III Panzer Corps attacked from the south of Budapest and attempted to encircle ten Soviet divisions. This encirclement attempt failed.

Siege of Budapest

Combat intensification
Meanwhile, urban warfare in Budapest increased in intensity. Re-supply became a decisive factor because of the loss of the Ferihegy airport just before the start of the siege, on 27 December 1944. Until 9 January 1945, German troops were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next to Buda Castle as landing zones for planes and gliders, although they were under constant artillery fire from the Soviets. Before the Danube froze, some supplies could be sent on barges, under the cover of darkness and fog.

Battle of Budapest (1945)

Nevertheless, food shortages were more and more common and soldiers had to rely on finding their own sources of sustenance, some even resorting to eating their own horses. The extreme temperatures also affected German and Hungarian troops. Soviet troops quickly found themselves in the same situation as the Germans had in Stalingrad. Their men were nonetheless able to take advantage of the urban terrain by relying heavily on snipers and sappers to advance. Fighting broke out in the sewers, as both sides used them for troop movements. Six Soviet marines even managed to get to Castle Hill and capture a German officer before returning to their own lines still underground. But such feats were rare because of ambushes in the sewers set up by the Axis troops using local inhabitants as guides. In mid-January, Csepel Island was taken, along with its military factories, which were still producing Panzerfausts and shells, even under Soviet fire. Meanwhile in Pest, the situation for the Axis forces deteriorated, with the garrison facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops. On 17 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. All five bridges spanning the Danube were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops and civilians. German troops destroyed the bridges on 18 January, despite protests from Hungarian officers.

The second German offensive

On 20 January 1945, German troops launched their second major offensive, this time south of the city, blasting a 20km hole in the Soviet lines and advancing to the Danube, threatening Soviet supply lines. Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and two Army Corps that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily moved to the south of the city to counter the German offensive. Nevertheless, German troops who got to less than 20 kilometres from the city were unable to maintain their impetus due to fatigue and supply problems. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. Hitler refused. On 28 January 1945, German troops could no longer hold their ground and were forced to withdraw. The fate of the defenders of Budapest was sealed.

The Battle for Buda

Unlike Pest, which is built on flat terrain, Buda is built on hills. This allowed the defenders to site artillery and fortifications above the attackers, greatly slowing the Soviet advance. The main citadel, (Gellrt Hill), was defended by elite Waffen-SS troops who successfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German forces were fighting for the city cemetery amongst shell-opened tombs; it would last for several days. The fighting on Margaret Island, in the middle of the Danube, was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as a parachute drop zone as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the city center. The 25th Guards Rifle Division operated from the Soviet side in combat on the island (for losses see below).

Siege of Budapest On 11 February 1945, Gellrt Hill finally fell after six weeks of fighting when the Soviets launched a heavy attack from three directions simultaneously. Soviet artillery was able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining Axis defenders, who were concentrated in less than two square kilometres and suffering from malnutrition and disease. Despite the lack of supplies, the Axis troops refused to surrender and defended every street and house. By this time, some captured Hungarian soldiers defected and fought on the Soviet side. They were known collectively as the "Volunteer Regiment of Buda." After capturing the southern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to Castle Hill. On 10 February, after a violent assault, Soviet marines established a bridgehead on Castle Hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half.

The third German offensive, breakout, and surrender

Hitler still forbade the German commander, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, to abandon Budapest or to attempt a breakout. But the glider flights (DFS 230) bringing in supplies had ended a few days earlier and parachute drops had also been discontinued. In desperation, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch decided to lead the remnants of his troops out of Budapest. The German commander did not typically consult the Hungarian commander of the city. However, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch now uncharacteristically included General Ivn Hindy, in this last desperate breakout attempt. On the night of 11 February, some 28,000 German and Hungarian troops began to stream northwestwards away from Castle Hill. They moved in three waves. Thousands of civilians were with each wave. Entire families, pushing prams, trudged through the snow and ice. Unfortunately for the would-be escapees, the Soviets awaited them in prepared positions around the Szll Klmn tr area. Troops, along with the civilians, used heavy fog to their advantage. The first wave managed to surprise the waiting Soviet soldiers and artillery; their sheer numbers allowed many to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate. Soviet artillery and rocket batteries bracketed the escape area, with deadly results. Despite heavy losses, five to ten thousand people managed to reach the wooded hills northwest of Budapest and escape towards Vienna. 600700 German soldiers reached the main German lines from Budapest. Roughly a third of these soldiers belonged to the "Feldhernhalle" Panzergrenadier Division, and 170 to the Waffen-SS. The number of Hungarian escapees was around 80 (44 civilians, 25 Arrow Cross Party militiamen, and 11 men in military uniform (including three students and one policeman).[9] The majority of the escapees were killed, wounded, or captured by the Soviet troops. Pfeffer-Wildenbruch and Hindy were captured by waiting Soviet troops as they emerged from an underground tunnel running from the Castle District.

Siege of Budapest

Aftermath
The remaining defenders finally surrendered on 13 February 1945. German and Hungarian military losses were high with entire divisions wiped out. The Germans lost all or most of the 13th Panzer Division, 60th Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle, 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer and the 22nd SS Volunteer Cavalry Division Maria Theresa. The Hungarian I Corps was virtually annihilated. Hungarian formations destroyed included the 10th and 12th Infantry Divisions and the 1st Armored Division. The Soviet forces experienced from 100,000 to 160,000 casualties. The Soviets claimed that that they had trapped 180,000 German and Hungarian 'fighters' in the pocket and declared they had captured 110,000 of these soldiers. However, immediately after the siege, they rounded up thousands of Hungarian civilians and added them to the prisoner of war count, allowing the Soviets to validate their previously

Marshall of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky in Budapest

inflated figures. Budapest lay in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, with historical buildings like the Hungarian Parliament Building and the Castle among them. All five bridges spanning the Danube were destroyed. In January 1945, 32,000 ethnic Germans from within Hungary were arrested and transported to the Soviet Union as forced laborers. In some villages, the entire adult population were taken to labor camps in the Donets Basin.:21 Many died there as a result of hardship and ill-treatment. Overall, more than 500,000 Hungarians were transported to the Soviet Union (including between 100,000 and 170,000 Hungarian ethnic Germans) .:38 With the exception of Operation Spring Awakening (Unternehmen Frhlingserwachen), which was launched in March 1945, the siege of Budapest was the last major operation on the southern front for the Germans. The siege further depleted the Wehrmacht and especially the Waffen-SS. For the Soviet troops, the Siege of Budapest was a final rehearsal before the Battle of Berlin. It also allowed the Soviets to launch the Vienna Offensive. On 13 April 1945, exactly two months after the Budapest surrender, Vienna fell.[10] Raoul Wallenberg, Sweden's special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944, had issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory, saving tens of thousands of lives. On January 17, 1945,[11] Wallenberg was detained by Soviet authorities on suspicion of espionage and subsequently disappeared. After the city's surrender, occupying troops forcibly conscripted all able-bodied Hungarian men and youth to build pontoon bridges across the Danube River. For weeks afterward, especially after the spring thaw, bloated bodies piled up against these same pontoons and bridge pylons.

Civilian deaths and mass rape

According to researcher and author Krisztin Ungvry, some 38,000 civilians were killed during the siege: about 13,000 from military action and 25,000 from starvation, disease and other causes. Included in the latter figure are about 15,000 Jews, largely victims of executions by Hungarian Arrow Cross Party militia. When the Soviets finally claimed victory, they initiated an orgy of violence, including the wholesale theft of anything they could lay their hands on, random executions and mass rape. An estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped,:348350[12] although estimates vary from 5,000 to 200,000.:129 Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped and sometimes murdered.:7071

Siege of Budapest Even embassy staff from neutral countries were captured and raped, as documented when Soviet soldiers attacked the Swedish legation in Germany. (See Raoul Wallenberg.)

Memoirs and diaries

The events in the Naphegy and Krisztinavros neighborhoods of Budapest are told in a few surviving diaries and memoirs. Lszl Dese, a 15 year old boy in 1944, lived at 32 Mszros Street with his family. This area was heavily attacked because of its proximity to the Southern Railway Station (Dli plyaudvar) and the strategic importance of the hill. Dese kept a diary throughout the siege.[13] The memoirs of Andrs Nmeth also describe the siege and the bombing of the empty school buildings which he and his fellow soldiers used as an observation post.[14] The memoirs of Heinz Landau, Goodbye Transylvania, present a German soldier's view of the battle. Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras,[15] written by George F. Eber, a richly detailed account of a 20-year-old Hungarian and his family living through the siege, was published posthumously in 2010. It chronicles the clever strategies employed for survival and outlined the boredom and terror of a family that was trapped, but would not capitulate. Eber, who had become an internationally-known architect, included sketches with the memoir. One of them depicts a Russian soldier silhouetted against a Budapest wall on the first night the Germans were driven out of his neighborhood. The memoir also includes an account of World War II and the post-war transition of the country into Soviet-style Communism. The memoirs of the 14 year-old dispatch runner of the Vannay Volunteer Battalion, Ervin Y. Galantay, give an insight into the battle and urban combat. The diary of the young runner describes day-to-day life and survival of both civilians and soldiers. It was published in English by the Militaria press in Budapest in 2005, under the title Boy Soldier. Joseph Szentkiralyi, who had worked in the United States prior to World War II, had been deported back to Hungary after war broke out. During the siege, he and his family endured constant artillery bombardment and street-by-street tank and infantry battles between the Germans, the remnants of the Royal Hungarian Army, and the attacking Romanian, Ukrainian and Russian forces. Szentkiralyi, wanted for questioning by Hungarian army officers, hid on the upper floors of buildings during bombing raids to avoid capture. To prevent starvation and help keep their families alive, Szentkiralyi and others risked their lives to leave their bomb shelters at night and butcher frozen horse carcasses they found in the streets. At the end, daily rations consisted of melted snow, horse meat, and 150 grams of bread. Szentkiralyi worked for the Allies after the war ended. Learning that he faced imminent arrest, he fled to Switzerland to avoid detention and likely execution by the Soviets.

Culture
Festung Budapest (2012) is a table-top war game simulation of parts of the siege using the Advanced Squad Leader (ASL) system. The module is noted for attention to historical accuracy and detail including Orders of Battle, maps and battles.

Notes
[1] Glantz, David M., and Jonathan House. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1995. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0) p. 298 [2] Krivosheev, G. F. Soviet casualties and combat losses in the Twentieth Century. (London: Greenhill Books, 1997. ISBN 1-85367-280-7) p. 152 [3] Deak, Istvn, Endgame in Budapest, Hungarian Quarterly, Autumn 2005 [4] S. M. Shtemenko. The Soviet Genetral Staff at War, Book 2, Chapter 7 (http:/ / militera. lib. ru/ memo/ russian/ shtemenko/ 24. html). Cited content: , , . 29 , , 2- 3- , .

Siege of Budapest
, , , . 2- . , 3- . . - . [5] , . ... .: , 1979. (Sergey Aleksandrovich Andrushchenko. We began at Slavutych. Military Publisher. Moskva. 1979. Chapter 5: With Hungary's capital) (http:/ / militera. lib. ru/ memo/ russian/ andruschenko_sa/ 05. html) [6] , . . .: , 1988. (Semyon Prokofievich Serikh. The immortal battalion. Military Publisher. Moskva. 1988. Chapter 3: The immortal battalion) (http:/ / militera. lib. ru/ memo/ russian/ seryh_sp/ 03. html) [7] , 1939-1945. .: , 1980. (Alexander Mikhilovich Samsonov. The collapse of the invading fascists 1939-1945. Science Publisher. Moskva. 1980. Chapter 18: Helping the European people. Section 7: The Red Army at Hungary) (http:/ / militera. lib. ru/ h/ samsonov2/ 18. html) [8] , . ... .: , 1982. (Ivan Nikitich Russiyanov. Being born in fighting. Military Publisher. Moskva. 1982. Chapter 17: The fight for Hungary) (http:/ / militera. lib. ru/ memo/ russian/ russiyanov_in/ 17. html) [9] "Budapest The Stalingrad of the Waffen-SS" by Richard Landwehr [10] Isaev, A. V. 1945-y. Triumf v nastuplenii i v oborone: ot Vislo-Oderskoy do Balatona/1945th. Triumph both in offence and defence: from Vistula-Oder to Balaton. (Moscow, 2008. ISBN 978-5-9533-3474-7) pp. 196, 199, 201 [11] Wallenbergs arrest order, signed by Bulganin in January 1945 (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ articles/ raoul-wallenbergs-arrest-order-signed-by-bulganin-in-january-1945/ Raoul) [12] "The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. Rapesaffecting all age groups from ten to seventy are so common that very few women in Hungary have been spared." Swiss embassy report cited in Ungvry 2005, p.350. (Krisztian Ungvary The Siege of Budapest 2005) [13] Dese Lszl naplja (http:/ / www. rev. hu/ html/ hu/ tanulmanyok/ 1945elott/ bpostroma. htm) (Hungarian) [14] Nmeth Andrs Mostohafiak (http:/ / mek. oszk. hu/ 02800/ 02801/ 02801. htm#7) (Hungarian) [15] Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras (http:/ / www. trafford. com/ Bookstore/ BookDetail. aspx?Book=164731)

References Further reading

John F. Montgomery, Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite. Devin-Adair Company, New York, 1947. Reprint: Simon Publications, 2002. Available online at Historical Text Archive (http://historicaltextarchive.com/books. php?op=viewbook&bookid=7&pre=1) and at the Corvinus Library of Hungarian History (http://www. hungarianhistory.com/lib/montgo/). Gosztony, Peter: Der Kampf um Budapest, 1944/45, Mnchen : Schnell & Steiner, 1964. Nikolai Shefov, Russian fights, Lib. Military History, M. 2002. James Mark. Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 19441945. Past and Present 2005: 188: 133161 (Oxford University Press). Krisztin Ungvry, The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II (trans. Ladislaus Lb), Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10468-5 Source about Soviet casualties, estimated at 80,000, not 160,000: http://www.victory.mil.ru/war/oper/15. html Ervin V. Galantay. Boy Soldier Budapest 194445, Militaria press, Budapest 2005. 319p. With photos, sketches and footnotes.

External links
World War II: Siege of Budapest (http://www.historynet.com/magazines/mhq/3033336.html)

Operation Margarethe

Operation Margarethe
Operation Margarethe was the restricted occupation of Hungary by Nazi German forces during World War II. The codename "Margarethe I" referred to the occupation by German forces alone as it was ordered by Hitler on 12 March 1944, while the term "Margarethe II" was reserved for a full-scale occupation by German forces in conjunction with those of Croatia, Romania and Slovakia.[1] The latter was never carried out. At the time of the occupation, Hungary was threatened by Soviet invasion. The Hungarian Prime Minister Mikls Kllay, with the knowledge and approval of Regent Mikls Horthy, had been discussing an armistice with the Allies. German dictator Adolf Hitler found out about these discussions and, feeling betrayed by the Hungarians, ordered German troops to implement Operation Margarethe to capture critical Hungarian facilities. Hitler invited Horthy to the palace of Klessheim, outside of Salzburg, Austria on March 15. While they conducted their negotiations, German forces quietly moved into Hungary. The meeting was merely a ruse to keep Horthy out of the country and leave the army without orders. Negotiations between Horthy and Hitler lasted until the 18th, when Horthy boarded a train to return home. When he arrived in Budapest, it was German soldiers who greeted him. Horthy was told that Hungary could only remain sovereign if he removed Kllay in favour of a government that would cooperate fully with the Germans. Otherwise, Hungary would be subject to undisguised occupation. Knowing the latter meant a gauleiter who would treat Hungary no differently than an occupied enemy country, Horthy appointed Dme Sztjay as Prime Minister to appease German concerns. The occupation was a complete surprise and resulted in it being quick and bloodless. The initial plan was to immobilise the Hungarian army, but with Soviet forces advancing from the north and east, and with British and American forces invading the Balkans, they decided to retain the forces, sending a portion to the defend the pass through the Carpathians.[2]

In Relation to Romania
Operation Margarethe II was also the name for a planned Nazi German invasion of Romania should the Romanian government decide to surrender to the Soviets.[3][4] Romania did in fact surrender in August 1944 (after King Michael's Coup), but this operation was never implemented.

References
[1] Carlile Aylmer Macartney, October Fifteenth: A History of Modern Hungary, 19291945, 2 vols. (Edinburgh University Press, 195657), II, 226. [2] Earl F. Ziemke, Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East (http:/ / books. google. be/ books?id=Pr6HhrecbZ8C& pg=PA208& lpg=PA208& dq=Operation+ Margarethe& source=bl& ots=dFwA-94uhu& sig=NpO8N2jcHTzMG-4Mn_jyDc1psO0& hl=en& sa=X& ei=loqBT5nsNNPvggfW-dDwBw& ved=0CGcQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=Operation Margarethe& f=false), U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968 [3] [books.google.com/books?isbn=1601452977] [4] [books.google.com/books?isbn=0300078137]

Mikls Horthy

10

Mikls Horthy
Mikls Horthy
Regent of Hungary Regency Predecessor Successor Prime Minister Spouse Issue Magdolna (b. 1902) Paula (b. 1903) Istvn (b. 1904) Mikls (b. 1907) Born Died Religion 18 June 1868 Kenderes, Austria-Hungary 9 February 1957 (aged88) Estoril, Portugal Calvinism M. Purgly de Jszshely 1 March 1920 - 15 October 1944 Kroly Huszr (acting) Ferenc Szlasia

Mikls Horthy de Nagybnya (Hungarian: Vitz[1] nagybnyai Horthy Mikls; Hungarian pronunciation:[vitez nbai horti miklo]; German: Nikolaus von Horthy und Nagybnya; 18 June 1868 9 February 1957) was regent of the Kingdom of Hungary during the years between World Wars I and II and throughout most of World War II, serving from 1 March 1920 to 15 October 1944. He was styled "His Serene Highness the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary" (Hungarian: Fmltsga a Magyar Kirlysg Kormnyzja). Horthy started his career as an officer in the Austro-Hungarian Navy, ultimately rising to the rank of Admiral. He served in the Otranto Raid and at the Battle of the Strait of Otranto (1917) and was its commander-in-chief in the last year of the First World War. After Hungarian communists under Bla Kun seized power in Hungary in 1919, proclaiming the Hungarian Soviet Republic and commencing Hungary's Red Terror, a counterrevolutionary government was formed which asked Horthy to take command of its forces. In 1919, Romanian, Czechoslovakian and Yugoslavian forces invaded Hungary and later the Romanian army overthrew Kun's government. He allowed Hungary's White Terror to persist at first but eventually shut it down and imprisoned a few extremists among the anti-communists. When the Romanians evacuated Budapest in November 1919, Horthy entered at the head of the National Army. The Hungarian Communist Party was banned, and in 1920 Horthy was declared Regent and Head of State, a position he held until his deposition in October 1944. Horthy refused to step down when the former King of Hungary, Charles IV attempted to regain his throne on two occasions. Later in 1921, the Hungarian parliament formally nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, an act that effectively dethroned the Habsburgs. A conservative who was distinctly inclined toward the right of the political spectrum, Horthy guided Hungary through the years between the two world wars and, in exchange for the restoration of some of the Hungarian territories lost by the Treaty of Trianon, he took Hungary into an alliance with Nazi Germany. In April 1941, Hungary entered World War II as an ally of Germany. Horthy's faltering allegiance to his German patrons, however, eventually led the Nazis to invade and take control of the country in March 1944. In October 1944,

Mikls Horthy Horthy announced that Hungary would surrender and withdraw from the Axis. He was forced to resign, placed under arrest and taken to Bavaria. At the end of the war, he came under the custody of American troops. After appearing as a witness at the Nuremberg war-crimes trials in 1948, Horthy settled and lived out his remaining years in Portugal. His memoirs, Ein Leben fr Ungarn (A Life for Hungary), were published in German in 1953, followed by an English translation three years later.

11

Early life and naval career

Mikls Horthy was born at Kenderes, into an old Calvinist noble family, making him one of the few openly Protestant politicians in a mostly Catholic country. Horthy entered the Austro-Hungarian naval academy at Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) at age 14.[2] The naval academy's official language was German. As a result, for the rest of his life Horthy spoke Hungarian with a slight, but noticeable, Austro-German accent.[citation needed] As a young man, Horthy traveled around the world and served as a diplomat for the Austro-Hungarian Empire in Turkey and other countries. Horthy married Magdolna Purgly in Arad in 1901. They had four children: Magdolna (1902), Paula (1903), Istvn (1904) and Mikls (1907). From 1911 until 1914 he was a naval aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Joseph, for whom he had a great respect. At the beginning of the war Horthy was commanding the War I. pre-dreadnought battleship SMSHabsburg. In 1915 he earned a reputation for boldness while commanding the new light cruiser SMSNovara. He planned the 1917 attack on the Otranto Barrage, which resulted in the largest naval engagement of the war in the Adriatic. A consolidated British, French, and, Italian Mediterranean fleet met with the Austro-Hungarian force. Despite the numerical superiority of the Entente fleet, the Austrian force victoriously emerged from the battle. The Austrian fleet remained relatively unscathed, however Horthy was wounded. After the February 1918 Cattaro mutiny, Emperor Charles selected Horthy over many more senior commanders as the new Commander in Chief of the Imperial Fleet in March 1918. In June, Horthy Mikls Horthy's parents: Paula Halassy and Istvn planned another attack on Otranto, and in a departure from the Horthy. cautious strategy of his predecessors, he committed the empire's battleships to the mission. While sailing through the night, the dreadnought SMSSzent Istvn met Italian MAS torpedo boats and was sunk, causing Horthy to abort the mission. He managed however to preserve the rest of the empire's fleet in being until he was ordered by Emperor Charles to surrender it to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on 31 October.
Admiral Mikls Horthy during World

Mikls Horthy

12 The end of the war saw Hungary turned into a landlocked nation, and hence the new government had little need for Horthy's services. He retired with his family to his private estate at Kenderes, but his role as a Hungarian leader was far from over.

Magdolna Purgly, wife of Admiral Mikls Horthy.

Dates of rank and assignments

1896 Fregattenleutnant (Frigate Lieutenant) (fregatthadnagy Sub-Lieutenant) 1900 Linienschiffleutnant (Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant) (sorhajhadnagy Lieutenant) January 1901 SMSSperber (commander) 1902 SMSKranich (commander) June 1908 SMSTaurus (commander) August 1908 SMSKaiser Karl VI (GDO-Gesamtdetailoffizier-First Officer, temporary) 1 November 1909 aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Josef 1 November 1911 Fregattenkapitn (Frigate Captain) (fregattkapitny Commander) December 1912 March 1913 SMSBudapest (commander)
The damaged SMS Novara after the Battle of Otranto.

1 January 1909 Korvettenkapitn (Corvette Captain) (korvettkapitny Lieutenant-Commander)

Mikls Horthy 20 January 1914 Linienschiffskapitn (Ship-of-the-Line Captain) (sorhajkapitny Captain) August 1914 SMSHabsburg (commander) December 1914 SMSNovara (commander) 1 February 1918 SMSPrinz Eugen (commander) 27 February 1918 Konteradmiral (ellentengernagy Rear Admiral) 27 February 1918 appointed (last) Commander in Chief of the fleet (over 11 admirals and 24 senior Linienschiffskapitn) by Emperor Karl I

13

Horthy, seriously wounded, commanded the fleet at the battle of Otranto Strait until falling unconscious.

