The Carbonatite-Hosted Apatite Deposit of Jacupiranga, SouthEast Brazil Styles of Mineralisation, Ore Characterisation and Association with Mineral

l Processing
P R Alves1 and R D Hagni2
ABSTRACT
The carbonatite-hosted apatite deposit at the Cajati open pit mine in the Jacupiranga igneous-carbonatite complex is located in south-eastern Brazil. The major styles of apatite mineralisation include veins or veinlets, small pods or patches, disseminated apatite and locally massive aggregates. The metallurgical concentration of the apatite is accomplished by grinding the carbonatite, removal of magnetite with a magnetic drum, size classification with cyclones and flotation to suppress carbonates and collect apatite. To examine the character of the apatite grains and to apply those observations to apatite beneficiation, specimens of carbonatite were collected from recent exposures in the mine and from selected drill holes. This study utilised a variety of microscopy methods, including transmitted and reflected light, cathodoluminescence (CL) and scanning electron microscopy with wavelength-dispersive spectrometers for mineral compositions. It was found that LREE, Na and Sr are the main elements replacing Ca in the apatite, with relatively low oxide contents (<0.5 per cent, but up to about one per cent for Sr). LREE and Sr contents consistently increase in the latest intrusions (C4, C5 and SP24). Chemical and morphological modifications of apatite were recognised to be related to detrimental effects on flotation recovery. Three examples illustrate this relationship: 1. 2. Apatite with reddish CL is fractured. Locally that apatite exhibits no CL due to CL quenching caused by iron entering the apatite structure. Apatite from the xenolith-rich area exhibits abundant fine, platy silicates that appear to interfere with flotation and lower apatite recovery. So called hard apatite, which is more difficult to grind, occurs in an area in the mine that was affected by hydrothermal activity. That activity is evidenced by the development of a bright, white CL rim in the apatite, and by the presence of late veins of carbonates and sulfides that fill fractures and appear to contribute to higher cohesiveness of those apatite grains.

Jacupiranga, it will be referred to here as the Jacupiranga carbonatite, and the open pit mine that is actively mining phosphate from those carbonatites will be referred as the Cajati mine. The Jacupiranga carbonatite forms an apparently continuous orebody of economic importance with respect to phosphate mining. Despite the fact that the apatite had been known for many years, no previous investigations had emphasised the apatite mineralisation and its association with process mineralogy. The idea for this research project arose from the senior writers daily experience with apatite beneficiation at the mine, together with her scientific interest in investigating the possible correlation of the effect of the character of phosphate ore variations upon the efficiency of the beneficiation process.

OBJECTIVES AND RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The objective of this research has been to examine and describe the apatite mineralisation in microscopic detail, and then to apply the results of the microscopic characteristics to the observed mineral processing behaviour. The results also provide additional information on some of the geochemical and petrologic aspects of the Jacupiranga carbonatite. Cathodoluminescence microscopy was especially emphasised to assist in the detailed study of apatite, carbonates and the minor minerals in the carbonatite. Updated field data, mainly based on the senior writers mapping and exploration activities at the mine, were utilised in this study. A variety of specimens was collected from several rock exposures that had not been accessible to previous investigators. The relevance of this study relies on its contribution to a better understanding of the character of the apatite mineralisation. This type of investigation is often conducted by mining companies, but the resulting data commonly remains available only in the form of internal reports. Thus, this research project combined industry experience with scientific investigation. From a scientific standpoint, the use of Jacupirangas data for comparison with other deposits may support new insights on the petrogenesis and economic potential of carbonatite deposits elsewhere. The importance of carbonatites has continually grown as better knowledge of this type of rock has evolved. Carbonatites have very unusual compositions, and they typically hold world-class deposits of Nb, REE and exceptionally Cu. It has recently been suggested that there could be a genetic connection between carbonatites and iron oxides copper gold (IOCG) deposits (Groves and Vielreicher, 2001). Carbonatites provide vast opportunities for scientific and economic geology studies.

3.