30 October 1918 Vizeadmiral (altengernagy Vice Admiral)

Interwar period, 19191939

Commander of the National Army
Two national traumas immediately following the First World War profoundly shaped the spirit and future of the Hungarian nation. The first was the loss, as dictated by the Entente powers, of large portions of Hungarian territory that had bordered other countries. These were lands which had been Hungary's as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; they were ceded to the nations of Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria and Yugoslavia. The excisions, eventually ratified in the Treaty of Trianon at During the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, the Heroes Square of Budapest was Versailles, cost Hungary two-thirds of its completely covered by red cloth and at the base of the obelisk, a new statue was erected: Marx with a worker and a peasant. The statues of Hungarian national territory and one-third of its native [3] heroes were toppled. The Hungarian national symbols were banned; Hungarian Hungarian speakers, and dealt the historic monuments were destroyed in the name of internationalism. population a terrible psychological blow. The second trauma in some sense sprang from the first: in March 1919, after the first proto-democratic efforts at government in Hungary faltered, Communist Bla Kun seized power in the capital of Budapest.[4] Kun and his colleagues proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic, and promised the restoration of Hungary's former grandeur. Instead, his efforts at reconquest failed, and Hungarians were treated to a Soviet-style repression in the form of armed gangs who intimidated or murdered enemies of the regime. This period of violence came to be known as the Red Terror. Tibor Szamuely, a close collaborator of Bela Kun, even boasted that, "Terror is the principal weapon of our regime." Figures vary, but one generally accepted number of victims of the Red Terror is around 500 killed.[5]

Mikls Horthy Within weeks of his coup, Kun's popularity plummeted. On 30 May 1919, anti-Communist politicians formed a counter-revolutionary government in the southern city of Szeged, occupied by French forces at the time. There, Gyula Krolyi asked former admiral Horthy, still considered a war hero, to be the Minister of War in the new government and take command of a counter-revolutionary force which would be named the National Army (Hungarian: Nemzeti Hadsereg). Horthy consented, and arrived in Szeged on 6 June. Soon after, because of orders from the Entente, the cabinet was reformed, and Horthy was not given a seat in it. Undaunted, Horthy managed to retain control of the National Army by detaching the Army command from the War ministry. On 6 August French-supported Romanian forces entered Budapest. The Communist government collapsed and its leaders fled. In retaliation for the Red Terror, reactionary crews now exacted revenge in a two-year wave of violent repression known today as the White Terror. These reprisals which almost certainly exceeded the Red Terror in scope and cruelty were organized and carried out by officers of Horthy's National Army, particularly Pl Prnay[6] Gyula Ostenburg-Moravek and Ivn Hjjas.[7] Their victims were primarily Communists, Social Democrats, and Jews. Most Hungarian Jews were not supporters of the Bolsheviks, but much of the leadership of the Hungarian Soviet Republic had been young Jewish intellectuals, and anger about the Communist revolution easily translated into anti-Semitic hostility . In Budapest, Prnay installed his unit in Hotel Britannia, where the group swelled to battalion size. Their program of vicious attacks continued; they planned a city-wide pogrom until Horthy found out and put a stop to it. In his diary, Prnay reported that Horthy ...reproached me for the many Jewish corpses found in the various parts of the country, especially in the Transdanubia. This, he emphasized, gave the foreign press extra ammunitions against us. He told me that we should stop harassing small Jews; instead, we should kill some big (Kun government) Jews such as Somogyi or Vazsonyi these people deserve punishment much more in vain, I tried to convince him that the liberal papers would be against us anyway, and it did not matter that we killed only one Jew or we killed them all...[8] Horthy's liability for Prnay's excesses is controversial. On several occasions, Horthy reached out to stop Prnay from a particularly excessive burst of anti-Jewish cruelty. And the Jews of Pest went on record absolving Horthy of the White Terror as early as the fall of 1919, when they released a statement disavowing the Kun revolution, and blaming the terror on a few units within the National Army. Horthy has never been found to have personally engaged in White Terror atrocities. But his American biographer, Thomas Sakmyster, concluded that he "tacitly supported the right wing officer detachments" who carried out the terror.[9] The admiral also had practical reasons for turning a blind eye to the terror his officers wrought: he needed the dedicated White Guard officers to stabilize and reclaim Hungary. Nevertheless, it was at least another year before the terror died down. In the summer of 1920, Horthy's government took measures to rein in and eventually disperse the reactionary battalions. Prnay managed to undermine these anti-White Guard measures, but only for a short time. Prnay was put on trial for extorting a wealthy Jewish politician, and for "insulting the President of the Parliament" by trying to cover up the extortion. Found guilty on both charges, Prnay was now a liability and an embarrassment. His command was revoked, and he was denounced as a common criminal on the floor of the Hungarian parliament. After serving short jail sentences, Prnay tried to convince Horthy to restore his battalion command. The Prnay Battalion lingered for a few months more under the command of a junior officer, but the government officially dissolved the unit in January 1922 and expelled its members from the army. Prnay entered politics as a member of the government's right-wing opposition. In the 1930s, he sought and failed to emulate the Nazis by generating a Hungarian fascist mass movement. In 1932, he was charged with incitement, sentenced to six months in prison and stripped of his rank of lieutenant colonel. Prnay would support the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross and lead attacks on Jews before being killed by Soviet troops sometime during or after the siege of Budapest. Precisely how much Horthy knew or approved of the White Terror is not known. Horthy himself declined to apologize for the savagery of his officer detachments, writing later: "I have no reason to gloss over deeds of injustice and atrocities committed when an iron broom alone could sweep the country clean." And he endorsed Edgar von

14

Mikls Horthy Schmidt-Pauli's poetic justification of the White reprisals ("Hell let loose on earth cannot be subdued by the beating of angels' wings") remarking, "the Communists in Hungary, willing disciples of the Russian Bolshevists, had indeed let hell loose." The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in an internal report by delegate George Burnier, said in April, 1920: There are two distinct military organizations in Hungary: the national army and a kind of civil guard which was formed when the communist rgime fell. It is the latter which has been responsible for all the reprehensible acts committed. The Government managed to regain control of these organizations only a few weeks ago. They are now well-disciplined and collaborate with the municipal police forces. This deep hostility and fear towards Communism would be the more lasting legacy of Kun's abortive revolution: a conviction shared by Horthy and his country's ruling elite that would help drive Hungary into what might have been a fatal alliance with Adolf Hitler. The Romanian army retreated from Budapest on 14 November, leaving Horthy to enter the city, where in a fiery speech he accused the capital's citizens of betraying Hungary by supporting Bolshevism. ...The nation of the Hungarians loved and admired Budapest, which became its polluter in the last years. Here, on the banks of the Danube, I arraign her. This city has disowned her thousand years of tradition, she has Admiral Mikls Horthy enters Budapest at the head of the National Army, 16 dragged the Holy Crown and the November 1919. He is greeted by city officials in front of the Gellert Hotel. national colours in the dust, she has clothed herself in red rags. The finest of the nation she threw into dungeons or drove into exile. She laid in ruin our property and wasted our wealth. Yet the nearer we approached to this city, the more rapidly did the ice in our hearts melt. We are now ready to forgive her."[10] Following the orders of the Entente, Romanian troops finally evacuated Hungary on 25 February 1920.

15

Regent
On 1 March 1920, the National Assembly of Hungary re-established the Kingdom of Hungary. However, it was apparent that the Entente powers would not accept any return of King Charles IV (Karoly IV of Hungary) from exile. Instead, with National Army officers controlling the parliament building, the assembly voted to install Horthy as Regent; he defeated Count Albert Apponyi by a vote of 131 to 7. Bishop Ottokr Prohszka then led a small delegation to meet Horthy, announcing, "Hungary's Parliament has elected you Regent! Would it please you to accept the office of Regent of Hungary?" To their astonishment, Horthy declined, unless the powers of the office were expanded. As Horthy stalled, the politicians folded, and granted him "the general prerogatives of the King, with the exception of the right to name titles of nobility and of the patronage of the Church." The prerogatives he was given included the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers, to convene and dissolve parliament, and to command the armed forces. With those sweeping powers guaranteed, Horthy took the oath of office.[11] (Charles I did try to regain his throne twice; see Charles I of Austria's attempts to retake the throne of Hungary for more details.)

Mikls Horthy

16

Among 20th-century heads of state, Horthy's role was unique. His official position is usually translated into English as "Regent", but is better translated as "Royal Governor" or "Protector". The Hungarian state was legally a kingdom, but it had no king, and sought none, as the Entente powers would not have tolerated any return of the Habsburgs. The national government actually took the form of a parliamentary republic, with a prime minister at its head. Thus, Horthy was a constitutional figurehead, but he was by no means an impotent one.[12] Standard of Mikls Horthy. He reigned, but for the most part did not rule; he wrote no laws, but had powerful influence over his country's destiny by means of his constitutional powers, his prestige, and the loyalty of his ministers to the crown. His regal bearing, military reputation, and devotion to Hungary, lent him a royal authority as the country edged out of its Imperial past towards a modern democracy. A Hungarian witticism sums up the oddity of the arrangements: for the next 24 years, Hungary would be not merely a kingdom without a king but also a country with no coastline ruled by an admiral.

Seeking redress for Trianon

The first decade of Horthy's reign was primarily consumed by stabilizing the Hungarian political system and economy. Horthy's chief partner in these efforts was his prime minister, Istvn Bethlen. The British political and economical support for the commonly known anglophile Horthy[13][14][15] played significant role in the stabilize and consolidation of the early Horthy era in the Kingdom of Hungary.[16] Bethlen sought to stabilize the economy while building alliances with weaker nations which could advance Hungary's cause. That cause was, primarily, reversing the losses of the Treaty of Trianon. The humiliations of Trianon continued to occupy the central place in Hungarian foreign policy, and in the popular imagination; the indignant anti-Trianon slogan "Nem, nem soha!" ("No, no never!") became a ubiquitous motto of Hungarian outrage. When in 1927 the British newspaper magnate Lord Rothermere denounced, in the pages of his Daily Mail, the partitions ratified at Trianon, an official letter of gratitude was eagerly signed by 1.2 million Hungarians. But Hungary's stability was precarious, and the Great Depression derailed much of Bethlen's economic balance. Horthy replaced him with an old reactionary confederate from his Szeged days: Gyula Gmbs. Gmbs was an outspoken anti-Semite and a budding
Regent Mikls Horthy greets papal Secretary of State Eugenio Pacelli upon his arrival for a Catholic congress in Budapest in 1938. Later, as Pope Pius XII, Pacelli would support the deposed regent in his Bavarian exile.

Mikls Horthy

17 fascist. And although he agreed to Horthy's demands that he temper his anti-Jewish rhetoric and work amicably with Hungary's large Jewish professional class, Gmbs's tenure began swinging Hungary's political mood powerfully rightward. He strengthened Hungary's ties to Benito Mussolini's Italian fascist state. And most fatefully, when Adolf Hitler took power in Germany in 1933, he found in Gmbs an admiring and obliging colleague.[citation needed] Gmbs rescued the failing economy by securing trade guarantees from Germany a strategy which positioned Germany as Hungary's primary trading partner and tied Hungary's future even more tightly to Hitler's. He also assured Hitler that Hungary would quickly become a one-party state modeled on the Nazi party control of Germany. Gmbs died in 1936, before he realized his most extreme goals, but he left his nation headed into firm partnership with the German dictator.

Horthy in Budapest, August 1931.

World War II and the Holocaust

Mikls Horthy with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in Rome on 25 November 1936, during a military parade in via dell'Impero

Uneasy alliance
Hungary now entered into an intricate dance of influence with Hitler's regime, and Horthy began to play a greater and more public role in navigating Hungary along this dangerous path.

Admiral Mikls Horthy during a visit with Adolf Hitler. The two men sparred often, and eventually Hitler arranged Horthy's overthrow.

Mikls Horthy

18

For Horthy, Hitler served as a bulwark against Soviet encroachment or invasion. Horthy was, in the eyes of observers, obsessed with the Communist threat. One American diplomat remarked that Horthy's anti-Communist tirades were so common and ferocious that diplomats "discounted it as a phobia."[17] Horthy clearly saw his country as trapped between two stronger powers, both of them dangerous; evidently he considered Hitler to be the more manageable of the two. Hitler was also able to wield great influence over Hungary not only as the country's major trading partner; he also fed several of Horthy's key ambitions: maintaining Hungarian sovereignty and satisfying the nationwide yearning to reclaim former Hungarian lands. Horthy's strategy was one of cautious, sometimes even grudging, alliance. How the regent granted or resisted Hitler's demands, especially with regard to Hungarian military action and the treatment of Hungary's Jews, remains the central topic by which his career has been judged. Horthy's relationship with Hitler was, by his own German and Hungarian flags in Berlin. account, a tense one largely due, he said, to his unwillingness to bend his nation's policies to the German dictator's desires. On a state visit by Horthy to Germany in August 1938, Hitler asked Horthy for troops and materiel to participate in Germany's planned invasion of Czechoslovakia. In exchange, Horthy later reported, "He gave me to understand that as a reward we should be allowed to keep the territory we had invaded." Horthy said he declined, insisting to Hitler that Hungary's claims on the disputed lands should be settled by peaceful means.[18] Three months later, after the Munich Agreement put control of southern Czechoslovakia in Hitler's hands, Hitler allowed Hungary to annex nearly one-fourth of Slovakia. Horthy enthusiastically rode into the re-acquired territory (which was predominantly populated by Hungarians to about 88%) at the head of his troops, greeted by emotional ethnic Hungarians: "As I passed along the roads, people embraced one another, fell upon their knees, and wept with joy because liberation had come to them at last, without war, without bloodshed." But as "peaceful" as this annexation was, and as just as it may have seemed to many Hungarians, it was a dividend of Hitler's brinksmanship and threats of war, in which Hungary was now inextricably complicit. Hungary was now committed to the Axis agenda: on 24 February 1939, it joined the Anti-Comintern pact, and on 11 April withdrew from the League of Nations. American journalists began to refer to Hungary as "the jackal of Europe."[19] This combination of menace and reward drifted Hungary closer to a Nazi client state.[20] In March 1939, when Hitler took what remained of Czechoslovakia by force, Hungary was allowed to annex Carpathian Ruthenia from the First Slovak Republic as well during the Slovak-Hungarian War. During this invasion, minor conflicts had occurred between Ukrainian nationalist groups and the Hungarian military before it was secured. In August 1940, Hitler intervened on Hungary's behalf once again, taking Northern Transylvania away from Romania, and awarding it to Hungary. (Second Vienna Award). But in spite of their cooperation with the Nazi regime, Horthy and his government would be better described as "conservative authoritarian"[21] than "fascist". Certainly Horthy was as hostile to the home-grown fascist and

Mikls Horthy ultra-nationalist movements which emerged in Hungary between the wars (particularly the Arrow Cross Party) as he was to Communism. The Arrow Cross leader, Ferenc Szlasi, was repeatedly imprisoned at Horthy's command. John F. Montgomery, who served in Budapest as U.S. ambassador from 1933 to 1941, openly admired this side of Horthy's character and reported the following incident in his memoir: in March 1939, Arrow Cross supporters disrupted a performance at the Budapest opera house by chanting "Justice for Szlasi!" loud enough for the regent to hear. A fight broke out, and when Montgomery went to take a closer look, he discovered that ...two or three men were on the floor and he [Horthy] had another by the throat, slapping his face and shouting what I learned afterward was: "So you would betray your country, would you?" The Regent was alone, but he had the situation in hand.... The whole incident was typical not only of the Regent's deep hatred of alien doctrine, but of the kind of man he is. Although he was around seventy two years of age, it did not occur to him to ask for help; he went right ahead like a skipper with a mutiny on his hands.[22] And yet, by the time of this episode, Horthy had allowed his government to give in to Nazi demands that the Hungarians enact laws restricting the lives of the country's Jews. The first Hungarian anti-Jewish Law, in 1938, limited the number of Jews in the professions, the government and commerce to twenty percent, and the second reduced it to five percent the following year; 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their jobs as a result. A "Third Jewish Law" of August 1941 prohibited Jews from marrying non-Jews, and defined anyone having two Jewish grandparents as "racially Jewish." A Jewish man who had non-marital sex with a "decent non-Jewish woman resident in Hungary" could be sentenced to three years in prison.[23] Horthy's personal views on Jews and their role in Hungarian society are the subject of some debate. In an October 1940 letter to prime minister Pl Teleki, Horthy echoed a widespread national sentiment: that Jews enjoyed too much success in commerce, the professions, and industry success which needed to be curtailed: As regards the Jewish problem, I have been an anti-Semite throughout my life. I have never had contact with Jews. I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theater, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that the Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad. Since, however, one of the most important tasks of the government is to raise the standard of living, i.e., we have to acquire wealth, it is impossible, in a year or two, to replace the Jews, who have everything in their hands, and to replace them with incompetent, unworthy, mostly big-mouthed elements, for we should become bankrupt. This requires a generation at least.[24] Nevertheless, as the war years progressed, Horthy proved to be more protective of Hungary's Jews than many of his political colleagues, and much more so than his political rivals.[citation needed] In this light, his insistence that he was an "anti-Semite" may have been an effort to give himself political cover against the attacks from the extreme antisemitic elements of Hungarian politics.[citation needed]

19

War
The Kingdom of Hungary was gradually drawn into the war itself. In 1939 and 1940, volunteer units fought in Finland's Winter War. In April 1941, Hungary became, in effect, a member of the Axis. Hungary permitted Hitler to send troops across Hungarian territory for the invasion of Yugoslavia and ultimately sent its own troops to claim its share of the dismembered Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Prime Minister Pl Teleki, horrified that he had failed to prevent this collusion with the Nazis against a former ally, committed suicide. In June 1941, the Hungarian government finally yielded to Hitler's demands that the nation contribute to the Axis war effort. On 27 June, Hungary became part of Operation Barbarossa and declared war on the Soviet Union. The Hungarians sent in troops and materiel only four days after Hitler began his invasion of the Soviet Union. Eighteen months later, more poorly equipped and less motivated than their German allies, the 200,000 troops of the Hungarian Second Army ended up holding the front on the Don River west of Stalingrad.[25]

Mikls Horthy The first massacre of Jewish people from Hungarian territory took place in August 1941, when government officials ordered the deportation of Jews without Hungarian citizenship (principally refugees from other Nazi-occupied countries) to Ukraine. Roughly 18,00020,000 of these deportees were slaughtered by Friedrich Jeckeln and his SS troops; only 2,0003,000 survived. These killings are known as the Kamianets-Podilskyi Massacre. This event, in which the slaughter of Jews numbered for the first time in the tens of thousands, is considered the first large-scale massacre of the Holocaust. Because of the objections of Hungary's leadership, the deportations were halted.[26] By early 1942, Horthy was already seeking to put some distance between himself and Hitler's regime. That March, he dismissed the pro-German prime minister Lszl Brdossy, and replaced him with Mikls Kllay, a moderate whom Horthy expected to loosen Hungary's ties to Germany.[27] In September 1942, personal tragedy struck the Hungarian Regent. 37-year-old Istvn Horthy, Horthy's eldest son, was killed. Istvn Horthy was the Deputy Regent of Hungary and a Flight Lieutenant in the reserves, 1/1 Fighter Squadron of the Royal Hungarian Air Force. He was killed when his Hawk (Hja) fighter crashed at an air field near Ilovskoye. Then, in January 1943, Hungary's enthusiasm for the war effort, never especially high, suffered a tremendous blow. The Soviet army, in the full momentum of its triumphant turnaround after the Battle of Stalingrad, punched through Romanian troops at a bend in the Don River and virtually obliterated the Second Hungarian Army in a few days' fighting. In this single action, Hungarian combat fatalities jumped by 80,000. Jew and non-Jew suffered together in this defeat as the Hungarian troops had been accompanied by some 40,000 Jews and political prisoners in forced-labor units whose job had been to clear minefields .[28] German officials blamed Hungary's Jews for the nation's "defeatist attitude." In the wake of the Don Bend disaster, Hitler demanded at an April 1943 meeting that Horthy punish the 800,000 Jews still living in Hungary, who according to Hitler were responsible for this defeat. In response Horthy and his government supplied 10,000 Jewish deportees for labor battalions. However with the growing awareness that the Allies might well win the war, it became more expedient not to comply with further German requests. Cautiously, the Hungarian government began to explore contacts with the Allies in hopes of negotiating a surrender.[29]

20

Occupation
By 1944, the Axis was losing the war, and the Red Army was at Hungary's borders. Fearing that the Soviets would overrun the country, Kllay, with Horthy's approval, put out numerous feelers to the Allies. He even promised to surrender unconditionally to them once they reached Hungarian territory. An enraged Hitler summoned Horthy to a conference in Klessheim (today in Austria). He pressured Horthy to make greater contributions to the war effort, and again commanded him to assist in the killing of more of Hungary's Jews. Horthy now permitted the deportation of a large number of Jews (the generally accepted figure is 100,000) to extermination camps, but would not go further.[30] The conference was a ruse. As Horthy was returning home on 19 March the Wehrmacht invaded and occupied Hungary. Horthy was told he could only stay in office if he fired Kllay and appointed a new government that would fully cooperate with Hitler and his plenipotentiary in Budapest, Edmund Veesenmayer. Knowing the likely alternative was a gauleiter who would treat Hungary in the same manner as the other countries under Nazi occupation, Horthy acquiesced and appointed his ambassador to Germany, General Dme Sztjay, as prime minister. The Germans originally wanted Horthy to reappoint Bla Imrdy (who had been prime minister from 1938 to 1939), but Horthy had enough influence to get Veesenmayer to accept Sztjay instead. Contrary to Horthy's hopes, Sztjay's government eagerly proceeded to participate in the Holocaust. The chief agents of this collaboration were Andor Jaross, the Minister of the Interior, and his two rabidly anti-Semitic state secretaries, Lszl Endre and Lszl Baky (later to be known as the "Deportation Trio"). On 9 April, Prime Minister Sztjay and the Germans obligated Hungary to place 300,000 Jewish people at the "disposal" of the Reich--in effect, sentencing most of Hungary's remaining Jews to death. Five days later, on 14 April Endre, Baky, and SS Colonel Adolf Eichmann commenced the deportation of the remaining Hungarian Jews. The Yellow

Mikls Horthy Star and Ghettoization laws, and deportation were accomplished in less than 8 weeks with the enthusiastic help of the new Hungarian government and authorities, particularly the gendarmerie (csendrsg). The deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz began on 15 May 1944 and continued at a rate of 12,000 a day until 9 July. Upon learning about the deportations, Horthy wrote the following letter to the Prime Minister: Dear Sztjay: I was aware that the Government in the given forced situation has to take many steps that I do not consider correct, and for which I can not take responsibility. Among these matters is the handling of the Jewish question in a manner that does not correspond to the Hungarian mentality, Hungarian conditions, and, for the matter, Hungarian interests. It is clear to everyone that what among these were done by Germans or by the insistence of the Germans was not in my power to prevent, so in these matters I was forced into passivity. As such, I was not informed in advance, or I am not fully informed now, however, I have heard recently that in many cases in inhumaneness and brutality we exceeded the Germans. I demand that the handling of the Jewish affairs in the Ministry of Interior be taken out of the hands of Deputy Minister Lszl Endre. Further more, Lszl Baky's assignment to the management of the police forces should be terminated as soon as possible. Just before the deportations began, two Slovakian Jewish prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfrd Wetzler, escaped from Auschwitz and passed details of what was happening inside the camps to officials in Slovakia. This document, known as the Vrba-Wetzler Report, was quickly translated into German and passed among Jewish groups and then to Allied officials. Details from the report were broadcast by the BBC on 15 June and printed in The New York Times on 20 June.[31] World leaders, including Pope Pius XII (25 June), President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 26 June, and King Gustaf V of Sweden on 30 June,[32] subsequently pleaded with Horthy to use his influence to stop the deportations. Roosevelt specifically threatened military retaliation if the transports were not ceased. On 2 July, Allied bombers executed the heaviest bombings inflicted on Hungary during the war. Hungarian radio accused Jews of guiding the bombers to their targets with radio transmissions and light signals, but on 7 July Horthy at last ordered the transports halted.[33] By that time, 437,000 Jews had been sent to Auschwitz, most of them to their deaths. Horthy was informed about the number of the deported Jews some days later: "approximately 400,000". By many estimates, one of every three people murdered at Auschwitz was a Hungarian Jew killed between May and July 1944.[34] There remains some uncertainty over how much Horthy could have known about the number of Hungarian Jews being deported, their destination, and their intended fate and when he knew it as well as what he could have done about it. Some historiansWikipedia:Avoid weasel words have argued that Horthy believed that the Jews were being sent to the camps to work, and that they would be returned to Hungary after the war.[] Horthy himself could not have been clearer in his memoirs: "Not before August," he wrote, "did secret information reach me of the horrible truth about the extermination camps." But the Vrba-Wetzler statement is believed to have been passed to Hungarian Zionist Rudolf Kasztner no later than 28 April 1944, and according to Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer, Kasztner passed it on to contacts who gave it to both Horthy's son and daughter-in-law by mid-May, when the deportations were about to begin.[35] It is often argued that Hungary's "relatively mild" anti-Jewish Laws, which were passed under German pressure, appeased the Nazis enough to create a relatively safe environment for the Jews before the 1944 German invasion.[36] It seems certain that the survival of 124,000[37] Hungarian Jews in Budapest until the arrival of the Soviets would have been impossible without Horthy's years of foot-dragging reluctance to implement German orders.[38] On 15 July 1944 Anne McCormick, a foreign correspondent for The New York Times wrote in defense of Hungary as the last refuge of Jews in Europe, declaring that "as long as they exercised any authority in their own house, the Hungarians tried to protect the Jews."[39]

21

Mikls Horthy

22

Deposition and arrest

In August 1944, the Nazis were distracted by their failing war effort, and Romania withdrew from the Axis and turned on Hitler and his allies. In Budapest, Horthy moved to reconsolidate his influence. He ousted Sztjay and the other Nazi-friendly ministers installed in the spring, replacing them with a new government under Gza Lakatos. He stopped the mass deportations of Jews, and ordered the police to use deadly force if the Germans attempted to resume them. He also reopened the peace feelers to the Allies, and began considering strategies for surrendering to the Allied force he deeply distrusted: the Red Army. As bitterly anti-Communist as Horthy was, his dealings with the Nazis led him to conclude that the Communists were the far lesser evil. Working through his trustworthy General Bla Mikls who was in contact with Soviet forces in eastern Hungary, Horthy sought to surrender to the Soviets while preserving the Hungarian government's autonomy. The Soviets willingly promised this, and on 11 October Horthy and the Soviets finally agreed to surrender terms. On 15 October 1944, Horthy told his government ministers that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. "It is clear today that Germany has lost the war Hungary has accordingly concluded a preliminary armistice with Russia, and will cease all hostilities against her." Horthy "informed a representative of the German Reich that we were about to conclude a military armistice with our former enemies and to cease all hostilities against them." The Nazis had anticipated Horthy's move. On 15 October, after Horthy announced the armistice in a nationwide radio address, Hitler initiated Operation Panzerfaust, sending commando Otto Skorzeny to Budapest with instructions to remove Horthy from power. Horthy's son Mikls Horthy, Jr., was meeting with Soviet representatives to finalize the surrender when Skorzeny and his troops forced their way into the meeting and kidnapped the younger Horthy at gunpoint. Trussed up in a carpet, Mikls Jr. was immediately driven to the airport and flown to Germany to serve as a hostage. Skorzeny then brazenly led a convoy of German troops and four Tiger II tanks to the Vienna Gates of Castle Hill, where the Hungarians had been ordered not to resist. Though one unit had not received the order, the Germans quickly captured Castle Hill with minimal bloodshed: only seven soldiers were killed and twenty-six wounded. Horthy was captured by Veesenmayer and his staff later on the 15th and taken to the Waffen SS office, where he was held overnight. Vessenmayer told Horthy that unless he recanted the armistice and abdicated, his son would be killed the next morning. The fascist Arrow Cross swiftly took over Budapest. With his son's life in the balance, the Regent consented to sign a document officially abdicating his office and naming Ferenc Szlasi, leader of the Arrow Cross, as his successor. Horthy understood that the Germans merely wanted the stamp of his prestige on a Nazi-sponsored Arrow Cross coupbut he signed anyway. As he later explained his capitulation: "I neither resigned nor appointed Szlasi Premier. I merely exchanged my signature for my son's life. A signature wrung from a man at machine-gun point can have little legality." Horthy met Skorzeny three days later at Pfeffer-Wildenbruch's apartment and was told he would be transported to Germany in his own special train. Skorzeny told Horthy that he would be a "guest of honor" in a secure Bavarian castle. On 17 October, Horthy was personally escorted by Skorzeny into captivity at Schloss Hirschberg in Bavaria, where he was guarded closely, but allowed to live in comfort. With the help of the SS, the Arrow Cross leadership moved swiftly to take command of the Hungarian armed forces, and to prevent the surrender that Horthy had arranged even though Soviet troops were now deep inside the country. Szlasi resumed persecution of Jews and other "undesirables". In the three months between November 1944 and January 1945, Arrow Cross death squads shot 10,000 to 15,000 Jews on the banks of the Danube. The Arrow Cross also welcomed Adolf Eichmann back to Budapest, where he began the deportation of the city's surviving Jews (Eichmann never successfully completed this phase of his plans, thwarted in large measure by the efforts of Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg). Out of a pre-war Hungarian Jewish population estimated at 825,000, only 260,000 survived. By December 1944, Budapest was under siege by Soviet forces. The Arrow Cross leadership retreated across the Danube into the hills of Buda in late January, and by February the city surrendered to the Soviet forces.

Mikls Horthy Horthy remained under house arrest in Bavaria until the war in Europe ended. On 29 April, his SS guardians fled in the face of the Allied advance. On 1 May, Horthy was first liberated, and then arrested, by elements of the U.S. 7th Army.

23

Post-war life
After his arrest, Horthy was moved between a variety of detention locations before finally arriving at the prison facility at Nuremberg in late September 1945. There he was asked to provide evidence to the International Military Tribunal in preparation for the trial of the Nazi leadership. Although he was interviewed repeatedly about his contacts with some of the defendants, he did not testify in person. In Nuremberg he was reunited with his son, Miklos. Horthy went out of his way to record in his memoirs every indignity suffered at American hands, but gradually he came to believe that his arrest had been arranged and choreographed by the Americans in order to protect him from the Russians. Indeed, the former regent reported being told that Josip Broz Tito, the new ruler of Yugoslavia, asked that Horthy be charged with complicity with the 1942 massacre of Serbian and Jewish civilians by Hungarian troops in the Baka region of Vojvodina. Serbian historian Zvonimir Golubovi has claimed that not only was Horthy aware of these genocidal massacres, but had approved of them.[40] However, American trial officials did not indict Horthy for Horthy writing his memoirs. war crimes. The former ambassador John Montgomery, who had some influence in Washington, also contributed to Horthy's release in Nuremberg.[41] According to the memoirs of Ferenc Nagy, who served for a year as prime minister in post-war Hungary, the Hungarian Communist leadership was also interested in extraditing Horthy for trial. Nagy said that Joseph Stalin was more forgiving: that Stalin told Nagy during a diplomatic meeting in April 1945 not to judge Horthy, because he was old and had offered an armistice in 1944.[42] On 17 December 1945, Horthy was released from Nuremberg prison and allowed to rejoin his family in the German town of Weilheim, in Bavaria. The Horthys lived there for four years, supported financially by ambassador John Montgomery, his successor, Herbert Pell, and by Pope Pius XII, whom he knew personally. In March 1948, Horthy returned to testify at the Ministries Trial, the last of the twelve U.S.-run Nuremberg Trials; he testified against Edmund Veesenmayer, the Nazi administrator who had controlled Hungary during the deportations to Auschwitz in the spring of 1944. Veesenmayer was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment, but was released in 1951. For Horthy, returning to Hungary was impossible; it was now firmly in the hands of a Soviet-sponsored Communist government. In an extraordinary twist of fate, the chief of Hungary's post-war Communist apparatus was Mtys Rkosi, one of Bla Kun's colleagues from the ill-fated Communist coup of 1919. Kun had been executed during Stalin's purges of the late 1930s, but Rkosi had survived in a Hungarian prison cell; in 1940 Horthy had permitted Rkosi to emigrate to the Soviet Union in exchange for a series of highly-symbolic Hungarian battle-flags from the 19th century, which were in Russian hands. In 1950, the Horthy family managed to find a home in Portugal, thanks to Mikls Jr.'s contacts with Portuguese diplomats in Switzerland. Horthy and members of his family were relocated to the seaside town of Estoril. His American supporter, John Montgomery, recruited a small group of wealthy Hungarians to raise funds for their upkeep in exile. According to Horthy's daughter-in-law, Countess Ilona Edelsheim Gyulai, Hungarian Jews also supported Horthy's family in exile covering their living expenses, including industrialist Ferenc Chorin and lawyer

Mikls Horthy Lszl Pathy.[43] In exile, Horthy wrote his memoirs, Ein Leben fr Ungarn (English: A Life for Hungary), published under the name of Nikolaus von Horthy, in which he narrated many personal experiences from his youth until the end of World War II. He claimed that he had distrusted Hitler for much of the time he knew him and tried to perform the best actions and appoint the best officials in his country. He also highlighted Hungary's alleged mistreatment by many other countries since the end of World War I. Horthy was one of the few Axis heads of state to survive the war, and thus to write post-war memoirs. He never lost his deep contempt for Communism, and in his memoirs he blamed Hungary's alliance with the Axis on the threat posed by the "Asiatic barbarians" of the Soviet Union. He railed against the influence that the Allies' victory had given to Stalin's totalitarian state. "I feel no urge to say 'I told you so,' " Horthy wrote, "nor to express bitterness at the experiences that have been forced upon me. Rather, I feel wonder and amazement at the vagaries of humanity." He died in 1957 in Estoril. Horthy married Magdolna Purgly de Jszshely in 1901; they were married for just over 56 years, until his death. He had two sons, Mikls Horthy, Jr. (often rendered in English as "Nicholas" or "Nikolaus") and Istvn Horthy, who served as his political assistants; and two daughters, Magda and Paula. Of his four children, only Mikls outlived him. According to footnotes in his memoirs, Horthy was very distraught about the failure of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. In his will, Horthy asked that his body not be returned to Hungary "until the last Russian soldier has left." His heirs honored the request. In 1993, two years after the Soviet troops left Hungary, Horthy's body was returned to Hungary and he was buried in his home town of Kenderes. The reburial in Hungary was the subject of some controversy in the country.[44]

24

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Monarchical styles of

Mikls Horthy

Reference style Spoken style

His Serene Highness Your Serene Highness

Alternative style Sir

Mikls Horthy

25

Titles and styles

1 March 192015 October 1944: His Serene Highness the Prince[45] Regent of Hungary

Full title as Regent

His Serene Highness Mikls Horthy, Regent of Hungary.

Notes
[1] "Vitz" refers to a Hungarian knightly order founded by Mikls Horthy ("Vitzi Rend"); literally, "vitz" means "knight" or "valiant". [2] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 272477/ Miklos-Nagybanyai-Horthy [3] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=9smq580awFg& feature=related [4] Lzr, Istvn, Hungary: A Brief History, Budapest: Corvina, 1993 (English edition) Translated by Albert Tezla; Chapter 13 [5] Deak, Istvan, "A Hungarian Admiral on Horseback," from Essays on Hitler's Europe, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, p. 150-151 [6] Patai, Raphael, The Jews of Hungary, Wayne State University Press, pp. 468469 [7] Bod, Bla: Paramilitary Violence in Hungary After the First World War, East European Quarterly, No. 2, Vol. 38, June 22, 2004 [8] Szabo and Pamlenyi: A hatarban a halal kaszal, pp.160 and 131 [9] Sakmyster, T.: Hungary's Admiral on Horseback: Mikls Horthy, 1918-1944, Columbia Univ. Press, 1993. [10] 1919 speech of Horthy (http:/ / www. horthy. hu/ images/ kormanyzoirasai/ beszedbudapest/ beszedbudapest_nagy. jpg) [11] Sakmyster, p. 56 [12] Deak, Istvan, "A Fatal Compromise? The Debate Over Collaboration and Resistance in Hungary," in The Politics of Retribution: World War II and Its Aftermath, edited by Deak, Gross, and Judt, Princeton University Press, pp. 3952 [13] Thomas L. Sakmyster: Hungary's Admiral on Horseback: Mikls Horthy, 1918-1944. East European Monographs, 1994. pp. 156, 244. [14] Moshe Carmilly-Weinberger: The road to life: the rescue operation of Jewish refugees on the Hungarian-Romanian border in Transylvania, 1936-1944. Shengold, 1994. p. 33. [15] Eve Blau Monika Platzer: Shaping the great city: modern architecture in Central Europe, 1890-1937. Prestel, 1999. p. 34. [16] E. G. Walters: The Other Europe: Eastern Europe To 1945. Syracuse University Press, 1988. p. 154. [17] The comments of U.S. Minister to Hungary Nicholas Roosevelt, quoted in Frank, Tibor, Discussing Hitler: Advisors of U.S. Diplomacy in Central Europe, 19341941, Central European University press, 2003, pp. 1416 [18] Mikls Horthy: Memoirs, R. Speller, 1957, reprinted in 2000 (http:/ / www. hungarianhistory. com/ lib/ horthy/ horthy. pdf), page 159, citation: "I have already stated that my aim was to achieve the revision of the Treaty of Trianon by peaceful means." [19] Wohlforth, William, Deadly Imbalances: Tripolarity and Hitler's Strategy of World Conquest, Columbia University Press 1998, pp. 7879 [20] John Flournoy Montgomery, Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite Part Two: An Oasis in Hitler's Desert [21] Mikls Lojk: Meddling in Middle Europe: Britain and the 'Lands Between, 1919-1925, Central European University Press, 2005 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=q-IOJWicco8C& pg=PA180& dq="conservative+ authoritarian"+ Horthy& hl=en& sa=X& ei=LYqwT5HeIemeiAfZwryKCQ& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q="conservative authoritarian" Horthy& f=false) [22] Montgomery, John F. Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite, Part One: What Price Independence? [23] Patai, Raphael, The Jews of Hungary, Wayne State University Press, p. 548 [24] Patai, p. 546 [25] Deak, Istvn, Endgame in Budapest, Hungarian Quarterly, Autumn 2005 [26] Holocaust in Hungary. About the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre (in hungarian language). (http:/ / www. holokausztmagyarorszagon. hu/ index. php?section=1& type=content& chapter=2_2_3) [27] Borhi, Lszl, Hungary in the Cold War 19451956: Between the United States and the Soviet Union, Central European University Press, New York 2004 [28] Lzr, Istvn, Hungary: A Brief History, Chapter 14 [29] Deak, Endgame in Budapest [30] Braham, Randolph, The Politics of Genocide, Wayne State University Press, pp. 5962 [31] Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. Public Affairs, 2005. ISBN 1-58648-357-9 [32] A holokauszt Magyarorszgon: A deportlsok lelltsa (http:/ / www. holokausztmagyarorszagon. hu/ index. php?section=1& type=content& chapter=4_3_2) (in Hungarian; retrieved 11 September 2006) [33] Szita, Szabolcs, Trading in Lives? Central European University Press, Budapest, 2005, pp. 5054 [34] Wilkinson, Alec, Picturing Auschwitz, New Yorker Magazine, 17 March 2008. pp. 4951 [35] Bauer, Yehuda. Jews for Sale? NaziJewish Negotiations 19331945 Yale University Press, 1994, p. 157 [36] John Flournoy Montgomery, Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite.8: A Refuge for One Million Jews (http:/ / historicaltextarchive. com/ books. php?op=viewbook& bookid=7& cid=8) [37] Tschuy, Theo. Dangerous Diplomacy: The Story of Carl Lutz. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids/Cambridge, 2000. p11. [38] Rees, Laurence: Auschwitz - the Nazis and the 'Final Solution' - BBC Books - 2005 - IBN 0-563-52117-1

Mikls Horthy
[39] Mrs. Anne O'Hare McCormick, The New York Times of 15 July 1944. Original context: "It must count in the score of Hungary that until the Germans took control it was the last refuge in Central Europe for the Jews able to escape from Germany, Austria, Poland and Rumania. Now these hopeless people are exposed to the same ruthless policy of deportation and extermination that was carried out in Poland. But as long as they exercised any authority in their own house, the Hungarians tried to protect the Jews. " See: (http:/ / historicaltextarchive. com/ books. php?op=viewbook& bookid=7& cid=8) [40] Zvonimir Golubovi, Racija u Junoj Bakoj, 1942. godine, Novi Sad, 1991. (page 194) [41] Tibor Frank, Discussing Hitler: Advisers of U.S. Diplomacy in Central Europe, 1934-1941, Central European University Press, 2003, page 45 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=mjykRtYJHkcC& pg=PP4& dq="Discussing+ Hitler:+ Advisers+ of+ U. S. + Diplomacy+ in+ Central+ Europe"& hl=en& sa=X& ei=MNTqT9-6MqqjiAeN-KXmBQ& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q="Acting through Homer Cummings, Montgomery helped at a crucial point in Horthy's life, contributing to Horthy's release at Nuremberg"& f=false) [42] Nagy's 1948 memoirs, The Struggle Behind the Iron Curtain, are quoted in Andrew Simon's annotations to Horthy's Memoirs, in this case for Chapter 22 [43] From the Annotated Memoirs of Admiral Mikls Horthy (http:/ / www. historicaltextarchive. com/ books. php?op=viewbook& bookid=9& post=1) (accessed 2009 September 5). [44] Perlez, Jane, '"Reburial is Both a Ceremony and a Test for Today's Hungary," New York Times, 5 September 1993 [45] Raul Hilberg, Perpetrators, victims, bystanders: the Jewish catastrophe, 1933-1945 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=BfxmAAAAMAAJ& q="prince+ regent"+ Horthy& dq="prince+ regent"+ Horthy& hl=en& sa=X& ei=rQzyT9q_Iaej0QW14L2ADg& ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg), Aaron Asher Books, 1992, p. 85

26

References
Thomas Sakmyster, Hungary's Admiral on Horseback. East European Monographs, Boulder, CO 1994. ISBN 0-88033-293-X Bod, Bla, Paramilitary Violence in Hungary After the First World War. East European Quarterly, No. 2, Vol. 38, June 22, 2004 John Flournoy Montgomery, The Unwilling Satellite, New York, The Devin-Adair Company 1947, ISBN 1-931313-57-1 Owen Rutter, Regent of Hungary: The Authorized Life of Admiral Nicholas Horthy London, Rich and Cowan, 1938 Aleksandar Veljic, Mikls Horthy: Unpunished Villain (sr: Milko Horti: Nekanjeni zloinac), 2009.

External links
Horthy: MEMOIRS (in English) (http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/horthy/horthy.pdf/) Romanian martyrs in Transylvania-in Romanian (http://www.martiriromani.com/) John Flournoy Montgomery, The Unwilling Satellite (http://historicaltextarchive.com/books. php?op=viewbook&bookid=7&cid=8) e-book version on historicaltextarchive.com Mikls Horthy Association (http://www.horthy.hu) Mikls Horthy Association's photo archive (http://www.horthy.hu/kormanyzokepekben.html) Horthy, Mikls: The Annotated Memoirs (pdf) (http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/horthy/horthy.pdf) The memoirs of Admiral Mikls Horthy (http://historicaltextarchive.com/horthy/) Biography of Admiral Mikls Horthy (http://www.oocities.org/veldes1/horthy.html) First World War.com -Who's Who Mikls Horthy de Nagybanya (http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/ horthy.htm) Montgomery,John,Flournoy: Hungary-The unwilling satellite (http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/montgo/ index.htm) Horthy's visit to Germany in 1938 (color; GoogleVideo) (http://video.google.com/ videoplay?docid=-4346357466135667905&q=hitler)

Mikls Horthy

27

Political offices Precededby Zoltn Szab Precededby Kroly Huszr as acting Head of State Minister of War of the Counter-Government 1919 Regent of Hungary 19201944 Military offices Precededby Maximilian Njegovan Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Naval Fleet 1918 Honorary titles Precededby Founder Captain General of the Order of Vitz 19201957 Succeededby Archduke Joseph August Succeededby Succeededby Ferenc Schnetzer Succeededby Ferenc Szlasi as Leader of the Nation

Ferenc Szlasi

28

Ferenc Szlasi
Ferenc Szlasi
Leader of the Nation In office 16 October 1944 28 March 1945 Prime Minister Himself Preceded by Mikls Horthy (Regent) High National Council

Succeeded by

Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Hungary (de facto) In office 16 October 1944 28 March 1945 Leader Preceded by Himself Gza Lakatos (Regency) Bla Mikls (Opposition, then officially) Personal details Born 6 January 1897 Kassa, Austria-Hungary (now Koice, Slovakia) 12 March 1946 (aged49) Budapest, Hungary Arrow Cross Party Gizella Lutz Soldier, Politician Roman Catholicism

Succeeded by

Died

Political party Spouse(s) Profession Religion

Ferenc Szlasi (Szlasi Ferenc in Hungarian, Hungarian pronunciation:[salai frnts]) (6 January 1897 12 March 1946) was the leader of the fascist Arrow Cross Party Hungarist Movement, the "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezet), being both Head of State and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Hungary's "Government of National Unity" (Nemzeti sszefogs Kormnya) for the final three months of Hungary's participation in World War II, after Germany occupied Hungary and removed Mikls Horthy by force. During his brief rule, Szlasi's men murdered 10,00015,000 Jews. After the war, he was executed after a trial by the Hungarian court for crimes against the state committed during World War II.

Ferenc Szlasi

29

Early life
Born the son of a soldier in Kassa (now Koice in Slovakia) of mixed Armenian (the surname of his great-grandfather was Saloshyan),[1][2][3] German, Hungarian (one grandparent), Slovak and Rusyn ancestry. Szlasi followed in his father's footsteps and joined the army at a young age. He eventually became an officer and served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. Upon the dissolution and break-up of Austria-Hungary after the war, the Hungarian Democratic Republic and then the Hungarian Soviet Republic were briefly proclaimed in 1918 and 1919 respectively. The short-lived communist government of Bla Kun launched what was known as the "Red Terror" and ultimately involved Hungary in an ill-fated war with Romania. In 1920, the country went into a period of civil conflict with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists violently purging the nation of communists, leftist intellectuals, and others they felt threatened by, especially Jews. This period was known as the "White Terror" and, in 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, it led to the restoration of the Kingdom of Hungary (Magyar Kirlysg). In 1925, Szlasi entered the General Staff of the restored Kingdom and, by 1933, he had attained the rank of Major. Around this time, Szlasi became fascinated with politics and often lectured on Hungary's political affairs. Szlasi was a fanatical right-wing nationalist and a strong proponent of "Hungarism," advocating the expansion of Hungary's territory back to the borders of Greater Hungary as it was prior to the Treaty of Trianon, which in 1920 codified the reduction in the country's area by 72%.