INTRODUCTION
Carbonatites are rare rocks that are derived from the Earths mantle. More than 300 known carbonatite localities occur in the world (Kogarko et al, 1995). Due to the growing interest of a small number of researchers, the understanding of the genesis and evolution of carbonatite rocks has significantly increased since the 1960s, when their magmatic origin was experimentally demonstrated by Wyllie and Tuttle (1960). The eruption of very fluid, alkaline carbonatite lava from the Oldoinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania in 1958 formed a very important milestone in carbonatite understanding (Dawson, 1966). The present study has involved an investigation of the carbonatites from the world-class alkaline igneous-carbonatite complex located at Cajati (formerly a district of Jacupiranga) in south-eastern Brazil. Because the complex is best known as
1. 2. Mineral Scientist, Imerys Pigments, 618 Kaolin Road, Sandersville, Georgia 31082, USA. Email: PaulaAlves@imerys.com Curators Professor of Geology Emeritus, Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, 161 McNutt Hall, Rolla MO 65409-0410, USA. Email: rhagni@mst.edu

HISTORY OF THE JACUPIRANGA IGNEOUS COMPLEX (JIC) Discovery and mapping of the complex
The Jacupiranga Igneous Complex was discovered in 1877, and initially the area of carbonatite outcrop was described as an iron ore occurrence because of its high magnetite content. Melcher

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

381

P R ALVES and R D HAGNI

(1954) provided the first detailed mapping and petrographic descriptions of the rocks in the complex, recognised the carbonatites and proposed that they had been intruded during two distinct events. The weathered carbonatites on the top of a smooth hill were already being mined at that time. Continuous development of open pit mining exposed the carbonatite and its host rock clinopyroxenite, providing important exposures for more detailed study. The first geological map of the complex at a scale of 1:25 000 was completed in 1989 by Gaspar, and he subsequently prepared a second map of the mine area at a scale of 1:10 000. Based upon petrological and structural data, he concluded that the carbonatite body was composed of five successive intrusions, a view that is held today. Study conducted by Germann, Marker and Friedrich (1987) served to better outline the contacts of the large dunite body in the northern portion of the complex. The regional geological map of the Jacupiranga Igneous Complex was updated in 1999 on a scale of 1:50 000 and was expanded by the Brazilian geological survey (CPRM) with the purpose of identifying mineral opportunities related to the complex and its country rocks. The main change in the map involved the inclusion of an adjacent satellite body of hornblende-bearing biotite-olivine gabbro that was detected by processing airborne (magnetic and gamma-spectrometric) geophysical data. More detailed mapping of the carbonatites that are well exposed in the mine walls, at a scale of 1:500 for deposit modelling, grade control and other mining-related purposes was initiated in 2000 and has resulted in better delineation of the carbonatite intrusions, marginal dykes and zones of xenoliths.

Approximately 590 000 t of phosphate concentrate was produced at Cajati in 2003, out of a total rock removal of 5 400 000 t/yr of carbonatite plus 6 600 000 t/yr of clinopyroxenite waste. Ore reserve modelling and long-term mine planning have demonstrated that at that rate of production, the estimated remaining open pit mine life will be 17 years. The apatite concentrate is obtained after a process involving grinding, magnetic separation, size classification and finally several stages of flotation. The concentrate is used to produce phosphoric acid, which in turn is applied to manufacture animal feed, fertilisers and food grade phosphoric acid. Igneous apatite is clean and yields concentrates with high P2O5 content. However, as fertiliser, phosphate of igneous origin is released to the soil at a slower rate as compared to phosphate from a sedimentary source. Apatite occurs at Cajati as small, elongated crystals that are generally arranged in continuous, parallel veinlets along the magmatic foliation. Larger crystals usually exhibit prismatic, hexagonal shapes, and they formed at an earlier time in the paragenetic sequence. The average content of apatite in the carbonatites at Cajati is about 12 per cent, which corresponds to five per cent P2O5. The mine cut-off grade is three per cent of P2O5. The average modal concentration of the gangue minerals in the carbonatite phosphate ore is approximately: 54 per cent calcite, 20 per cent dolomite, eight per cent magnetite, two per cent olivine, two per cent phlogopite, one per cent sulfides and less than one per cent of other minerals.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