First steps in politics

In 1935, Szlasi left the army in order to devote his full attention to politics, after which time he established the Party of National Will, a nationalistic group. It was eventually outlawed by the conservative government for being too radical. Unperturbed, Szlasi established the Hungarian National Socialist Party in 1937, which was also banned. However, Szlasi was able to attract considerable support to his cause from factory workers and Hungary's lower classes by pandering to their aggrieved sense of nationalism and their virulent antisemitism.[citation needed] After Germany's "Union" (Anschluss) with Austria in 1938, Szlasi's followers became more radical in their political activities, and Szlasi was arrested and imprisoned by the Hungarian Police. However, even while in prison Szlasi managed to remain a powerful political figure, and was proclaimed leader of the National Socialist Arrow Cross Party (a coalition of several right-wing groups) when it was expanded in 1938. The party attracted a large number of followers and in the 1939 elections it gained 30 seats in the Hungarian Parliament, thus becoming one of the more powerful parties in Hungary. Freed due to a general amnesty resulting from the Second Vienna Award in 1940, Szlasi returned to politics. When World War II began, the Arrow Cross Party was officially banned by Prime Minister Pl Teleki, thus forcing Szlasi to operate in secret. During this time period, Szlasi gained the support and backing of the Germans, who had previously been opposed to Szlasi because his "Hungarist" nationalism place Hungarian territorial claims above those of Germany.[citation needed]

Way to power
Following the Nazi occupation of Hungary in March 1944, the pro-German Dme Sztjay was installed as Prime Minister of Hungary. The Arrow Cross Party was then legalized by the government, allowing Szlasi to expand the party. When Sztjay was deposed in August, Szlasi once again became an enemy of the Hungarian government and Regent Mikls Horthy ordered his arrest. In the meantime the Germans had become concerned that Horthy (who had enough sense to recognize that the war was totally lost) would succeed in surrendering to the Allies. They had, however, waiting in the wings, a perfect ally in Szlasi. When the Germans learned of the Regent's plan to come to a separate peace with the Soviets and exit the Axis alliance, they kidnapped Horthy's son, Miklos, Jr. and threatened to kill him unless Horthy abdicated in favor of Szlasi. Horthy abdicated and under duress signed a document giving 'legal sanction' to an Arrow Cross coup. To quote Horthy's memoirs "a signature wrung from a man at machine-gun

Ferenc Szlasi point can have little legality." . The Germans then pressured Parliament to install Szlasi as Prime Minister and Head of State.

30

In power
Szlasi's Government of National Unity turned the Kingdom of Hungary into a client state of Nazi Germany formed on 16 October 1944 after Regent Mikls Horthy was removed from power during Operation Panzerfaust (Unternehmen Eisenfaust) [4]. Under his rule as a close ally of Germany, the Germans, with the assistance of the Szlasi government recommenced the deportation of the Jews, which had been suspended by Horthy. He organised the so-called International Ghetto. During that time some diplomats like Raoul Wallenberg gave protective passports to some Jews, which protected them from deportation. Germans argued they weren't valid according to international law, but Szlasi's government accepted them nevertheless.[5] His government promoted martial law, courts-martial, executed those who were considered dangerous for the state and the continuation of the war. During Szlasi's rule, Hungarian tangible assets (cattle, machinery, wagons, industrial raw material etc.) were sent to Germany. He conscripted young and old into the remaining Hungarian Army and sent them into hopeless battles against the Red Army.

Ferenc Szlasi in Budapest, October 1944.

Szlasi's rule only lasted 163 days, in part because by the time he took power the Red Army was already deep inside Hungary. On 19 November 1944, Szlasi was in the Hungarian capital when Soviet and Romanian forces began encircling it. By the time the city was encircled and the 102-day Siege of Budapest began, he was gone. The "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezet) fled to Szombathely on 9 December. By March 1945, Szlasi was in Vienna just prior to the Vienna Offensive. Later, he fled to Munich.[6]
The Government of National Unity headed by Ferenc Szlasi (sitting in the center).

Death
When the war ended, Szlasi was captured by American troops and returned to Hungary. He was tried by the People's Tribunal in Budapest in open sessions and sentenced to death for war crimes and high treason. Szlasi was hanged in 1946 in Budapest. Some photographs of the execution are on display in the Holocaust Room of the Budapest Jewish Museum.

References
[1] Terence Ball. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century political thought. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-56354-2. p. 140:"Szalasi was descended from an eighteenth-century Armenian immigrant named Salossian" [2] Ferenc Szalasi (http:/ / hungarian-history. hu/ lib/ mirror/ mirror03. htm)

Ferenc Szlasi
[3] Martin Kitchen. Europe between the wars. Pearson Education, 2006. ISBN 0-582-89414-X. p. 456 "Major Ferenc Szalasi, whose father was Armenian and whose mother was of Slovak-Magyar origin..." [4] http:/ / www. hungarian-history. hu/ lib/ mirror/ mirror03. htm [5] http:/ / www. nsz. prim. hu/ cikk/ 486138/ [6] Thomas, The Royal Hungarian Army in World war II, p. 24

31

Sources
Fiala-Marschalk: Vdl bitfk. London: Sli, 1958 Thomas, Dr. Nigel, and, Szabo, Laszlo Pal (2008). The Royal Hungarian Army in World war II. New York: Osprey Publishing. p.48. ISBN978-1-84603-324-7.
Political offices Precededby Mikls Horthy (as regent) Precededby Gza Lakatos Precededby Ferenc Rajniss Leader of the Nation 19441945 Prime Minister of Hungary (de facto) 19441945 Minister of Religion and Education Acting 1945 Succeededby High National Council Succeededby Bla Mikls Succeededby Gza Teleki

Arrow Cross Party

32

Arrow Cross Party

Arrow Cross Party-Hungarist Movement Nyilaskeresztes Prt Hungarista Mozgalom

Leader

Ferenc Szlasi 19351945

(executed for war crimes)

Founded 1935 (as Party of National Will); banned in 1937. Reconstituted as the Arrow Cross Party on 15 March 1939 and disbanded in April 1945 after the Siege of Budapest.

Headquarters Membership Ideology

Andrssy t 60, Budapest 300,000 in 1939 Nazism Fascism Hungarism Hungarian Turanism Agrarianism

Political position Far-right Colours Red, White, Green from the flag of Hungary

Part of a series on

Nazism

Category

The Arrow Cross Party (Hungarian: Nyilaskeresztes Prt Hungarista Mozgalom, literally "Arrow Cross Party-Hungarist Movement") was a national socialist party led by Ferenc Szlasi, which led in Hungary a government known as the Government of National Unity from 15 October 1944 to 28 March 1945. During its short rule, ten to fifteen thousand people (many of whom were Jews) were murdered outright, and 80,000 people were deported from Hungary to their deaths in the Auschwitz concentration camp. After the war, Szlasi and other Arrow Cross leaders were tried as war criminals by Soviet courts.

Arrow Cross Party

33

Formation
The party was founded by Ferenc Szlasi in 1935 as the Party of National Will. It had its origins in the political philosophy of pro-German extremists such as Gyula Gmbs, who famously coined the term "national socialism" in the 1920s.[1] The party was outlawed in 1937 but was reconstituted in 1939 as the Arrow Cross Party, and was said to be modeled fairly explicitly on the Nazi Party of Germany, although Szlasi often and harshly criticized the Nazi regime of Germany. The iconography of the party was clearly inspired by that of the Nazis; the Arrow Cross emblem was an ancient symbol of the Ministers of the Arrow Cross Party government. Ferenc Szlasi is in the middle of the front row. Magyar tribes who settled Hungary, thereby suggesting the racial purity of the Hungarians in much the same way that the Nazi swastika was intended to allude to the racial purity of the Aryans[citation needed]. The Arrow Cross symbol also referred to the desire to nullify the Treaty of Trianon, and expand the Hungarian state in all cardinal directions towards the former borders of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Ideology
The party's ideology was similar to that of Nazism[citation needed], although a more accurate comparison might be drawn between Austrofascism and Hungarian fascism which was called Hungarism by Ferenc Szlasi extreme nationalism, the promotion of agriculture, anti-capitalism, anticommunism and militant antisemitism. The party and its leader were originally anti-German, so it was a long and very difficult process for Hitler to compromise with Szlasi and his party. The Arrow Cross Party conceived Jews in racial as well as religious terms, although the necessary scientific capital for a widespread and elaborate program of eugenics simply did not exist in Hungary at the time. Thus, although the Arrow Cross Party was certainly far more racist than the Judeophobic Horthyite regime, whose antisemitism was based solely on Christian belief, it was still very different from the German Nazi Party. The Arrow Cross Party was pro-Catholic and its antisemitism had its origins in Christian belief. It was also more economically radical than other fascist movements, advocating worker rights and land reforms. In a sense, the Arrow Cross Party was more like Germany's NSDAP prior to the Night of the Long Knives when the socialist faction among the Nazis (led by Ernst Rhm) was murdered or subjugated.[citation needed]

Rise to power
The roots of Arrow Cross influence can be traced to the outburst of anti-Jewish feeling that followed the Communist putsch and brief rule in Hungary in the spring and summer of 1919. Some Communist leaders, like Tibor Szamuely, came from Jewish families, or like Bla Kun, its leader, who had a Jewish father and a Protestant Swabian mother, were considered to be Jews, and the failed and murderous policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic came to be associated in the minds of many Hungarians with a "Jewish-Bolshevist conspiracy." After the communist regime was crushed in August 1919, conservatives under the leadership of Admiral Mikls Horthy took control of the nation. Many Hungarian military officers took part in the counter-reprisals known as the White Terror some of that violence was directed at Jews, simply because they were Jewish.[citation needed] Although the White Guard was officially suppressed, many of its most bloodthirsty members went underground and formed the core membership of a spreading nationalist and anti-Jewish movement. During the 1930s, the Arrow Cross gradually began to dominate Budapest's working class district, defeating the Social Democrats. It should be noted, however, that the Social Democrats did not really contest elections effectively; they had to make a pact with the conservative Horthy regime in order to prevent the abolition of their party.

Arrow Cross Party The Arrow Cross subscribed to the Nazi ideology of "master races"[citation needed] which, in Szlasi's view, included the Hungarians and Germans, and also supported the concept of an order based on the power of the strongest what Szlasi called a "brutally realistic tatism". But its espousal of territorial claims under the banner of a "Greater Hungary" and Hungarian values (which Szlasi labelled "Hungarizmus" or "Hungarianism") clashed with Nazi ambitions in central Europe, delaying by several years Hitler's endorsement of that party. The German Foreign Office instead endorsed the pro-German Hungarian National Socialist Party, which had some support among German minorities. Before World War II, the Arrow Cross were not proponents of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis, but utilized traditional stereotypes and prejudices to gain votes among voters both in Budapest and the countryside. However, the constant bickering among these diverse fascist groups prevented the Arrow Cross Party from gaining even more support and power. The Arrow Cross obtained most of its support from a disparate coalition of military officers, soldiers, nationalists and agricultural workers. It was only one of a number of similar openly fascist factions in Hungary but was by far the most prominent, having developed an effective system of recruitment. When it contested the May 1939 elections the only ones in which it participated the party won more than 25% of the vote and 30 seats in the Hungarian Parliament. This was only a superficially impressive result; the majority of Hungarians were not permitted to vote. It did, however, become one of the most powerful parties in Hungary. But the Horthy leadership banned the Arrow Cross on the outbreak of World War II, forcing it to operate underground. In 1944, the Arrow Cross Party's fortunes were abruptly reversed after Hitler lost patience with the reluctance of Horthy and his moderate prime minister, Mikls Kllay, to toe the Nazi line fully. In March 1944, the Germans invaded and officially occupied Hungary; Kllay fled and was replaced by the Nazi proxy, Dme Sztjay. One of Sztjay's first acts was to legalize the Arrow Cross. During the spring and summer of 1944, more than 400,000 Jews were herded into centralized ghettos and then deported from the Hungarian countryside to death camps by the Nazis, with the willing help of the Hungarian Interior Ministry and its gendarmerie (the csendrsg), both of whose members had close links to the Arrow Cross. The Jews of Budapest were concentrated into so-called Yellow Star Houses, approximately 2,000 single-building mini-ghettos identified by a yellow Star of David over the entrance. In August 1944, before deportations from Budapest began, Horthy used what influence he had to stop the deportations and force the radical antisemites out of the government. As the summer progressed, and the Allied and Soviet armies closed in on central Europe, the ability of the Nazis to devote themselves to Hungary's "Jewish Solution" waned.

34

Arrow Cross rule

In October 1944, Horthy negotiated a cease-fire with the Soviets and ordered Hungarian troops to lay down their arms. In response, Nazi Germany launched Operation Panzerfaust, a covert operation which forced Horthy to abdicate in favour of Szlasi, after which he was taken into "protective custody" in Germany. This merely rubber-stamped an Arrow Cross takeover of Budapest on the same day. Szlasi was declared "Leader of the Nation" and prime minister of a "Government of National Unity". Soviet and Romanian forces were already fighting in Hungary even before Szlasi's takeover, and by the time the Arrow Cross took power the Red Army was already far inside the country. As a result, its jurisdiction was effectively limited to an ever-narrowing band of territory in central Hungary, around Budapest. Nonetheless, the Arrow Cross rule, short-lived as it was, was brutal. In fewer than three months, death squads killed as many as 38,000 Hungarians. Arrow Cross officers helped Adolf Eichmann re-activate the deportation proceedings from which the Jews of Budapest had thus far been spared, sending some 80,000 Jews out of the city on slave labor details and many more straight to death camps. Many Jewish males of conscription age were already serving as slave labor for the Hungarian Army's Forced Labor Battalions. Most of them died, including many who were murdered outright after the end of the fighting as they were returning home. Quickly formed battalions raided the Yellow Star Houses and combed the streets, hunting down Jews claimed to be partisans and saboteurs since Jews attacked Arrow Cross

Arrow Cross Party squads at least six to eight times with gunfire. These approximately 200 Jews were taken to the bridges crossing the Danube, where they were shot and their bodies borne away by the waters of the river because many were attached to weights while they were handcuffed to each other in pairs.[2] Red Army troops reached the outskirts of the city in December 1944, and the siege action known as the Battle of Budapest began, although it has often been claimed that there is no proof that the Arrow Cross members and the Germans conspired to destroy the Budapest ghetto. Days before he fled the city, Arrow Cross Interior Minister Gabor Vjna commanded that streets and squares named for Jews be renamed.[3] As control of the city's institutions began to decay, the Arrow Cross trained their guns on the most helpless possible targets: patients in the beds of the city's two Jewish hospitals on Maros Street and Bethlen Square, and residents in the Jewish poorhouse on Alma Road. As order collapsed, Arrow Cross members continually sought to raid the ghettos and Jewish concentration buildings; the majority of Budapest's Jews were saved only by fearless and heroic efforts on the part of a handful of Jewish leaders and foreign diplomats, most famously the Swedish Raoul Wallenberg, the Papal Nuncio Monsignor Angelo Rotta, Swiss Consul Carl Lutz and Giorgio Perlasca.[4] Szlasi knew that the documents used by these diplomats to save Jews were invalid according to international law, but he allowed them to use those papers. Charles Ardai, an American entrepreneur, novelist and book publisher, recounted in an Oct. 2008 National Public Radio interview an episode recalled by his mother, who survived the Holocaust in Hungary. Her family and other Budapest Jews were preparing to flee before the approach of Arrow Cross killers. They pleaded with two young boys who were family relatives to go with them, but they refused because their parents had told them to wait for them at home. As a result, the Arrow Cross men discovered the boys and killed them.[citation needed] The atrocities committed during the Arrow Cross rule, especially the mass murders of Jewish citizens, are depicted at length in Gyrgy Konrad's largely autobiographical novel Feast in the Garden (1989). The Arrow Cross government effectively fell at the end of January 1945, when the Soviet Army took Pest and the fascist forces retreated across the Danube to Buda. Szlasi had escaped from Budapest on December 11, 1944, taking with him the Hungarian royal crown, while Arrow Cross members and German forces continued to fight a rear-guard action in the far west of Hungary until the end of the war in April 1945.

35

Post-war developments
After the war, many of the Arrow Cross leaders were captured and tried for war crimes. In the first months of postwar adjudication, no fewer than 6,200 indictments for murder were served against Arrow Cross men.[5] Some Arrow Cross officials, including Szlasi himself, were executed. In 2006, a former high-ranking member of the Arrow Cross Party named Lajos Polgr was found to be living in Melbourne, Australia. He was accused of war crimes, but the case was later dropped and Polgr died of natural causes in July of that year.[6] The ideology of the Arrow Cross has resurfaced to some extent in recent years, with the neofascist Hungarian Welfare Association prominent in reviving Szlasi's "Hungarizmus" through its monthly magazine, Magyartudat ("Hungarian Awareness"). But "Hungarism" is very much a fringe element of modern Hungarian politics, and the Hungarian Welfare Association has since dissolved.[7]

Arrow Cross Party

36

For further reading

M. Lack, Arrow-Cross Men: National Socialists 19351944 (Budapest, Akadmiai Kiad 1969)

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Miklos Molnar, 'A Concise History of Hungary from the Open Society Archives at Central European University, at http:/ / www. osa. ceu. hu/ galeria/ sites/ siege/ section2. html Patai, p. 586 Patai, p. 589 Patai, p. 587 Lack of political will over Polgar, says Holocaust Centre (http:/ / www. ajn. com. au/ news/ news. asp?pgID=1094), Australian Jewish News, July 13, 2006 [7] http:/ / www. mno. hu/ portal/ 396540

External links
The Siege of Budapest (http://www.osa.ceu.hu/galeria/sites/siege/framee.html)

Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch

37

Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch
Karl Pfeffer Wildenbruch

Born Died Allegiance

June 12, 1888 Kalkberge, German Empire January 29, 1971 (aged82) Bielefeld, West Germany German Empire (to 1918) Weimar Republic (to 1933) Nazi Germany Reichsheer Ordnungspolizei Waffen SS

Service/branch

Yearsof service 19071945 Rank Obergruppenfhrer und General der Polizei und Waffen-SS Unit 4th SS Polizei Division VI SS Corps IX SS Mountain Corps World War I World War II Knight's Cross with Oakleaves Iron Cross 1st Class (1914) & (1939) Iron Cross 2nd Class (1914) &(1939) Wound Badge Anschluss Medal Sudetenland Medal Cross of Honor SS Honour Ring

Battles/wars Awards

Karl Pfeffer Wildenbruch (June 12, 1888 January 29, 1971) was a staff officer of the German General Staff during World War I and an Obergruppenfhrer General der Waffen-SS und der Polizei, during World War II, he commanded the 4th SS Polizei Division and the VI SS Army Corps and the IX SS Mountain Corps, he was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oakleaves.

Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch

38

Early life
Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch was born on 12 June 1888, in Kalkberge, Rdersdorf. After finishing high school he became a Fahnenjunker in the 22 Field Artillery Regiment in March 1907 and promoted to Leutnant, in August 1908 and in 1911 was assigned to the Military Technical School in Berlin.

World War I
On the outbreak of World War I, he commanded a Battery and was a Regimental Adjutant, then became a staff officer on the German General Staff. He served under Field Marshal General, Colmar von der Goltz, in Baghdad who was the commander of the 1st Turkish Army, his next posting was as the IA to the German Military mission in Constantinople from May to November 1917. At the end of 1917 he returned to Germany, as a staff officer with the 11th Infantry Division. At the end of the war he remained on the General staff of the ZBV 55 and XXIV reserve corps.

Interwar period
In August 1919 he joined the police service, and spent time in the Reich Ministry of the Interior and was the police commander in Osnabrck and Magdeburg. From 1928 he was in Santiago de Chile as the Chief of the Chilean Carabineros de Chile,[1] returning to Germany in 1933. In June 1933, Pfeffer Wildenbruch became an Oberstleutnant in the National Police Regiment at Frankfurt an der Oder and from May 1936 he was the Inspector General of Police schools, being promoted to Generalmajor der Polizei in May 1937. In March 1939, he joined the SS, service number was 292 713 and served on the staff of the Reichsfhrer-SS, being promoted to SS-Brigadefhrer in April 1939.

World War II
At the end of 1939, he was given command of the 4th SS Polizei Division with the rank of SS-Gruppenfhrer and Generalleutnant der Polizei. After the Battle of France he returned to the staff of the Reichsfhrers-SS, until being made the chief of the colonial police in the Reich ministry in from 1941 to 1943. In October 1943 he took over as commander of the VI SS Corps, with a promotion to SS-Obergruppenfhrer und General der Waffen-SS und Polizei.[2] In December 1944 was appointed commander of the IX SS Mountain Corps, which was stationed in Budapest, Hungary. He was responsible for the defence of the Hungarian capital, after it had been encircled by the advancing Russian forces, from the 24 December 1944 to the 11 February 1945.[3] The siege of Budapest was one of the longest and bloodiest city struggles of the Second World War and the fight lasted 46 days. For his defence of the city he was awarded with the Knight's Cross on 11 January 1945 and the Oakleaves on 1 February 1945. During the attempt to break out from Budapest he was seriously wounded and captured by the Russians. On 10 August 1949 he was sentenced to 25 years of labor camps,[4] but after Joseph Stalin's death he was released together with about 10000 other "last prisoners of war" due to an informal agreement between German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and Soviet Premier Nikolai Bulganin in September 1955 one month later. Karl Pfeffer Wildenbruch, was killed in a traffic accident on 29 January 1971 at Bielefeld.

Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch

39

Awards and decorations

Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class 1st Class (14 September 1917)[5] Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (20 June 1940) 1st Class (22 June 1940) Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves Knight's Cross on 11 January 1945 as SS-Obergruppenfhrer and General of the Waffen-SS and commanding general of the IX. SS-Gebrigskorps[6] 723th Oak Leaves on 1 February 1945 as SS-Obergruppenfhrer and General of the Waffen-SS and commanding general of the IX. Waffen-Gebrigskorps of the SS[7]

References
[1] Battle for Budapest By Krisztin Ungvry, Ladislaus Lb, p.67 [2] Latvia in World War II By Valdis O. Lumans, p.287 [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] The German Defeat in the East, 1944-45 By Samuel W. Mitcham, Jr,p.234 http:/ / www. hrono. ru/ biograf/ bio_p/ pfeffer_v. html Thomas 1998, p. 149. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 337. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 96.

General Fellgiebel, Walther-Peer (2000). Die Trger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939-1945. Friedburg, Germany: Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 3-7909-0284-5. Scherzer, Veit (2007). Ritterkreuztrger 19391945 Die Inhaber des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939 von Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm sowie mit Deutschland verbndeter Streitkrfte nach den Unterlagen des Bundesarchives (in German). Jena, Germany: Scherzers Miltaer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-938845-17-2. Thomas, Franz (1998). Die Eichenlaubtrger 19391945 Band 2: LZ (in German). Osnabrck, Germany: Biblio-Verlag. ISBN 3-7648-2300-3.

Ivn Hindy

40

Ivn Hindy
vitz kishindi Hindy Ivn
Born Died Allegiance 28 June 1890 Budapest, Hungary 29 August 1946 (aged56) Budapest, Hungary Kingdom of Hungary

Service/branch Royal Hungarian Army Yearsof service 1909-1945 Rank Battles/wars Vezrezredes World War I World War II

Siege of Budapest

Awards

Iron Cross First and Second Class Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves

"Vitz" is a Hungarian title given to members of the Knightly Order of Vitz, not a first or middle name. Ivn vitz Hindy de Kishind or vitz kishindi Hindy Ivn (28 June 1890, Budapest 29 August 1946, Budapest) was an officer in the Royal Hungarian Army during World War II. Colonel-General Hindy commanded the Hungarian I Corps from 16 October 1944 to 12 February 1945. From 29 December 1944, Hindy also commanded the Hungarian defenders of Budapest during the Siege of Budapest. On 11 February 1945, Hindy was captured by the Soviets trying to escape just prior to the fall of the city on 13 February. The commander of the German defenders of Budapest, Waffen SS General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, orchestrated the breakout attempt and was also captured. Hindy was sentenced to death after the war. In 1946, he was executed.

Command history
President, Military Courts and Court of Honor - 1940 to 1942 General Officer Commanding, I Corps, Eastern Front and Budapest - 1944 to 1945 Prisoner of war - 1945 to 1946 Condemned to death and executed - 1946

References

Raoul Wallenberg

41

Raoul Wallenberg
Raoul Wallenberg
Passport photo from June 1944. Born August 4, 1912 Liding Municipality, Sweden presumed July 17, 1947 (aged34) presumed Soviet Union

Died

Alma mater University of Michigan Occupation Diplomat Parents Raoul Oscar Wallenberg & Maria "Maj" Sofia Wising

Raoul Wallenberg (August 4, 1912 July 17, 1947?[1]) was a Swedish architect, businessman, diplomat and humanitarian. He is widely celebrated for his successful efforts to rescue tens of thousands to about one hundred thousand Jews in Nazi-occupied Hungary during the Holocaust from Hungarian Fascists and the Nazis during the later stages of World War II. While serving as Sweden's special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944, Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory saving tens of thousands of lives. On January 17, 1945,[2] during the Siege of Budapest by the Red Army, Wallenberg was detained by Soviet authorities on suspicion of espionage and subsequently disappeared. He was later reported to have died on July 17, 1947, while imprisoned by communist authorities, and KGB secret police in the Lubyanka, a building located in Moscow, Russia, housing both the KGB headquarters and its affiliated prison. The motives behind Wallenberg's arrest and imprisonment by the Soviet government, along with questions surrounding the circumstances of his death and his possible ties to US intelligence, remain mysterious and are the subject of continued speculation. Due to his courageous actions on behalf of the Hungarian Jews, Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death. In 1981, U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos, himself one of those saved by Wallenberg, sponsored a bill making Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States. He is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia and Israel. Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous among the Nations. Monuments have been dedicated to him, and streets have been named after him throughout the world. A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to "perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg". It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals. A postage stamp was issued by the U.S. in his honour in 1997. On July 26, 2012, he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress "in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust."

Raoul Wallenberg Memorial, Wallenberg St., Tel-Aviv, Israel

Place Raoul Wallenberg, Montreal

Raoul Wallenberg

42

Early life
Wallenberg was born in 1912 in , Liding, near Stockholm, where his maternal grandparents, professor Per Johan Wising and his wife Sophie Wising, had built a summer house in 1882. His paternal grandfather, Gustaf Wallenberg, was a diplomat and envoy to Tokyo, Istanbul and Sofia. His parents, who married in 1911, were Raoul Oscar Wallenberg (18881912), a Swedish naval officer, and Maria "Maj" Sofia Wising (18911979). His father died of cancer three months before he was born, and his maternal grandfather died of pneumonia three months after his birth. His mother and grandmother, now both suddenly widows, raised him together. In 1918, his mother married Fredrik von Dardel;[3] they had a son, Guy von Dardel,[4] and a daughter, Nina Lagergren. After high school and his compulsory eight months in the Swedish military, Wallenberg's paternal grandfather sent him to study in Paris. He spent one year there, and then, in 1931, he matriculated at the University of Michigan in the United States to study architecture. Although the Wallenberg family was rich, he worked at odd jobs in his free time and joined other young male students as a passenger rickshaw handler at Chicago's Century of Progress.[5] He used his vacations to explore the United States, with hitchhiking being his preferred method of travel. About his experiences, he wrote to his grandfather saying, "When you travel like a hobo, everythings different. You have to be on the alert the whole time. Youre in close contact with new people every day. Hitchhiking gives you training in diplomacy and tact." Raoul was aware of his one-sixteenth Jewish blood, and proud of it. Professor Ingemar Hedenius (one of the leading Swedish philosophers) recalls a conversation with Raoul dating back to 1930, when they were together in an army hospital during military service: .. We had many long and intimate conversations. He was full of ideas and plans for the future. Although I was a good deal older - you could choose when to do your service - I was enormously impressed by him. He was proud of his partial Jewish ancestry and, as I recall, must have exaggerated it somewhat. I remember him saying, 'A person like me, who is both a Wallenberg and half-Jewish, can never be defeated'.John Bierman. Righteous Gentile. Penguin Books Ltd. London, 1981. P. 25

Wallenberg Monument, Budapest

Memorial at Great Cumberland Place, London

Sign commemorating Wallenberg in Budapest

He graduated from university in 1935, but upon his return to Sweden, he found his American degree did not qualify him to practice as an architect. Later that year, his grandfather arranged a job for him in Cape Town, South Africa, in the office of a Swedish company that sold construction material. After six months in South Africa, he took a new

Raoul Wallenberg

43

job at a branch office of the Holland Bank in Haifa, Israel. He returned to Sweden in 1936 and obtained a job in Stockholm with the help of his uncle and godfather, Jacob Wallenberg, at the Central European Trading Company,[7] an export-import company trading between Stockholm and central Europe, owned by Klmn Lauer, a Hungarian Jew.

Monument in Stockholm

World War II
Beginning in 1938, the Kingdom of Hungary, under the regency of Mikls Horthy, passed a series of anti-Jewish measures modeled on the so-called Nuremberg Race Laws enacted in Germany by the Nazis in 1935. Like their German counterparts the Hungarian laws focused heavily on restricting Jews from certain professions, reducing the number of Jews in government and public service jobs, and prohibiting intermarriage. Because of this, Wallenberg's business associate, Kalman Lauer, found it increasingly difficult to travel to his native Hungary, which was moving still deeper into the German orbit, becoming a member of the Axis Powers in November 1940 and later joining the German-led invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Out of necessity Wallenberg became Lauer's personal representative, traveling to Hungary to conduct business on Lauer's behalf and also to look in on members of Lauer's extended family who remained in Budapest. He soon learned to speak Hungarian, and from 1941 made increasingly frequent travels to Budapest.[8] Within a year, Wallenberg was a joint owner and the International Director of the company. In this capacity Wallenberg also made several business trips to Germany and Occupied-France during the early years of World War II. It was during these trips that Wallenberg was able to closely observe the Nazis' bureaucratic and administrative methods, knowledge which would prove quite valuable to him later.

Wallenberg's briefcase in bronze, with the initials R W, set up on the doorstep to the summer house (summer house foundation still exists) at Kappsta, Liding, where Wallenberg was born. The setts come from Budapest.

Meanwhile, the situation in Hungary had begun to deteriorate as the tide of the war began to turn decisively against Germany and its allies. Following the catastrophic Axis defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad (in which Hungarian troops fighting alongside German forces suffered a staggering 84% casualty rate) the regime of Miklos Horthy began secretly pursuing peace talks with the United States and the United Kingdom. Upon learning of Horthy's duplicity, Hitler ordered the occupation of Hungary by German troops in March 1944. The Wehrmacht quickly took control of the country and placed Horthy under house arrest. A pro-German puppet government was installed in Budapest, with actual power resting with the German military governor, SS-Brigadefuhrer Edmund Veesenmayer. With the Nazis now in control, the relative security from the Holocaust enjoyed by the

Ksznm, a monument at the University of Michigan

Raoul Wallenberg

44

Jews of Hungary came to an end. In April and May 1944 the Nazi regime and its accomplices began the mass deportation of Hungary's Jews to concentration camps in Nazi-occupied Poland. Under the personal leadership of SS-Obersturmbannfuhrer Adolf Eichmann, who would later be tried and hanged in Israel for his major role in the implementation of the Nazis' Final Solution, deportations took place at a rate of 12,000 individuals per day.[9]

Recruitment by the War Refugee Board

The persecution of the Jews in Hungary soon became well known abroad, unlike the full extent of the Holocaust. In late spring 1944, George Mantello publicized what is now called the Wetzler-Vrba Report, a detailed account of the operations of the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp written by two recent escapees.[10] Following the report's publication, the administration of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt turned to the newly created War Refugee Board (WRB) established as a result of activism by the "Bergson Group" led by Hillel Kook and later by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr and team in search of a solution to the humanitarian crisis in Hungary. In spring 1944, President Roosevelt dispatched US Treasury Department official Iver C. Olsen to Stockholm as a representative of the WRB. Olsen was tasked specifically by the President with finding a way to aid the Hungarian Jews. This, however, was not the sole reason for Olsen being posted to Sweden. In addition to his duties with the WRB, Olsen was also secretly functioning as the chief of currency operations for the Stockholm branch of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the United States' wartime espionage service. In search of someone willing and able to go to Budapest to organize a rescue program for the nation's Jews,[11] Olsen established contact with a relief committee composed of many prominent Swedish Jews led by the Swedish Chief Rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis to locate an appropriate person to travel to Budapest under diplomatic cover and lead the rescue operation. One member of the committee was Wallenberg's business associate Kalman Lauer.

Memorial to Raoul Wallenberg, Stockholm, Sweden

One of the memorials in Budapest

The committee's first choice to lead the mission was Count Folke Bernadotte, the vice-chairman of the Swedish Red Cross and a member of the Swedish Royal Family. When Bernadotte's proposed appointment was rejected by the Hungarians, Lauer suggested Wallenberg as a potential replacement. Olsen was introduced to Wallenberg by Lauer in June 1944 and came away from the meeting impressed and, shortly thereafter, appointed Wallenberg to lead the mission. Olsen's selection of Wallenberg was initially met with objections from some US officials who doubted his reliability, in light

Raoul Wallenberg

45

of existing commercial relationships between businesses owned by the Wallenberg family and the German government. These differences were eventually overcome and the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs agreed to the American request to assign Wallenberg to its legation in Budapest as part of an arrangement in which Wallenberg's appointment was granted in exchange for a lessening of American diplomatic pressure on neutral Sweden to curtail their nation's free-trade policies toward Germany.

Mission to Budapest
When Wallenberg reached the Swedish legation in Budapest in July 1944, the campaign against the Jews of Hungary had already been underway for several months. Between May and July 1944, Eichmann and his associates had successfully deported over 400,000 Jews by freight train. Of those deported all but 15,000 were sent directly to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp in southern Poland. By the time of Wallenberg's arrival there were only 230,000 Jews remaining in Hungary. Together with fellow Swedish diplomat Per Anger, he issued "protective passports" (German: Schutz-Pass), which identified the bearers as Swedish subjects awaiting repatriation and thus prevented their deportation. Although not legal, these documents looked official and were generally accepted by German and Hungarian authorities, who sometimes were also bribed. The Swedish legation in Budapest also succeeded in negotiating with the German authorities so that the bearers of the protective passes would be treated as Swedish citizens and be exempt from having to wear the yellow badge required for Jews. Valdemar Langlet [lanl] (December 17, 1872 in Lerbo, Sweden October 16, 1960 in Stockholm) was a Swedish publisher, and an early Esperantist. With his wife Nina Borovko-Langlet in Budapest, he is credited with saving many Jews from the Holocaust, by providing Swedish documents saying that people were waiting for Swedish nationality. Raoul Wallenberg was inspired by Langlet and used the same method to save Jewish people when he came to Budapest. In 1965, Valdemar and Nina Langlet were recognized as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem.

Memorial to Raoul Wallenberg removed by communist regime and restored on the 50th anniversary of its demolition (Budapest, District XIII, Szent Istvn park)

Plaque at the site of the former Swedish Embassy in Budapest, honoring Carl-Ivan Danielsson, Wallenberg and Per Anger

Street sign for Raoul Wallenberg St. in Jerusalem

With the money raised by the board, Wallenberg rented 32 buildings in Budapest and declared them to be extraterritorial, protected by diplomatic immunity. He put up signs such as "The Swedish Library" and "The Swedish Research Institute" on their doors and hung oversize Swedish flags on the front of the buildings to bolster the deception. The buildings eventually housed almost 10,000 people.

Raoul Wallenberg Sandor Ardai, one of the drivers working for Wallenberg, recounted what Wallenberg did when he intercepted a trainload of Jews about to leave for Auschwitz: .. he climbed up on the roof of the train and began handing in protective passes through the doors which were not yet sealed. He ignored orders from the Germans for him to get down, then the Arrow Cross PartyArrow Cross men began shooting and shouting at him to go away. He ignored them and calmly continued handing out passports to the hands that were reaching out for them. I believe the Arrow Cross men deliberately aimed over his head, as not one shot hit him, which would have been impossible otherwise. I think this is what they did because they were so impressed by his courage. After Wallenberg had handed over the last of the passports he ordered all those who had one to leave the train and walk to the caravan of cars parked nearby, all marked in Swedish colours. I don't remember exactly how many, but he saved dozens off that train, and the Germans and Arrow Cross were so dumbfounded they let him get away with it. At the height of the program, over 350 people were involved in the rescue of Jews. Sister Sra Salkahzi was caught sheltering Jewish women and was killed by members of the Arrow Cross Party. Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz also issued protective passports from the Swiss embassy in the spring of 1944; and Italian businessman Giorgio Perlasca posed as a Spanish diplomat and issued forged visas.[12] Berber Smit (Barbara Hogg), the daughter of Lolle Smit (18921961), director of N.V. Philips Budapest and a Dutch spy working for the British MI6, also assisted Wallenberg. According to her son, she had a romance with him. Smit's other daughter, Reinderdina Petronella (19221945), died on 18 August 1945 in Bucharest. Wallenberg started sleeping in a different house each night, to guard against being captured or killed by Arrow Cross Party members or by Adolf Eichmann's men. Two days before the Soviet Army occupied Budapest, Wallenberg negotiated with both Eichmann and Major-General Gerhard Schmidthuber, the supreme commander of German forces in Hungary. Wallenberg bribed Arrow Cross Party member Pl Szalai to deliver a note in which Wallenberg persuaded the occupying Germans to prevent a Fascist plan to blow up the Budapest ghetto and kill an estimated 70,000 Jews and cancel a final effort to organize a death march of the remaining Jews in Budapest by threatening to have them prosecuted for war crimes once the war was over. People saved by Wallenberg include biochemist Lars Ernster, who was housed in the Swedish embassy, and Tom Lantos, later a member of the United States House of Representatives, who lived in one of the Swedish protective houses.

46

Disappearance
On October 29, 1944 elements of the 2nd Ukrainian Front under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky launched an offensive against Budapest and by late December the city had been successfully encircled by Soviet forces. Despite this the German commander of Budapest, SS Lieutenant General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, refused all offers to surrender, setting in motion a protracted and bloody siege of Budapest. At the height of the fighting, on January 17, 1945, Wallenberg was called to General Malinovsky's headquarters in Debrecen to answer allegations that he was engaged in espionage.[13] Wallenberg's last recorded words were, "I'm going to Malinovsky's ... whether as a guest or prisoner I do not know yet."[14] Documents recovered in 1993 from previously secret Soviet military archives and published in the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet show that an order for Wallenberg's arrest was issued by Deputy Commissar for Defence (and future Soviet Premier) Nikolai Bulganin and transmitted to Malinovsky's headquarters on the day of Wallenberg's disappearance. In 2003, a review of Soviet wartime correspondences indicated that Vilmos Bhm, a Hungarian politician who was also a Soviet intelligence agent, may have provided Wallenberg's name to the NKVD as a person to detain for possible involvement in espionage.[15] Information about Wallenberg after his detention is mostly speculative; there were many witnesses who claim to have met him during his imprisonment.[16] Wallenberg was transported by train from Debrecen, through Romania, to Moscow. The Soviet authorities may have moved him to Moscow in the hope of exchanging him for defectors in Sweden.[17] Vladimir Dekanosov notified the Swedish government on January 16, 1945 that Wallenberg was under

Raoul Wallenberg the protection of Soviet authorities. On January 21, 1945, Wallenberg was transferred to Lubyanka prison and held in cell 123 with fellow prisoner Gustav Richter, formerly a police attach at the German embassy in Romania. Richter testified in Sweden in 1955 that Wallenberg was interrogated once for about an hour and a half, in early February 1945. On March 1, 1945, Richter was moved from his cell and never saw Wallenberg again. On March 8, 1945, Soviet-controlled Hungarian radio announced that Wallenberg and his driver had been murdered on their way to Debrecen, suggesting that they had been killed by the Arrow Cross Party or the Gestapo. Sweden's foreign minister, sten Undn, and its ambassador to the Soviet Union, Staffan Sderblom, wrongly assumed that they were dead. In April 1945, William Averell Harriman of the U.S. State Department offered the Swedish government help in inquiring about Wallenbergs fate, but the offer was declined. Sderblom met with Vyacheslav Molotov and Stalin in Moscow on June 15, 1946. Sderblom, still believing Wallenberg to be dead, ignored talk of an exchange for Russian defectors in Sweden.

47

Death
On February 6, 1957, the Soviet government released a document dated July 17, 1947, which stated "I report that the prisoner Wallenberg who is well-known to you, died suddenly in his cell this night, probably as a result of a heart attack or heart failure. Pursuant to the instructions given by you that I personally have Wallenberg under my care, I request approval to make an autopsy with a view to establishing cause of death... I have personally notified the minister and it has been ordered that the body be cremated without autopsy."[18] The document was signed by Smoltsov, then the head of the Lubyanka prison infirmary, and addressed to Viktor Semyonovich Abakumov, the Soviet minister of state security.[] In 1989, Wallenberg's personal belongings were returned to his family, including his passport and cigarette case. Soviet officials said they found the materials when they were upgrading the shelves in a store room.[19] In 1991, Vyacheslav Nikonov was charged by the Russian government to investigate Wallenberg's fate. He concluded that Wallenberg died in 1947, executed while a prisoner in Lubyanka.[20] He may have been a victim of the C-2 poison (carbylamine-choline-chloride) tested at the poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services. In Moscow in 2000, Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev announced that Wallenberg had been executed in 1947 in Lubyanka prison. He claimed that Vladimir Kryuchkov, the former Soviet secret police chief, told him about the shooting in a private conversation. The statement did not explain why Wallenberg was killed or why the government had lied about it.[][21] General Pavel Sudoplatov claimed that Raoul Wallenberg died after being poisoned by Grigory Mairanovsky, a notorious NKVD assassin.[22] In 2000, Russian prosecutor Vladimir Ustinov signed a verdict posthumously rehabilitating Wallenberg and his driver, Langfelder, as "victims of political repression".[23] A number of files pertinent to Wallenberg were turned over to the chief rabbi of Russia by the Russian government in September 2007. The items were slated to be housed at the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center in Moscow, which opened in 2012.

Disputes regarding his death

Several former prisoners have claimed to have seen Wallenberg after his reported death in 1947.[24] In February 1949, former German Colonel Theodor von Dufving, a prisoner of war, provided evidentiary statements concerning Wallenberg. While in the transit camp in Kirov, en route to Vorkuta, Dufving encountered a prisoner with his own special guard and dressed in civilian clothes. The prisoner claimed that he was a Swedish diplomat and that he was there "through a great error." Renowned Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal searched for Wallenberg and collected several testimonies. For example, British businessman Greville Wynne, who was imprisoned in the Lubyanka prison in 1962 for his connection to KGB defector Oleg Penkovsky, stated he talked to, but could not see the face of, a man who claimed to be a Swedish diplomat.[25] Efim (or Yefim) Moshinsky claims to have seen Wallenberg on Wrangel Island in 1962. An eyewitness asserted that she had seen Wallenberg in the 1960s in a Soviet prison.[26]

Raoul Wallenberg During a private conversation about the conditions of detention in Soviet prisons at a party reception in the mid-1970s, a KGB general is reported to have said that "conditions could not be that harsh, given that in Lubyanka prison there is some foreign prisoner who had been there now for almost three decades". The last reported sightings of Wallenberg were by two independent witnesses who said they had evidence that he was in a prison in November 1987. John Farkas was a resistance fighter during WWII and was the last man claiming to have seen Wallenberg alive. Farkas' son has stated that there have been sightings of Wallenberg "up into the 1980s in Russian prisons and psychiatric hospitals." Raoul Wallenberg's half-brother, Professor Guy von Dardel,[27] a well-known physicist, retired from CERN, was dedicated to finding out his half-brother's fate.[28] He traveled to the Soviet Union about fifty times for discussions and research, including an examination of the Vladimir prison records.[29] Over the years, Professor von Dardel had compiled a 50,000-page archive of interviews, journal articles, letters, and other documents related to his quest. In 1991, he initiated a Swedish-Russian working group[30] to search eleven separate military and government archives from the former Soviet Union for information about Wallenberg's fate, but were not able to find conclusive information.[31][32] Many, including Professor von Dardel and his daughters Louise and Marie, do not accept the various versions of Wallenberg's death. They continue to request that the archives in Russia, Sweden and Hungary be opened to impartial researchers. In 2012 Russian lieutenant-general Vasily Khristoforov, head of the Russian Federal Security Service said that the Wallenberg case is still open. He dismissed allegations of a continuing coverup; referring to the legacy Soviet agency from which his department sprang, Khristoforov said: "This is another state and a different special service."

48

Show trial in 1953

In April 1952, Hungarian State Protection Authority (Hungarian: llamvdelmi Hatsg or VH) kidnapped Miksa Domonkos, Lszl Benedek and Lajos Stckler, three leaders of the Jewish community in Budapest, to extract scripted confessions under torture.[33] Two purported eyewitnesses Pl Szalai and Kroly Szab[34] were also arrested and interrogated using torture. This was in preparation for a show trial to be mounted in 1953 by the Hungarian VH to prove that Wallenberg had not been moved to the Soviet Union in 1945, but was the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists. This was after the Prague Trials or purge, when a group of mostly Jewish Communist leaders were executed in 1952 and at the time when the Soviets were planning a major antisemitic show trial in Moscow, the "Doctors' Plot". They accused mostly Jewish doctors of planning to murder Soviet leaders. Many Soviet Jews were fearful hearing that the Soviet plan was to have massive number of Jews deported to Siberia after likely execution of the doctors. The idea that the "murderers of Wallenberg"[35] were Budapest Zionists was primarily supported by Hungarian Communist leader Ern Ger, demonstrated by a note sent by him to First Secretary Mtys Rkosi.[36] The show trial was to be held in Moscow. But, after the death of Stalin on March 5, 1953 and the execution of Lavrentiy Beria, the AVH stopped preparations for the trial and released the prisoners. Domonkos spent a week in the hospital and died at home shortly afterward, mainly due to the torture he had suffered. The Soviet doctors were also released after Stalin's death.

Possible connection to US intelligence

In May 1996 the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) released thousands of previously classified documents regarding Raoul Wallenberg, in response to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act. The documents, along with an investigation conducted by the publication US News and World Report, appeared to confirm the long-held suspicion that Wallenberg was an American intelligence asset during his time in Hungary. In addition to Wallenberg's name appearing on a roster found in the National Archives which listed the names of operatives associated with the CIA's wartime predecessor the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the documents also included a

Raoul Wallenberg 1954 memo from an anonymous CIA source that identified a Hungarian-exile living in Stockholm who, according to the author: "assistedin inserting Roul [sic] Wallenberg into Hungary during WWII as an agent of OSS". Another declassified memorandum written in 1990 by the curator of the CIA's Historical Intelligence Collection William Henhoeffer, characterized the conclusion that Wallenberg was working for the OSS while in Budapest as being "essentially correct". More telling was a communique sent on November 7, 1944 by the OSS Secret Intelligence Branch in Bari, Italy which apparently acknowledged that Wallenberg was acting as an unofficial liaison between the OSS and the Hungarian Independence Movement (MFM), an underground anti-Nazi resistance organization. The OSS message notes Wallenberg's contacts with Geza Soos, a high-ranking MFM leader and further explains that Soos "may only be contacted" through the Swedish legation in Budapest, which was Wallenberg's workplace and also served as the operational center for his attempts to aid the Hungarian Jews. The same message's assertion that Wallenberg "will know if he (Soos) is not in Budapest" is also curious, in that by November 1944 Soos was in hiding and knowledge of his whereabouts would only have been available to individuals closely involved with the MFM. This conclusion is given further weight by additional evidence suggesting that communications from the MFM to US intelligence were transmitted first to Stockholm and then relayed to Washington via Iver C. Olsen, the American OSS operative who initially recruited Wallenberg to go to Budapest in June 1944. This particular disclosure has given rise to speculation as to whether, in addition to his efforts to rescue the Hungarian Jews, Wallenberg may have also been pursuing a parallel clandestine mission aimed at politically destabilizing Hungarys pro-Nazi government on behalf of the OSS. This would also seem to add some credence to the potential explanation that it was his association with US intelligence that led to Wallenberg being targeted by Soviet authorities in January 1945. Several other humanitarians who had helped refugees during World War II disappeared behind the Iron Curtain in the period 1949/50, several years after Wallenbergs disappearance. OSS ties may have been of interest to the Soviets, but is not a complete explanation because some of those detained, i.e. Hermann Field and Herta Field, had not worked for the OSS. All of these humanitarians, however, like Wallenberg, had interacted with a large number of anti-fascist and socialist refugees during the War, and this experience was used in the Stalin regimes factional politics and show trials.[37]

49

Family
In 2009, reporter Joshua Prager wrote an article in the Wall Street Journal profiling the long-term toll that Raoul Wallenberg's disappearance had on his family. His mother Maj and his stepfather Fredrik von Dardel spent the rest of their lives searching for their son. They both committed suicide by overdosing on pills two days apart in 1979. Their daughter Nina Lagergren, Raoul's half-sister, attributed their suicide to their despair about never finding their son. Both Nina and Raoul's half-brother Guy von Dardel established organizations and worked to find their brother or confirmation of his death. At the request of their parents, they were to assume he was alive until the year 2000. Nina's daughter, Nane Maria Lagergren, married Kofi Annan, former secretary general of the United Nations, and is active in many humanitarian efforts. Another of Wallenberg's nieces, Louise von Dardel, is the main activist in the family and dedicates much of her time to speaking about Wallenberg and lobbying various countries to help uncover information about her uncle.[38] The extended Wallenberg family remains an influential part of Swedish society as major shareholders in banks and corporations including Saab and Scandinavian Airlines.[39]

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50

Honours
Wallenberg was nominated twice for the Nobel Peace Prize, in 1948 by more than 50 qualified nominators and in 1949 by a single nominator At the time, the prize could be awarded posthumously, but the concept of such awards was controversial.[40][41]

Argentina
In Buenos Aires, there is a monument in honour of Wallenberg at a park. It is a replica of the London monument by Philip Jackson, was unveiled in 1998 and can be seen from the Figueroa Alcorta Avenue, in Recoleta neighbourhood.[42]

Australia
In Melbourne, a small memorial in honour of Wallenberg stands at the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre; a monument dedicated to him is on the corner of Princess Street and High Street, Kew; and a tree and memorial seat are at St Kilda Town Hall. The Australian Centre for Clinical Neuropharmacology in Melbourne adopted the name 'The Raoul Wallenberg Centre' on the occasion of Raoul Wallenberg's 89th birthday. In Sydney are a Raoul Wallenberg garden and sculpture in Woollahra, and a statue inside the Jewish Museum of Australia. Commemorative trees have been planted in front of the federal Parliament and in many other locations.[43]

Wallenberg monument of Buenos Aires

Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B'nai B'rith in Melbourne, Australia, together with Max Stern & Co, a leading stamp dealer in Melbourne, and Australia Post, have released a limited edition Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet and Envelope Set to mark the Unit's 25th anniversary in 2010. The Stamp Sheet shows a photo of Raoul Wallenberg together with a brief outline of his life, a monument in honour of Raoul Wallenberg by artist, Karl Duldig, in the Raoul Wallenberg Garden at Kew Junction, Melbourne, and ten 60 cent Australia Post stamps with tabs of Raoul Wallenberg from early childhood to adult soldier. The Envelope has a transparent front to show the Stamp Sheet; a Schutzpass is shown on the back accompanied by an explanation. To commemorate the Centenary Year, a limited number of the Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet will be stamped with a special Centenary cancellation. These will be available from Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B'nai B'rith in Melbourne from 1 July 2012. Raoul Wallenberg Unit is requesting clergy around the world to speak about Raoul Wallenberg and his heroic deeds - 'One Person can Make a Difference' - from their pulpits over the weekend 35 August 2012 which coincides with the date of his 100th birthday, 4 August 2012. Raoul Wallenberg Reserve in the neighbourhood of Yokine in Perth was dedicated in honour of Raoul Wallenberg. The small park is located in close proximity to many of Perth's Jewish institutions including a Jewish Day School, aged care facility, community centre, sports club and orthodox synagogue. Wallenberg was named Australia's first honorary citizen in April 2013, during his centenary year. Frank Vajda AM was saved by Wallenberg in 1944 from the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party and campaigned for decades for him to be recognised with the award. A ceremony to mark the occasion was held on 6 May 2013, and was attended by Governor-General Quentin Bryce AC CVO, Prime Minister Julia Gillard, and Opposition Leader Tony Abbott. Vajda also attended the ceremony, as did the son of WWII resistance fighter John Farkas, who was the last person known to have seen Wallenberg alive. George Farkas described the award as "recognition that some people can do

Raoul Wallenberg unbelievable good in the face of reprehensible evil".

51

Austria
In the 22. district of Vienna a street was named "Raoul-Wallenberg-Gasse".

Canada
Wallenberg was made the first Honorary Citizen of Canada in 1985; and the government declared January 17, the day he disappeared, as "Raoul Wallenberg Day" in Canada. Numerous memorials, parks, and monuments honouring Wallenberg can be found across Canada, including the Raoul Wallenberg Memorial in Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver, Raoul Wallenberg Corner in Calgary, Raoul Wallenberg Park in Saskatoon, Parc Raoul Wallenberg in Ottawa, Ontario, and a memorial behind Christ Church Cathedral in downtown Montreal, where a bust of Wallenberg and a caged metal box, styled as a barbed-wire gate, stand beside each other.[citation needed] The main entrance to Earl Bales Park in Toronto, Ontario is named Raoul Wallenberg Road. On January 17, 2013, which marks the 68th anniversary of Wallenberg's arrest by Soviet troops, Canada released a postage stamp in honour of Wallenberg. In 2008, the Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto added "Wallenberg" to the name of the school, thus spawning the moniker, Tanebaum CHAT Wallenberg Campus.

Georgia
In the center of Batumi a street was named "Raoul Wallenberg street" ( ).

Germany
Streets were named after Wallenberg in both east and west Berlin. Wallenberg-Strae, named in 1967, is in the western district of Wilmersdorf[44], and Raoul-Wallenberg-Strae, named in 1992, with a station of the S-Bahn, is in the eastern district of Marzahn.[45]. Additionally in Leverkusen the Raoul-Wallenberg-Strae is named after Wallenberg.[46]

Hungary
Budapest named Wallenberg as an honorary citizen in 2003. Several sites honor him, including Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Park, which commemorates those who saved many of the city's Jews from deportation to extermination camps, and the building that housed the Swedish Embassy in 1945. In July 2012, marking 100 years since his birth, Hungary paid tribute to Raoul Wallenberg in a ceremony at Budapest's Holocaust museum marking 100 years since his birth. Zoltan Balog, minister for human resources and social affairs, said that "evil must be rejected."

Israel

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52

Righteous Among the Nations

The Holocaust Rescuers assisting Jews Righteousness Seven Laws of Noah Yad Vashem Notable individuals

Archbishop Damaskinos Feng-Shan Ho Carl Lutz Oskar Schindler Irena Sendler Chiune Sugihara Raoul Wallenberg By country

Austrian Croatian Danish Underground Norwegian Polish

Israel granted Wallenberg honorary citizenship in 1986 and honored him at the Yad Vashem memorial as one of the Righteous Among the Nations; this designation recognizes Gentiles who saved Jews from the Holocaust. Other tributes to Wallenberg in Israel include at least five streets named after him.[47] On Raoul Wallenberg Street in Tel Aviv, a statue identical to one in Budapest was installed in 2002 (see below), made by the sculptor Imre Varga.[48]

Russia
A memorial to him stands in the courtyard of the Russian Rudomino Library of Foreign Languages in Moscow, and an educational institute in Saint Petersburg was named after him.

Sweden
In 2001, a memorial was created in Stockholm to honor Wallenberg. It was unveiled by King Carl XVI Gustaf, at a ceremony attended by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan and his wife Nane Maria Annan, Wallenberg's niece. The abstract sculpture portrays people rising from the concrete, accompanied by a bronze replica of Wallenberg's signature.[49] At the unveiling, King Carl XVI Gustaf said Wallenberg is "a great example to those of us who want to live as fellow humans."[50] Kofi Annan praised him as "an inspiration for all of us to act when we can and to have the courage to help those who are suffering and in need of help." A memorial to Wallenberg was installed in Gteborg, near Hagakyrkan (Haga Church). Kofi Annan attended the unveiling ceremony.

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53

United Kingdom
A Raoul Wallenberg memorial was installed at Great Cumberland Place in London, outside the Western Marble Arch Synagogue. On separate occasions in the 1990s and 2000s, Queen Elizabeth II and Charles, Prince of Wales paid tribute to Wallenberg at the Western Marble Arch site. A separate memorial stands near the Welsh National War Memorial in Alexandra Gardens, Cardiff.[citation needed] A bronze briefcase memorial by Gustav Kraitz with the initials RW is located in the garden of the Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre near Laxton in Nottinghamshire.

United States
The US Congress made Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States in 1981, the second person to be so honored, after Winston Churchill. In 1985, the portion of 15th Street, SW in Washington, D.C. on which the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is located, was renamed Raoul Wallenberg Place by Act of Congress.[51][52] In 1997, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor. Representative Tom Lantos, one of those saved by Wallenberg's actions, said: "It is most appropriate that we honor [him] with a U.S. stamp. In this age devoid of heroes, Wallenberg is the archetype of a hero one who risked his life day in and day out, to save the lives of tens of thousands of people he did not know whose religion he did not share." In Manhattan, a monument honoring him was installed on Raoul Wallenberg Walk, named in his honor, across from the headquarters of the United Nations. The Swedish consulate commissioned the piece, created by Swedish sculptor Gustav Kraitz. The sculpture, Hope, is a replica of Wallenbergs briefcase, a sphere, five pillars of black granite, and paving stones (setts) which were formerly used on the streets of the Budapest ghetto. Another memorial stands in front of the Art and Architecture building at the University of Michigan, where he received his architecture degree in 1935.[53] Places named after Wallenberg include Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco, the PS 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn, New York, Raoul Wallenberg Avenue in Trenton, New Jersey, and Raoul Wallenberg Blvd in Charleston, South Carolina. Since 2005, the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation has campaigned to establish October 5 as Raoul Wallenberg Day throughout the United States, as this was the day Wallenberg was awarded Honorary U.S. Citizenship. By 2010, Raoul Wallenberg Day was being observed by the states of Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, West Virginia, and Wyoming.[54] Wallenberg was posthumously awarded the Train Foundation's Civil Courage Prize, which recognizes "extraordinary heroes of conscience". On July 26, 2012 Wallenberg was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress "in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust."

Awards in his name

The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States bestows the Raoul Wallenberg Award "on individuals, organizations and communities that reflect Raoul Wallenberg's humanitarian spirit, personal courage and nonviolent action in the face of enormous odds." The University of Michigan awards the Wallenberg Medal annually to outstanding humanitarians who embody the humanitarian values and commitment of its distinguished alumnus. The first Wallenberg Medal was presented in 1990 to Elie Wiesel. The twentieth Wallenberg Medal was awarded in October 2010 to Dr. Denis Mukwege. The University's Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning also awards Wallenberg Scholarships to exceptional undergraduate and graduate students, many of which are given to enable students to broaden their study of architecture to include work in distant locations.

Raoul Wallenberg

54

Schools named after him

Argentina
Raoul Wallenberg Educational Center

Brazil
The Raoul Wallenberg Integral High School

Canada
The Anne & Max Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto Wallenberg Campus Wallenberg Academy (formerly Wagar High School), Montreal, Quebec.[55]

Ecuador
Raoul Wallenberg Kindergarten & Primary School

Germany
Raoul-Wallenberg Schule, Dorsten Raoul-Wallenberg-Oberschule, Berlin

Hungary
Raoul Wallenberg Humn Szakkzpiskola s Gimnzium

Sweden
Raoul Wallenberg School Bromma Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Bromma Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Skvde Raoul Wallenberg School Uppsala Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (Lund University)

Uruguay
Raoul Wallenberg Lyceum

USA
P.S. 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn, New York Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco Raoul Wallenberg Avenue, Trenton, New Jersey.

Venezuela
Raoul Wallenberg Pre-School Educational Unit

Raoul Wallenberg

55

Films
A number of films have been made of Wallenberg's life, including the 1985 made-for-television movie Wallenberg: A Hero's Story (1985), starring Richard Chamberlain, the 1990 Swedish production God afton, Herr Wallenberg (Good Afternoon, Mr. Wallenberg), featuring Stellan Skarsgrd, and various documentaries, such as Raoul Wallenberg: Buried Alive (1984), the AFI Award winning Raoul Wallenberg, Between The Lines (1985) and Searching for Wallenberg (2003). He also appears in the Spanish television series El ngel de Budapest and is played by Ivn Feny. In 2006, the film "Raoul Wallenberg-l'ange de Budapest" (translated by Nigel Spencer as "Raoul Wallenberg: the Angel of Budapest"), featuring relatives and the Winnipeg lawyer still piloting inquiries into his case, was released in Canada and broadcast on the Bravo! network.

Art
He is featured prominantly in the work of esteemed painter and Holocaust survivor, Alice Lok Cahana. Her father was saved by Wallenberg.

Operas
Wallenberg. Opera premiered at the Opernhaus Dortmund on May 5, 2001[56][57][58][59][60] Composer Erkki-Sven Tr, Libretto of Lutz Hbner Raoul. Opera premiered at the Theater Bremen on February 21, 2008[61][62] Composer Gershon Kingsley, Libretto of Michael Kunze

References
[1] The date of death is based on a letter given to his family by Soviet authorities in 1957 and is disputed by some. [2] Raoul Wallenbergs arrest order, signed by Bulganin in January 1945 (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ articles/ raoul-wallenbergs-arrest-order-signed-by-bulganin-in-january-1945/ ) [3] www.raoul-wallenberg.eu (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ researcher/ dardel/ ) [4] http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ articles/ guy-von-dardel-introduction-to-the-report-of-the-independent-consultants/ [5] www.raoul-wallenberg.eu (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ background/ 3-raoul-wallenberg-university-and-training/ ) [6] John Bierman. Righteous Gentile. Penguin Books Ltd. London, 1981. P. 25 [7] The company name is sometimes translated as the "Mid-European Trading Company" [8] Lester, Elenore and Werbell, Frederick E.; "The Last Hero of Holocaust. The Search for Sweden's Raoul Wallenberg", New York Times Magazine; March 30, 1980, ; Retrieved on February 14, 2007 [9] The Holocaust Chronicle PROLOGUE: Roots of the Holocaust, page 526 (http:/ / www. holocaustchronicle. org/ StaticPages/ 526. html) [10] Winston Churchill, in a letter to his Foreign Secretary dated July 11, 1944, wrote, "There is no doubt that this persecution of Jews in Hungary and their expulsion from enemy territory is probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed in the whole history of the world...." "Winston Churchill's The Second World War and the Holocaust's Uniqueness" (http:/ / cgi. stanford. edu/ group/ wais/ cgi-bin/ index. php?p=6855), Istvan Simon. [11] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; Holocaust Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ en/ index. php?ModuleId=10005143); Retrieved on January 27, 2007 [12] Christoph Gann, Raoul Wallenberg and the rescue Mission "Budapest Jews 1944/45 (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ category/ otherjuste/ ) Light in the darkness, retrieved 2008-09-19. Gann is the author of Raoul Wallenberg: So Viele Menschen Retten Wie Moglich (Germany, 2002). ISBN 3-423-30852-4 [13] "Jews in Hungary Helped by Swede". The New York Times; April 26, 1945, Thursday; Retrieved on February 14, 2007. [14] "Well Taken Care Of". (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,809115,00. html) Time; February 18, 1957; Retrieved on February 14, 2007. [15] "Soviet double agent may have betrayed Wallenberg" (http:/ / raoulwallenberg. org/ heroes/ news/ news_detail. asp?id=56); Reuters; May 12, 2003; Retrieved on February 14, 2007. [16] See Braham, Randolph (2004): "Rescue Operations in Hungary: Myths and Realities", East European Quarterly 38(2): 173-203. [17] "Wallenberg fate shrouded in mystery" (http:/ / archives. cnn. com/ 2001/ WORLD/ europe/ scandinavia/ 01/ 12/ wallenberg. finding/ index. html); CNN; January 12, 2001; Retrieved on February 14, 2007 [18] Chronology - Who is Raoul Wallenberg? (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. org/ who/ stone. html) - The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States. Retrieved 2008-09-19

Raoul Wallenberg
[19] "Soviets Give Kin Wallenberg Papers", New York Times; 17 Oct 1989; Retrieved on 14 Feb 2007 [20] Jonathan Brent, Inside the Stalin Archives, Atlas and Co, 2008 [21] "Cause of Death Conceded" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,997659,00. html), Time (magazine); Monday, August 7, 2000 [22] Vadim J. Birstein. The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science. (p.138) Westview Press (2004) ISBN 0-8133-4280-5 [23] "Russia: Wallenberg wrongfully jailed" (http:/ / archives. cnn. com/ 2000/ WORLD/ europe/ 12/ 22/ russia. wallenberg/ index. html); CNN; December 22, 2000; Retrieved on February 14, 2007 [24] "Search for Swedish Holocaust hero" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 4181427. stm); BBC; January 17, 2005 [25] Alan Levy: Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File, London: Robinson, 2003. [26] December 1993 interview by investigator Marvin Makinen of the University of Chicago. Makinen examined prison records and found additional evidence which seemed to possibly corroborate this. Arthur Max and Randy Herschaft, "Scholars run down more clues to abiding Holocaust mystery" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/ 2008-04-28-4012326126_x. htm), Associated Press, April 28, 2008. [27] Actions done by Raoul Wallenberg's brother, Guy von Dardel (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ dardel/ l) [28] of von Dardel's actions (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ dardel/ List) [29] Marvin W. Makinen and Ari D. Kaplan "Cell Occupancy Analysis of Korpus 2 of the Vladimir Prison" (http:/ / www. arikaplan. com/ speech/ wallenberg. pdf) [30] (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. eu/ articles/ report-on-the-activities-of-the-russian-swedish-working-group-for-determining-the-fate-of-raoul-wallenberg-1991-2000-2/ ), p. 15 [31] "Missing in Action: Raoul Wallenberg" (http:/ / info. jpost. com/ C001/ Supplements/ Shoah/ hol_Missing. html); Jerusalem Post [32] Excerpt from 1993 working group session (http:/ / www. raoul-wallenberg. asso. fr/ wallenberg_coun/ sweden/ swe. html) [33] "Interview with Istvn Domonkos, son of Miksa Domonkos, who died after the show trial preparations" (http:/ / www. szombat. org/ 2006/ 0602apamatelhurcoltak. htm). [34] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ B004UB36KG Who was the man in the leather coat? [35] The murder of Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg (http:/ / mek. oszk. hu/ 09600/ 09621/ pdf/ wallenberg-eng. pdf) [36] Kenedi Jnos: Egy killts hinyz kpei (http:/ / www. es. hu/ pd/ display. asp?channel=PUBLICISZTIKA0442& article=2004-1018-1055-02COSU) [37] (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Rescue-Flight-American-Relief-Workers/ dp/ 0803225253) Subak, Susan Elisabeth, Rescue and Flight: American Relief Workers Who Defied the Nazis, University of Nebraska Press, 2010, 342 pp. [38] Louise von Dardel's February 2005 talks in the Knesset and the Jerusalem Begin Center and her interviews at the time to Israel TV English news, Jerusalem Post, VESTY (Russian) and Makor Rishon (Hebrew). [39] http:/ / www. fam. se/ in-english. aspx [40] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nomination/ nomination_facts. html [41] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ peace/ articles/ gandhi/ index. html [42] http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. se/ tribute_mon& sculp. htm [43] raoulwallenberg net (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ world/ 641. htm) [44] http:/ / maps. google. co. uk/ maps?f=q& source=s_q& hl=en& geocode=& q=Wallenberg-Stra%C3%9Fe+ berlin& sll=52. 548036,13. 556934& sspn=0. 013283,0. 020814& gl=uk& g=Raoul-Wallenberg-Stra%C3%9Fe,+ Berlin,+ Germany& ie=UTF8& hq=& hnear=Wallenbergstra%C3%9Fe,+ Wilmersdorf+ 10713+ Berlin,+ Germany& ll=52. 483342,13. 314207& spn=0. 006651,0. 010407& t=h& z=16& iwloc=A [45] http:/ / maps. google. co. uk/ maps?hl=en& source=hp& q=raoul+ wallenberg+ strasse+ berlin& um=1& ie=UTF-8& hq=& hnear=Raoul-Wallenberg-Stra%C3%9Fe,+ Berlin,+ Germany& gl=uk& ei=FOvgSq3gJ5HbjQe_wpGxDA& sa=X& oi=geocode_result& ct=title& resnum=1& ved=0CAoQ8gEwAA [46] Raoul-Wallenberg-Str. in Leverkusen (http:/ / www. leverkusen. com/ strasse/ index. php?view=Wallenberg) [47] Wallenberg Tributes Around The World - Israel (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ world/ israel. 652. htm) The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation. Retrieved 2008-09-24 [48] Monument dedicated to Raoul Wallenberg was inaugurated in Tel Aviv (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ statues/ monument-dedicated-raoul. 712. htm) - The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation. Retrieved 2008-09-24. [49] Tributes in Sweden (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ world/ sweden. 658. htm) International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation. Retrieved 2008-09-19 [50] Stockholm monument of Second World War hero defaced (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ statues/ stockholm-monument-second. 714. htm) International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation. Retrieved 2008-09-19 [51] Raoul Wallenberg Place (http:/ / www. hmdb. org/ marker. asp?marker=8619) The Historical Marker Database. Retrieved 2008-09-19 [52] Verified in an 1989 edition. (Guinness Rekordbok 1989, Bokfrlaget Forum Stockholm Sverige, 1988) [53] "Sculptors Campus Works Celebrate Humanitarian Ideals, Growth and Change" (http:/ / www. hr. umich. edu/ um/ attractions/ feature. html) [54] http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ wallenberg/ tributes/ wallenday/ [55] http:/ / www. montrealgazette. com/ news/ Former+ Wagar+ High+ C%C3%B4te+ relaunched+ Wallenberg+ Academy/ 8164198/ story. html

56

Raoul Wallenberg
[56] PERFORMANCES OF ERKKI-SVEN TRS OPERA WALLENBERG IN GERMANY (http:/ / www. emic. ee/ performances-of-erkki-sven-tuurs-opera--wallenberg--in-germany) [57] Wallenberg in Estonian National Opera (http:/ / www. opera. ee/ en/ lavastus/ wallenberg/ ) [58] Wallenberg. SEEN AND HEARD INTERNATIONAL OPERA REVIEW (http:/ / www. musicweb-international. com/ sandH/ 2009/ jan-jun09/ wallenberg0506. htm) [59] Realitt und Fiktion (http:/ / www. operundtanz. de/ archiv/ 2001/ 04/ bericht-dortmund. shtml) [60] Opera Wallenberg (http:/ / www. staatstheater. karlsruhe. de/ programm/ info/ 1163/ ) in Badisches Staatstheater Karlsruhe [61] Gershon Kingsley Michael Kunze: Raoul - Theater Bremen (http:/ / www. operacompetition. hu/ english. asp?id=33) [62] Holocaust education fund to honor Raoul Wallenberg (http:/ / njjewishnews. com/ article/ 9112/ holocaust-education-fund-to-honor-raoul-wallenberg#. UCvZ76nN-K4)

57

Further reading
Levine, Paul A. Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest: Myth, History and Holocaust (London: Valentine Mitchell, 2010) Matz, Johan. "Sweden, the United States, and Raoul Wallenberg's Mission to Hungary in 1944," Journal of Cold War Studies (2012) 14#3 pp 97-148 in Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ journal_of_cold_war_studies/v014/14.3.matz.html)

External links
The Importance of Raoul Wallenberg - a Swedish Human Right Hero (http://theglobalherald.com/ the-importance-of-raoul-wallenberg-a-swedish-human-rights-hero/22486/) at The Global Herald Raoul Wallenberg (http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/stories/wallenberg.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki) Righteous Among the Nations - Yad Vashem Raoul Wallenberg Center at the Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation (http://www. auschwitzinstitute.org/wallenberg.html) The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation (http://www.raoulwallenberg.net) The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States (http://raoulwallenberg.org) Wallenberg at Michigan - University of Michigan Heritage Project (http://heritage.umich.edu/story/ wallenberg-at-michigan/) Searching for Raoul Wallenberg (http://www.raoul-wallenberg.eu/home/) Holocaust Rescuers Bibliography with information and links to a variety of books about Raoul Wallenberg (http:/ /www.hearthasreasons.com/bibliography.php) University of Michigan Wallenberg Committee (http://www.wallenberg.umich.edu/) Public Lecture by Dr Paul Levine 'Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest: Myth, History and Holocaust' held at the Wiener Library London on 8 March 2010 PODCAST (http://backdoorbroadcasting.net/2010/03/ dr-paul-levine-raoul-wallenberg-in-budapest-myth-history-and-holocaust/) Raoul Wallenberg - Holocaust Heroes Budapest (http://www.budapestvacationservice.com/ holocaust_heroes_budapest.html) Raoul Wallenberg - Holocaust Heroes Budapest

Kroly Szab

58

Kroly Szab
Kroly Szab

Kroly Szab circa 1944 - 1945 Born November 17, 1916 Budapest, Austria-Hungary October 28, 1964 (aged47) Budapest, Hungary

Died

Occupation Office machinery mechanic Spouse(s) Margit Vsrhelyi

Kroly Szab (November 17, 1916 October 28, 1964) was an employee of the Swedish Embassy in Budapest from 1944 to 1945. He was a supporter of Raoul Wallenberg and had a significant role in making contact with the representatives of the Hungarian police and other state officials.[1] He was arrested without legal proceedings 1953 in Budapest in a Raoul Wallenberg secret trial. Honored as Righteous among the Nations on November 12, 2012.[2]

Friendship with Pl Szalai 1929

In the Hungarian Boy Scouts in 1929 he (13 years old) became friends with Pl Szalai. This friendship continued in the critical months of 19441945 while Pl Szalai, high-ranking member of the police force, supported Raoul Wallenberg.

Budapest 19441945
Between 1944 and 1945 Kroly Szab was one of the typewriter mechanics of the Swedish Embassy. Dr. Otto Fleischmann, a Doctor of Medicine and psychologist, employee of the Swedish Embassy, motivated Kroly Szab to play an active role in the rescue actions of Raoul Wallenberg. Pl Szalai supported his friend with important personal documents, signed by the German command in the Battle of Budapest. Karoly Szab's intuitive purchase decision for a leather coat was another key factor. Black leather trench coat, was a means of inspiring fear and respect, and the subsequent Hollywood image of the black-clad, trench-coated Gestapo officer has entered popular culture. In Budapest's Jewish community he was known as "the mysterious man in the leather coat".[3]

Swedish Legation Budapest 1944 - Badge Karoly Szabo

Kroly Szab Kroly Szab attracted exceptional attention on December 24, 1944 as Hungarian Arrow Cross Party members occupied the Embassy building on Gyopr street. He rescued 36 kidnapped employees[4] from the Budapest ghetto. This action attracted Raoul Wallenberg's interest. He agreed to meet Szab's influential friend, Pl Szalai, a high-ranking member of the police force. The meeting took place in the night of December 26. This meeting was preparation to save the Budapest ghetto in January 1945. Pl Szalai was honored as Righteous among the Nations 04.7.2009.[5][6][7] The last meeting between Wallenberg and Szalai, together with Dr. Ott Fleischmann and Kroly Szab, was on the evening of January 12, 1945 at the Gyopr street Swedish Embassy at Wallenberg's "last supper" invitation.[8] The next day on January 13 Wallenberg contacted the Russians to secure food and supplies for the people under his protection. He was detained by the Soviet forces on January 17, 1945.

59

Prevented crime in January 1945

During World War II Lars Ernster and Jacob Steiner lived in the office of the Swedish Embassy in Budapest, lli Street 2-4. In the night of January 8, 1945 all inhabitants were dragged away to near the Danube banks by an Arrow Cross party execution brigade of the city commander. At midnight, 20 policemen with drawn bayonets broke into the Arrow Cross (Nyilas) house and rescued everyone.[9] Ernster and Steiner were among the rescued. Ernster fled to Sweden, where later he was member of the Board of Nobel Foundation (197788), and Steiner fled to Israel, where he is now a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Information from Jacob Steiner after he has read this page: on December 25, 1944, Steiner's father was shot dead by Arrow Cross militiamen, falling into the Danube as a result. His father had been an officer in World War I and spent 4 years as a prisoner of war in Russia.[10]

Document in the National Archives of Hungary 1945. Thank from Lajos Stckler, President of the Jewish Community of Budapest for rescuing 154 persons and his family (8 persons).

Dr. Erwin K. Koranyi psychiatrist in Ottawa write about the night of January 8, 1945 in his "Chronicle of a Life" in 2006 "in our group, I saw Lajos Stoeckler" and "The police holding their guns at the Arrowcross cutthroats. One of the high-ranking police officers was Paul Szalai, with whom Raoul Wallenberg used to deal. Another police officer in his leather coat was Karoly Szabo."[11]

19471964
At the invitation from the Wallenberg family[12] Kroly Szab visited Stockholm in summer 1947. He was one of the last three persons who had seen Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest. In the autumn of 1947 he visited the rescued family Jakobovics in Amsterdam. His visit made headlines in Dutch newspapers nl:Het Vrije Volk. In the summer of 1963 and 1964 he visited at invitation the rescued Kalber and Lw in Basel and Jakobovics in London.

Kroly Szab Show trial preparations 1953 in Hungary The idea that the "murderers of Wallenberg" were Budapest Zionists was primarily supported by Hungarian Communist leader Ern Ger, which is shown by a note sent by him to First Secretary Mtys Rkosi.[13] In 1953 preparations for a show trial started in Budapest to prove that Wallenberg had never been in the Soviet Union, nobody had dragged off Wallenberg in 1945, least of all the Soviet Army. Three leaders of the Jewish community of Budapest Dr. Lszl Benedek, Lajos Stckler, Miksa Domonkos, and two additional eyewitnesses Pl Szalai and Kroly Szab were arrested, accused and tortured. Everything was ready for a trial designed to prove that Wallenberg had been the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists[14] .

60

Documents, prison inventory: preparations for Wallenberg show trial in Budapest 1953

Kroly Szab arrested without legal proceedings on April 8, 1953 (inventory in prison)

TAG Heuer sports watch (on prison inventory)

Slide rule (on prison inventory)

After six months, Kroly Szab was released on October 6. 1953 (Highest Prosecutor)

On April 8, 1953 Kroly Szab was captured on the street, arrested without legal proceedings, and sent to prison. His family did not hear from him for six months. A secret trial was held and no official record of the case or the judge's verdict was made available. After six months of interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion. The show trial was initiated in Moscow, following Joseph Stalin's anti-Zionist campaign. After Stalin's death and Lavrentiy Beria's execution, the preparations for the trial ended and the arrested persons were released. Miksa Domonkos died shortly after the tortures in hospital (Book: Mria Ember, "They Wanted to Blame Us", 1992 [15]).

Timeline
1916 Born on November 17, 1916 in Budapest. 19321940 Works for the Remington US typewriter company in Budapest 19401945 Works for Brunsviga German calculators company in Budapest (Gelpke, Ndor tr) and mechanican for bureau equipment on the Swedish Embassy Budapest 19441945 19451949 owner of the "Universal" bureau equipment company with Plachy and Wagner representatives for Brunsviga (German), Precisa (Swiss), Odhner (Swedish) calculating machines in Hungary.[16] 1950 His business was "nationalized" (expropriated without compensation) 1953 Arrested and secret show trial preparations 19551964 Independent technician for office equipment 1963-1964 In the summer of 1963 and 1964 he visited at invitation the rescued Klaber and Lw in Basel and Jakobovics in London. 1964 Death by stroke October 28, 1964 in Budapest.

Kroly Szab

61

Posthumous honors
On August 4, 2010, the birthday of Raoul Wallenberg the International Mensch Foundation, the Carl Lutz Foundation, the Budapest Holocaust Memorial Institute and the 1944-2004 Foundation issued a Karoly Szabo memorial certificate. After introduction by Prof. Dr. Szabolcs Szita speech Aliza Bin-Noun Israel Ambassador, Dr. John Hvri Ambassador Deputy Secretary of State, Prof. Dr. Schweitzer Joseph retired National Rabbi.[17]

References
[1] A Man for All Connections, The Wallenberg-Szalai connection, Andrew Handler, Praeger/Greenwood, 30 January 1996; ISBN 978-0-275-95214-3 [2] http:/ / db. yadvashem. org/ righteous/ righteousName. html?language=en& itemId=5932612 [3] "The mysterious man in the leather coat". Faklya, Budapest, December 29, 1946 (Hungarian) [4] Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 41 [5] http:/ / www. cnbc. com/ id/ 30091931 The Associated Press 07 Apr 2009 [6] http:/ / www. bm. hu/ web/ portal. nsf/ archiv_hir/ CFFF58DD8F82C2E1C125758C0060313B?OpenDocument MTI Magyar Tvirati Iroda [7] http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=1077133& contrassID=0& subContrassID=0 Haaretz [8] Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 74 [9] Newspapers 1947-1964 (http:/ / www. spacetime-sensor. de/ wallenberg. htm) [10] Letter from Jacob Steiner February 12, 2007 to Tamas Szabo [11] Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life, Erwin K. Koranyi, General Store Publishing House, 2006, ISBN 978-1-897113-47-9, pp. 89-90. [12] Wallenberg family archives [13] Kenedi Jnos: Egy killts hinyz kpei (http:/ / www. es. hu/ pd/ display. asp?channel=PUBLICISZTIKA0442& article=2004-1018-1055-02COSU) [14] The murder of Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg (http:/ / mek. oszk. hu/ 09600/ 09621/ pdf/ wallenberg-eng. pdf) [15] http:/ / www. hungarianquarterly. com/ no143/ p129. html [16] see also: Plachy and Szabo about 1940 [17] http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ epa/ article/ ALeqM5hcKEBcRm_n06m_SrVqy_oSLzShNA MTI Hungarian News Agency

Books, newspaper
Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life, Erwin K. Koranyi, General Store Publishing House, 2006, ISBN 978-1-897113-47-9 (pages 89 90) A Man for All Connections, The Wallenberg-Szalai connection, Andrew Handler, Praeger/Greenwood, 30 January 1996; ISBN 978-0-275-95214-3 Handler focuses on explaining the Hungarian political context which made rescue possible.... Less well known is the fact that Wallenberg's mission was supported by various representatives of the Hungarian state apparatus Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives The mystery man with the leather coat. Faklya - Budapest, December 29, 1946 - February 9, 1947, interviews with Kroly Szab (Hungarian)

Kroly Szab

62

External links
Szab Kroly 8/4/2010 in Magyar Televzi (or Hungarian Television) is a Hungarian national public service television company. Vide (http://videotar.mtv.hu/Videok/2010/08/04/13/ Wallenbergnek_segitett_zsidokat_menteni_Szabo_Karoly.aspx) Homepage Raoul Wallenberg Asso.fr (http://www.raoul-wallenberg.asso.fr/wallenberg_arch/wallenberg_test/ karoly_szabo.html) Documents to January 8. 1945. (English) (http://www.spacetime-sensor.de/wallenberg.htm) Forgcs Gbor, The history of the lli t 2-4, Wallenberg office hired by the Swedish Embassy (http://www. raoul-wallenberg.asso.fr/wallenberg_arch/wallenberg_test/wallenberg_forgacs.html) Wallenberg: More Twists to the Tale, Mria Ember, They Wanted to Blame Us (http://www.hungarianquarterly. com/no143/p129.html) Interview with Istvn Domonkos, son of Miksa Domonkos who died after the show trial preparations (Hungarian) (http://www.szombat.org/2006/0602apamatelhurcoltak.htm) Wallenberg Seminar in Budapest, March 1-2nd 2007 (http://www.raoul-wallenberg.asso.fr/wallenberg_arch/ arch2000/070301rwsembuda.html) "We have to emphasize the deeds of Kroly Szab, Pl Szalai, Dr Istvn Pardi, who were risking their life everyday" Gbor Forgcs. The exhibition was opened by Dr. Gabor Demszky, Mayor of Budapest with a message of the President of the Republic of Hungary Lszl Slyom.

Pl Szalai

63

Pl Szalai
Pl Szalai
Born September 3, 1915 Budapest January 16, 1994 (aged78) Los Angeles

Died

Occupation Police officer

Pl Szalai (September 3, 1915 January 16, 1994) also spelled Pl Szalay and anglicized as Paul Sterling was a high-ranking member of the Budapest police force and the Hungarian Arrow Cross Party during World War II. Honored as Righteous among the Nations on April 7, 2009.[1][2][3]

Biography
He was born in Budapest on September 3, 1915.

The Wallenberg-Szalai connection

In the Hungarian Boy Scouts in 1929 he became friends with Kroly Szab. This friendship continued in the critical months 1944 - 1945 while Pl Szalai, high-ranking member of the police force supported Raoul Wallenberg. Szalai was from 1939 to 1942 an idealistic member of the Arrow Cross Party. He left the party in 1942 disillusioned, and returned to a high-ranking police force position in October 1944 to help people in mortal danger from the Holocaust. Szalai's friend Kroly Szab was employee of the Swedish Embassy. Dr. Otto Fleischmann Doctor of Medicine and psychologist of the Swedish Embassy motivated Kroly Szab to play active role in the rescue actions of Raoul Wallenberg. Pl Szalai supported his friend with important personal documents, signed from the German command in the Battle of Budapest.[4] Szalai agreed to meet Raoul Wallenberg at the Swedish Embassy in the night of December 26, 1944.

The ghetto in Budapest

Szalai provided Raoul Wallenberg with special favors and government information. In the second week of January 1945, Raoul found out that Adolph Eichmann planned a massacre in the Budapest ghetto. The only one who could stop it was the man given the responsibility to carry the massacre out, the commander of the German troops in Hungary, Major General Gerhard Schmidhuber. Through Szalai, Wallenberg sent Schmidhuber a note promising that he, Raoul Wallenberg, would make sure the general was held personally responsible for the massacre and that he would be hanged as a war criminal when the war was over. The general knew that the war would be over soon and that the Germans were losing. The massacre was stopped at the last minute thanks to the courage and daring action of Wallenberg.[5]

Pl Szalai

64

After the war

After the war, Szalai was one of few high-ranking members of the Arrow Cross Party not executed. He was set free in recognition of his cooperation with Wallenberg.

Show trial preparations 1953 in Hungary

Preparations for a show trial started 1953 in Budapest to "prove" that Wallenberg had never been in the Soviet Union, nobody had dragged off Wallenberg in 1945, least of all the Soviet Army. Everything was ready for a trial designed to prove that Wallenberg had been the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists. Three leaders of the Jewish community of Budapest Dr. Lszl Benedek, Lajos Stckler, and Miksa Domonkos, as well as two additional "eyewitnesses" Pl Szalai and Kroly Szab were arrested and tortured. The preparations for the show trial were initiated in Moscow, following Joseph Stalin's anti-Zionist campaign. After Stalin's death and as Lavrentiy Beria was killed, the trial was aborted and the arrestees released. Miksa Domonkos died shortly after being tortured in the hospital.[6]

Emigration and death

He emigrated 1956 to the United States and lived in New Jersey then moved to California. He died on January 16, 1994 in Los Angeles, California under the name "Paul Sterling".[7]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. cnbc. com/ id/ 30091931 The Associated Press 07 Apr 2009 http:/ / www. bm. hu/ web/ portal. nsf/ archiv_hir/ CFFF58DD8F82C2E1C125758C0060313B?OpenDocument MTI Magyar Tvirati Iroda http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=1077133& contrassID=0& subContrassID=0 Haaretz Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 41 [5] Incredible People: Wallenberg (http:/ / www. incrediblepeople. com/ people(1999-08-07). htm) [6] Book: Mria Ember, They Wanted to Blame Us, 1992 (http:/ / www. hungarianquarterly. com/ no143/ p129. html)) [7] Social Security Death Index; 141-32-9949 some biographies incorrectly list January 18, 1994

External links
Wallenberg: More Twists to the Tale, Mria Ember, They Wanted to Blame Us (http://www.hungarianquarterly. com/no143/p129.html) Interview with Istvn Domonkos, son of Miksa Domonkos who died after the show trial preparations (Hungarian) (http://www.szombat.org/index.php?module=articles&func=display&aid=200)

Books
A Man for All Connections, The Wallenberg-Szalai connection, Andrew Handler, Praeger/Greenwood, 30 January 1996; ISBN 978-0-275-95214-3. Handler focuses on explaining the Hungarian political context that made the rescue possible.... Less well known is the fact that Wallenbergs mission was supported by various representatives of the Hungarian state apparatus. Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives

Otto Fleischmann

65

Otto Fleischmann
Otto Fleschmann (January 24, 1896 in Mr, Hungary; January 8, 1963 in New York City) was a Hungarian born medical doctor.

Vienna
Otto Fleischmann a medical doctor, he was taught Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud in Vienna where he was associated with other psychoanalysts including Anna Freud.

Budapest 1944 - 1945

After the German Nazi takeover of Austria, Fleischmann went to Budapest, Hungary. In 1944, with the German occupation of Hungary, he received protection from the Swedish Foreign Ministry through diplomatic cover provided by Raoul Wallenberg. Fleischmann subsequently worked with Raoul Wallenberg in his efforts to save Jews in Hungary, 1944-1945.

Swedish Embassy in Budapest

Between 1944 and 1945 Karoly Szabo was one of the typewriter mechanics of the Swedish Embassy. Dr. Ott Fleischmann motivated Karoly Szabo to play an active role in the rescue actions of Raoul Wallenberg. Pl Szalai supported his friend Karoly Szabo with important personal documents, signed by the German command in the Battle of Budapest. Ott Fleischmann prepared Karoly Szabo psychological for the rescue actions, intuitive purchase decision for a leather coat was another key factor. Black leather trench coat, was a means of inspiring fear and respect, and the subsequent Hollywood image of the black-clad, trench-coated Gestapo officer has entered popular culture. In Budapest's Jewish community he was known as "the mysterious man in the leather coat".[1]

Swedish Legation Budapest 1944 - Badge Karoly Szabo

Kroly Szab saved Fleischmanns life in December 1944 (witness in Fleischmann papers, Library of Congress). Karoly Szabo was honored as Righteous among the Nations on November 12, 2012.[2] Pl Szalai was honored as Righteous among the Nations 04.7.2009.[3]

Raoul Wallenberg
The last meeting between Raoul Wallenberg and Pal Szalai, together with Dr. Ott Fleischmann and Kroly Szab, was on the evening of January 12, 1945 at the Gyopr street Swedish Embassy at Wallenberg's "last supper" invitation.[4] The next day on January 13 Wallenberg contacted the Russians to secure food and supplies for the people under his protection. He was detained by the Soviet forces on January 17, 1945.

USA, Menninger Foundation

After the war, Fleischmann returned to Vienna to work with psychoanalyst August Aichhorn. By 1951, Fleischmann had joined the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas. On 25 May 1956, Dr. Fleischmann was re-elected to serve as Director of the Institute for the year 195657. Dr. Fleischmann, head of the psychoanalytic institute was doing psychotherapy behind a one-way vision screen, in full view of all the students. The Clinic became the center of choice for Hollywood stars. Among these were: Judy Garland and Marilyn Monroe.

Otto Fleischmann

66

References
[1] "The mysterious man in the leather coat". Faklya, Budapest, December 29, 1946 (Hungarian) [2] http:/ / db. yadvashem. org/ righteous/ righteousName. html?language=en& itemId=5932612 [3] http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=1077133& contrassID=0& subContrassID=0 Haaretz honored Tuesday was Pal Szalai, who worked with Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg to save hundreds of Jews by organizing food and water supplies to the sealed-off Budapest ghetto in January 1945. [4] Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 74

External links
Otto Fleischmann papers, 1910-1985 (http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms009328) Otto Fleischmann papers, Library of Congress has been dedicated to the public (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/ mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2009/ms009328.pdf) (PDF; 23kB)

Shoes on the Danube Promenade

The Shoes on the Danube Promenade is a memorial concept by filmdirector Can Togay and was created by him and the sculptor Gyula Pauer on the bank of the Danube River in Budapest. It honors the Jews who were killed by fascist Arrow Cross militiamen in Budapest during World War II. They were ordered to take off their shoes, and were shot at the edge of the water so that their bodies fell into the river and were carried away. It represents their shoes left behind on the bank.

The plaque.

Shoes on the Danube Promenade

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The memorial
It is located on the Pest side of the Danube Promenade in line with where Zoltan Street would meet the Danube if it continued that far, about 300 metres (980ft) south of the Hungarian Parliament and near the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. "A Cipk a Duna-parton elnevezs kompozci a nyilasterror idejn Dunba ltt embereknek llt emlket. a szobrszmvsz hatvan pr korh lbbelit formlt meg vasbl. A parti szegly termskvre erstett cipk mgtt negyven mter hosszsg, hetven centimter magas kpad hzdik. Az emlkhely hrom pontjn ntttvas tblkon magyarul, angolul s hberl olvashat a felirat: "A nyilaskeresztes fegyveresek ltal Dunba ltt ldozatok emlkre llttatott 2005. prilis 16-n". forrs: MTI 2005. prilis 16., szombat Translation: "The composition entitled 'Shoes on the Danube Bank' gives remembrance to the people shot into the Danube during the time of the Arrow Cross terror. The sculptor created sixty pairs of period-appropriate shoes out of iron. The shoes are attached to the stone embankment, and behind them The memorial. lies a 40 meter long, 70 cm high stone bench. At three points are cast iron signs, with the following text in Hungarian, English, and Hebrew: "To the memory of the victims shot into the Danube by Arrow Cross militiamen in 194445. Erected 16 April 2005." (Source: MTI, Saturday, April 16, 2005.) Npszabadsg Online, 2005. prilis 15. 14:25 "Holokauszt-emlkmvet avatnak szombaton, a holokauszt ldozatainak emlknapjn Budapesten. A hatvan pr, ntttvasbl mintzott korh cip a nyilasterror idejn Dunba ltt embereknek llt emlket a Roosevelt tr s a Kossuth tr kztti szakaszon." Translation: "A holocaust memorial will be dedicated on Saturday, the holocaust victim memorial day, in Budapest. Sixty pairs of cast iron shoes, cast in the styles of the 40's, stand in remembrance of the people shot into the Danube during the Arrow Cross terror. The memorial lies on the riverbank between Roosevelt square and Kossuth square." (source: Npszabadsg Online, April 15, 2005.)

January 1945
During World War II, Raoul Wallenberg and 250 coworkers were working around the clock to save the Jewish population from being sent to Nazi concentration camps; this figure later rose to approximately 400. Lars and Edith Ernster, Jacob Steiner, and many others were housed at the Swedish Embassy in Budapest on lli Street 2-4 and 32 other buildings throughout the city which Wallenberg had rented and declared as extraterritorial Swedish to try to safeguard the residents. On the night of January 8, 1945, an Arrow Cross execution brigade forced all of the inhabitants of the building on Vadasz Street to the banks of the Danube. At midnight, Karoly Szabo and 20 policemen with drawn bayonets broke into the Arrow Cross house and rescued everyone there (see also front page of 1947 newspaper below).[1] Among those saved were Lars Ernster, who fled to Sweden and became a member of the board of the Nobel Foundation

Shoes on the Danube Promenade from 1977 to 1988, and Jacob Steiner, who fled to Israel and became a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Steiner's father had been shot dead by Arrow Cross militiamen on December 25, 1944, falling into the Danube. His father had been an officer in World War I and spent four years as a prisoner of war in Russia.[2] Dr. Erwin K. Koranyi, a psychiatrist in Ottawa, wrote about the night of January 8, 1945 in his Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life (2006), "in our group, I saw Lajos Stoeckler" and "The police holding their guns at the Arrowcross cutthroats. One of the high-ranking police officers was Pal Szalai, with whom Raoul Wallenberg used to deal. Another police officer in his leather coat was Karoly Szabo."[3] Pal Szalai was honored as Righteous among the Nations on April 7, 2009 for helping save these Hungarian Jews.[4][5][6] Karoly Szabo was honored as Righteous among the Nations on November 12, 2012.[7]

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Swedish Legation Budapest 1944

[8] Document in the National Archives of Hungary 1945. Thank you letter from Lajos Stckler, President of the Jewish Community of Budapest, to Karoly Szabo for rescuing 154 persons and his family (8 persons).

Map
On Google Maps the memorial is at the top of the map, near Steindl Imre utca, Danube bank [9] Danube bank near view: [10] Memorial is on the top of the map, on the bottom Hungarian Academy of Sciences Map on Gyula Pauers website [11]

Victims
Mikls Vig

Media
Photographs on Gyula Pauers website [12] Film Memorial to the victims [13]

Shoes on the Danube Promenade

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References
[1] http:/ / www. spacetime-sensor. de/ wallenberg. htm [2] Letter from Jacob Steiner February 12, 2007 to Tamas Szabo [3] Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life, Erwin K. Koranyi, General Store Publishing House, 2006, ISBN 978-1-897113-47-9 Pages 89 - 90 [4] http:/ / www. cnbc. com/ id/ 30091931 The Associated Press 07 Apr 2009 [5] http:/ / www. bm. hu/ web/ portal. nsf/ archiv_hir/ CFFF58DD8F82C2E1C125758C0060313B?OpenDocument MTI Magyar Tvirati Iroda [6] http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=1077133& contrassID=0& subContrassID=0 Haaretz [7] https:/ / picasaweb. google. com/ 113991532842050650466/ Wallenberg98Eves#5812530032331649794 [8] Letter from Jacob Steiner February 12, 2007 to Tamas Szabo [9] http:/ / maps. google. de/ maps?ie=UTF8& z=17& ll=47. 501605,19. 047096& spn=0. 00482,0. 010042& t=h& om=1 [10] http:/ / maps. google. de/ maps?ie=UTF8& om=1& z=18& ll=47. 502185,19. 046173& spn=0. 00241,0. 005021& t=h [11] http:/ / www. pauergyula. hu/ cipok/ terkep. htm [12] http:/ / www. pauergyula. hu/ cipok/ galeria1. htm [13] http:/ / www. pauergyula. hu/ cipok/ UntitledFrame-6. htm#

Bibliography
Gbor, Forgcs, Recollections and Facts; My Days with Raoul Wallenberg (Emlk s Valsg), Budapest 2006 Koranyi, Erwin K., Dreams and Tears: Chronicle of a Life, General Store Publishing House, 2006, ISBN 978-1-897113-47-9 (pages 89 90) Szekeres, Jzsef, Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, ISBN 978-963-7323-14-0, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives

External links
Gyula Pauer site (http://www.pauergyula.hu) Jewish Budapest site (http://www.jewishbudapest.hu/gallery_shoes.html) Shoes on the Danube Promenade at rumboanada (http://www.rumboanada.com/2009/12/ zapatos-en-el-muelle-del-danubio.html) Edith Ernster remembers (http://www.raoulwallenberg.org/who/hero.html)" In the darkest days of 1944, the Swedish protective passport even provided some humor in the midst of despair. Edith Ernester, who lived through that time, recalls: "It seemed so strange - this country of super-aryans, the Swedes, taking us under their wings. Often, when an Orthodox Jew went by, in his hat, beard and sidelocks, we'd say, 'Look, there goes another Swede.' A special department was created in the Swedish embassy in Budapest with Wallenberg as its head. It was staffed primarily with Jewish volunteers. Initially, there were 250 workers; later, he had about 400 people working around the clock. Wallenberg seemed to sleep no more than an hour or two a night, and then it was wherever he happened to be working. He was everywhere." Document about January 8. 1945. in Budapest Archives (Hungarian) (http://www.spacetime-sensor.de/ wallenberg-h.htm) Other documents about January 8. 1945. (English) (http://www.spacetime-sensor.de/wallenberg.htm) Photographs of the shoes Szoborlap.hu (http://www.szoborlap.hu/szobor.php?aktualis=194) Jewish.hu - The shoes on the river (http://jewish.hu/view.php?clabel=cipok_a_duna-parton) Coordinates: 473014.05N 190241.22E (http:/ php?pagename=Shoes_on_the_Danube_Promenade& 22_E_region:HU_type:landmark_source:dewiki) / tools. wmflabs. org/ params=47_30_14. geohack/ geohack. 05_N_19_02_41.

Budapest Ghetto

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Budapest Ghetto
Part of a series on

The Holocaust

The Budapest Ghetto was a ghetto where Jews were forced to live in Budapest, Hungary during the Second World War.

Walls of the ghetto, last section demolished in 2006

History
The area consisted of several blocks of the old Jewish quarter which included the 2 main synagogues of the city, the Neolog Dohny Street Synagogue and Orthodox Kazinczy Street Synagogue. [2] The ghetto was created on 1944 November 29 by a decree of the Royal Hungarian Government. [3] It was surrounded by a high fence and stone wall that was guarded so that contraband could not be sneaked in, and people could not get out. The Nazi occupation of Budapest (Operation Margarethe) started on March 19, 1944. The ghetto was established in November, 1944, and lasted for less than three months, until the liberation of Budapest on January 17, 1945 by the Soviet Army during the Battle of Budapest.

As with other ghettos that had been set up in other parts of Nazi-occupied Europe the area was completely cut off from the outside world: no food was allowed in, rubbish and waste were not collected, the dead lay on the streets and piled up in the bombed-out store fronts and the buildings were overcrowded, leading to the spread of diseases such as typhoid.

Map of the Budapest Ghetto showing the Dohny Street Synagogue (Neolog), red pin, and Kazinczy Street Synagogue (Orthodox) green pin, and the mikveh (ritual bath) blue pin. For an interactive version [1] of the map see: Wikimapia .

Budapest Ghetto More than half of those that were forced into the ghetto in 1944 were sent to concentration camps, starting almost immediately from the establishment of the ghetto. From occupation to liberation the Jewish population of Budapest was reduced from 200,000 to 70,000 in the ghetto, and about 20,000 housed in specially marked houses outside the ghetto having been granted diplomatic protection by neutral politicians, including Raoul Wallenberg, who issued Protective Passports on behalf of the Swedish Legation, and Carl Lutz, who did the same via the Swiss Government. Of those that were deported (most of them to a concentration camp on the Austrian border), the vast majority were liberated by the advancing Red Army.

71

Saving the ghetto in January 1945

Kroly Szab an employee on the Swedish Embassy in Budapest attracted exceptional attention on December 24, 1944 as Hungarian Arrow Cross Party members occupied the Embassy building on Gyopr street. He rescued 36 kidnapped employees[4] from the Budapest ghetto. This action attracted Raoul Wallenberg's interest. He agreed to meet Szab's influential friend, Pl Szalai, a high-ranking member of the police force The meeting was in the night of December 26. This meeting was preparation to save the Budapest ghetto in January 1945. Pl Szalai provided Raoul Wallenberg with special favors and government information. Swedish Legation Budapest 1944 - Badge In the second week of January 1945, Raoul Wallenberg found out that Adolph Eichmann Karoly Szabo planned a massacre of the largest Jewish ghetto in Budapest. The only one who could stop it was the man given the responsibility to carry the massacre out, the commander of the German troops in Hungary, General Gerhard Schmidhuber. Through Szalai, Wallenberg sent Schmidhuber a note promising that he, Raoul Wallenberg, would make sure the general was held personally responsible for the massacre and that he would be hanged as a war criminal when the war was over. The general knew that the war would be over soon and that the Germans were losing. The massacre was stopped at the last minute thanks to the courage and daring action of Wallenberg.[5]

Memorial Wall
The last remaining section of the ghetto wall was demolished in 2006 during construction works. It was situated in the backyard of a building (No. 15 Kirly Street) and was originally an old stone wall made use by the Nazis in 1944 adding a line of barbed wire. The walls of the ghetto were typically older structures found on the area. A memorial wall was erected on the place in 2008, using some original material, but not matching the exact details.

References
[1] http:/ / wikimapia. org/ #lat=47. 4995543& lon=19. 0631705& z=16& l=0& m=w [2] For a detail map see US Holocaust Memorial Museum (http:/ / www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ en/ media_nm. php?ModuleId=10005264& MediaId=328). [3] Decree On the Establishment of the Budapest Ghetto at the Jewish Virtual Library (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Holocaust/ budapestghetto. html). [4] Jzsef Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pl Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 963-7323-14-7, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 41 and 71 [5] Incredible People: Wallenberg (http:/ / www. incrediblepeople. com/ people(1999-08-07). htm)

Budapest Ghetto

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External links
A personal account of the Budapest ghetto (http://www.remember.org/jean/Chap4/Part1/Budapest_ghetto. htm) History of the Budapest ghetto (http://www.edwardvictor.com/Ghettos/Budapest.htm) Budapest Ghetto today (http://www.jewishhungary.org/city.asp?City=Budapest&area=109) Ghetto Budapest (http://www.budapestvacationservice.com/budapest_ghetto_1944-1945.html) A Brief Jewish History of Budapest (http://jewish.hu/view.php?clabel=magyarorszagi_zsidok) Coordinates: 472956N 190352E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Budapest_Ghetto&params=47_29_56_N_19_03_52_E_region:HU_source:kolossus-ruwiki)

Gerhard Schmidhuber

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Gerhard Schmidhuber
Gerhard Schmidhuber

Oberst Gerhard Schmidhuber Born Died Allegiance 9 April 1894 Dresden 11 February 1945 (aged50) Budapest
German Empire (to 1918) Weimar Republic (to 1920) Nazi Germany

Service/branch Heer Yearsof service 19141920 19331945 Rank Battles/wars Awards Generalmajor World War I World War II Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves

Gerhard Schmidhuber (9 April 1894 11 February 1945 in the battle of Budapest) was a German major general. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and its higher grade Oak Leaves was awarded to recognise extreme battlefield bravery or successful military leadership.

Career
Born in Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony, Schmidhuber was commanding officer of the Wehrmacht Heer's 13th Panzer Division during World War II. When the Germans occupied Hungary in 1944, Schmidhuber was supreme commander of German army forces in that country. In that capacity, he had extensive dealings with the Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg and prevented the liquidation of the Jewish ghetto in the face of the advancing Red Army. Schmidhuber was killed in action in the Battle of Budapest.

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Awards
Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class (9 May 1915)[1] 1st Class (7 December 1917) Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (29 September 1939) 1st Class (24 June 1940) German Cross in Gold on 28 February 1942 as Oberstleutnant in the II./Schtzen-Regiment 103[2] Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves Knight's Cross on 18 October 1943 as Oberst and commander of Panzergrenadier-Regiment 304[3] 706th Oak Leaves on 21 January 1945 as Generalmajor and commander of the 13.Panzer-Division[4] mentioned in the addendum of the Wehrmachtbericht on 20 December 1944.

Reference in the Wehrmachtbericht

Date 20December1944 (addendum) Original German Wehrmachtbericht wording Im Raum von Budapest haben sich in den harten Abwehrkmpfen die Panzergrenadierdivision 'Feldherrnhalle' unter Fhrung des Generalmajors Pape und die 13. Panzerdivision unter Fhrung des Generalmajors Schmidhuber, deren Offiziere, Unteroffiziere und Mannschaften zum grten Teil der SA entstammen, durch hervorragende Tapferkeit und Angriffsschwung [5] ausgezeichnet. Direct English translation The Panzergrenadierdivision 'Feldherrnhalle' under the leadership of Generalmajor Pape and the 13. Panzerdivision under the leadership of Generalmajor Schmidhuber, whose officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers are largely comprised from the SA, distinguished themselves by showing exceptional bravery and attacking spirit, in hard fought defensive battles in the vicinity of Budapest.

References
Citations
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Thomas 1998, p. 264. Patzwall and Scherzer 2001, p. 411. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 380. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 95. Die Wehrmachtberichte 19391945 Band 3, p. 373.

Bibliography Fellgiebel, Walther-Peer (2000). Die Trger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939-1945 (in German). Friedburg, Germany: Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 3-7909-0284-5. Patzwall, Klaus D. and Scherzer, Veit (2001). Das Deutsche Kreuz 1941 - 1945 Geschichte und Inhaber Band II (in German). Norderstedt, Germany: Verlag Klaus D. Patzwall (in German). ISBN 3-931533-45-X. Scherzer, Veit (2007). Ritterkreuztrger 19391945 Die Inhaber des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939 von Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm sowie mit Deutschland verbndeter Streitkrfte nach den Unterlagen des Bundesarchives (in German). Jena, Germany: Scherzers Miltaer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-938845-17-2. Thomas, Franz (1998). Die Eichenlaubtrger 19391945 Band 2: LZ (in German). Osnabrck, Germany: Biblio-Verlag. ISBN 3-7648-2300-3. Die Wehrmachtberichte 19391945 Band 3, 1. Januar 1944 bis 9. Mai 1945 (in German). Mnchen: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, 1985. ISBN 3-423-05944-3.

Gerhard Schmidhuber

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External links
"Lexikon der Wehrmacht" (http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Personenregister/S/SchmidhuberG.htm). Gerhard Schmidhuber. Retrieved 6 June 2007. (Hungarian) (http://nol.hu/cikk/431935/) (German) (http://www.budapester.hu/?do=article&id=2332&issue=127)
Military offices Precededby General der Panzertruppen Dr. Karl Mauss Precededby Generalleutnant Hans Trger Commander of 7th Panzer Division 2 May 1944 9 September 1944 Commander of 13th Panzer Division 9 September 1944 11 February 1945 Succeededby General der Panzertruppen Dr. Karl Mauss Succeededby none

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Siege of Budapest Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572996441 Contributors: Adam78, After Midnight, Alensha, Allander, Altstikman, Andreas1968, AndrewHowse, Andrwsc, Anotherclown, Anthony Appleyard, Arnoutf, Aszumila, AtTheAbyss, Axeman89, BD2412, Bad Night, Banedon, Barticus88, Bender235, Bermicourt, Biruitorul, Bjrnebacke, Bogdan, Boleslaw, Brozozo, Btphelps, Buckshot06, Budapestonline, Bzuk, Capt Jim, Captain Obvious and his crime-fighting dog, CaptainFugu, Carcharoth, Cfrydj, Chrisknop, Citylaugh, CommonsDelinker, Cortagravatas, Ctifumdope, DePiep, Denisarona, Dodo19, Domino theory, Dreadstar, DRahier, EddyVadim, EdmundSS, Elitre (WMF), EoGuy, Ernio48, Esperant, Everyking, Ewen, Fluffbrain, Frank Trueman, Furby99, Gaius Cornelius, Ghirlandajo, Grafikm fr, Green Cardamom, Grenavitar, Grin, Grmorley, HammerFilmFan, HansHermans, Hillbillyholiday, Hmains, Hornvieh, Hugo999, Huugo philip, ITSENJOYABLE, Iohannes Animosus, Iridescent, J04n, JPG-GR, Jean-Jacques Georges, Jim1138, Jinxs, Jmcc150, John, John of Reading, John.Edwards.1967, Jonesey95, Joybucket, JukoFF, Kirill Lokshin, Koavf, Koppany, Kurfrst, Kurt Leyman, Kyriakos, LeadSongDog, Learnrates00, Lightmouse, Like tears in rain, LilHelpa, Llssfj3, MBK004, MECU, MarkV, Max rspct, Maxthatkillz, Mazarin07, Mertimer, Mimihitam, Mkpumphrey, MoRsE, Mogism, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mrg3105, Mrmaroon25, Muta112, Nedrutland, NeilN, Noclador, Norden1990, Nyenyec, Obradovic Goran, Oksamoksa, Oliphaunt, PMLawrence, PaulVIF, Pavel Vozenilek, Physixpro, Piotrus, Prvc, R-41, RASAM, Revizionist, Rjwilmsi, Robertoad, Rocketrod1960, Roke, Rollaround, Rossph1, Russian Power, SamuelTheGhost, SchreiberBike, ScottSteiner, Sherurcij, Shlimozzle, Sholokhov, Speaksure, Spellmaster, StoneProphet, Stor stark7, SuperDeng, Swpb, Tamas Szabo, TastyPoutine, Tatrgel, Tchernobog, Tdatnguyen, Tec15, Tengu99, Tony1, Topbanana, Transylvanus, Turgidson, Ulric1313, Ulritz, Volker89, W. B. Wilson, Welsh, WereSpielChequers, White Shadows, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, WorldWarTwoEditor, Wwoods, Yesterflow, Zickzack, Zujine, , 215 anonymous edits Operation Margarethe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577201291 Contributors: Biruitorul, Bogdangiusca, Btphelps, DagosNavy, Darwinek, Dodo19, Dravecky, Faigl.ladislav, Ferkelparade, Futurist110, HangingCurve, Historian932, Hmains, J.delanoy, John K, Koertefa, MBK004, Mkpumphrey, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mrg3105, N328KF, Oberiko, OldakQuill, PaulinSaudi, Pol098, Raul654, Resigua, Srnec, Transylvanus, Zujine, 16 anonymous edits Mikls Horthy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=575971827 Contributors: 18hangar18, 2A02:2F0D:A080:61:75C5:A53:87A8:13A1, 2A02:2F0D:A080:61:D8DC:1611:BAE8:9B8, 2A02:2F0D:A100:3B6:64EF:8F8C:7535:A540, 2A02:2F0D:A100:3B6:D78:3279:21DD:3398, Academic Challenger, Acheron w, Adam Bishop, Adam78, Adhalanay, Aj4444, Aldis90, Alensha, Alexander Tendler, Alfons2, All Hallow's Wraith, Anas1712, Anders.Warga, Anti-rico, AppalachianCelt, Arrivisto, Arwel Parry, Asalrifai, Asav, Attilios, Aumnamahashiva, Bardwell, Baxter9, Bbsrock, Bedel23, Bellerophon5685, Bellhalla, Bemoeial, Bender235, Bigdaddy1981, Biruitorul, BlueSamurai, BrerRabbit, Bronks, Btphelps, CWO, Caponer, CaptainFugu, Carlos72, CarolGray, Cavszabo, CeeGee, Cglassey, Charlesdrakew, Cjs56, Cloaked Romulan, Coemgenus, CommonsDelinker, CoolKoon jebe svoji matku, Corneliu-d, CristianChirita, Criztu, Cserlajos, Cyan22, Cybersurf5, D6, DO'Neil, Dahn, Darwinek, David Lauder, Deipnosophista, Dhanak, Dimadick, Diplomatix00, Dirac66, Domino theory, Don Alessandro, DragonflySixtyseven, Dukemeiser, Edebundity, Edward Saint-Ivan, EnSamulili, EricWR, Ettrig, Eumolpo, Everyking, Explendido Rocha, Fakirbakir, Farogge, Feierabend, Firstorm, Florestanova, Fluffy999, Forrimigui, Fry1989, FuFoFuEd, GANDALF1992, Gaius Cornelius, Gdr, GeneralPatton, Gilgamesh he, Goodoldpolonius2, Greier, Grin, Gsandi, Gugganij, Hadija, HangingCurve, Harnad, Hb2019, Hcheney, Hede2000, Heff01, Helix84, Herodotos, Hibernian, Hmains, Hobartimus, Hollomis, Hortobagy, Horvat Den, Hugo999, Iaaasi, Iadrian yu, Ikalmar, Isnow, JHunterJ, Jarmo Gombos, Javaweb, Jean-Jacques Georges, Jeepday, Jess Cully, Jinxs, Jmcnally, Jmlk17, John of Reading, Joy, Joybucket, Jsc1973, K. 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