The tectonic setting provides the fundamental platform for petrogenetic studies of carbonatite complexes. The majority of carbonatite occurrences are located in stable continental intraplate settings, in some cases in continental margins, and more rarely in intraplate oceanic basins (Winter, 2001). Carbonatites have been emplaced since the Late Archean to the present day. However, they show a geological time relationship that is not very well understood because the main episodes of carbonatite activity appear to have occurred only in the Proterozoic to Early Cambrian, during the Cretaceous, and in the Cenozoic (Bell, 1989). The Jacupiranga Igneous Complex was intruded in the Early Cretaceous, approximately 130 4 Ma ago. The age has been determined through isotopic studies of the carbonatites and other rocks of the complex (Roden, Murthy and Gaspar, 1985), confirming the date obtained by Amaral (1978) using the K-Ar method for phlogopite and other minerals. This age corresponds well with that of the Paran (Brazil) and Etendeka (Namibia) Flood Basalts, marking the fragmentation of the Gondwana supercontinent with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. Alkaline magmatism commonly occurs in areas associated with continental rifting. A common origin related to a mantle plume has been proposed for the large tholeiitc flood basalts and alkaline igneous complexes. Basu et al (1993) concluded that the occurrence of alkaline igneous complexes within or in the proximity of major lineaments and grabens is evidence for structural controls and interaction between a mantle plume head and the continental lithosphere. Other carbonatitic and non-carbonatitic alkaline complexes in Brazil, with ages that correlate with that of Jacupiranga, are present in the same region and they are associated with magmatic arches within the context of the volcanic passive margin, including the Ponta Grossa Magmatic Arch for Jacupiranga (Gomes, Ruberti and Morbidelli, 1990). The alkaline rock complexes that occur along the border of the Parana Intracratonic Basin have been systematically studied and reviewed by Gomes, Ruberti and Morbidelli (1990). A map showing the localisation of these carbonatite complexes and their intercontinental tectonic context is given in Figure 1.

Mining activities
Phosphate mining activities began in 1943, and apatite concentrate has been continuously produced since then. The mine is located at the town of Cajati, which was a district of the town of Jacupiranga in the 1990s. Initially the ore was mined from the weathered rock accumulated on top of the oblate hill called Morro da Mina (Mine Hill). The hill was comprised mainly of the carbonatite body, and it was surrounded by clinopyroxenite (jacupirangite). In the 1960s, phosphate-rich concentrations were also mined in the northern foothill area. It is interesting that recent gravimetric and borehole surveys have confirmed the extension of the carbonatite body into the lowlands north of that hill. The weathered ore was characterised by a high grade (>20 per cent) P2O5, but it was virtually exhausted by the early 1970s. In order to concentrate phosphate from the underlying much lower grade ore (average of five per cent P2O5) in the bedrock, mineral processing based upon flotation was developed. Diverse applications of the resulting tailings have subsequently been developed. Both carbonate and magnetite by-product concentrates are economically useful in the cement industry. The by-product ground carbonate tailings with high magnesium contents are also utilised as soil additives. Part of the fragmented (blasted) clinopyroxenite is further crushed and sold as construction aggregate. Cajati produces apatite from one of the worlds lowest average grade phosphate deposits. With regard to elevations in the open pit, in 2002, phosphate ore was being mined from as low as 70 m below sea level, to as high as 120 m above sea level. The hill originally reached 225 m at its highest topographic level. The Cajati mine was the only relevant source of phosphate in Brazil before the 1970s, when additional carbonatite-related, weathered apatite deposits were developed. By 2003, however, there were four significant phosphate mines in Brazil, and Cajati ranked fourth and represented approximately ten per cent of the national production (DNPM, 2003).

382

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

THE CARBONATITE-HOSTED APATITE DEPOSIT OF JACUPIRANGA, SOUTH- EAST BRAZIL

FIG 1 - Tectonic setting of the Paran Sedimentary Basin, and related main occurrences of alkaline complexes with carbonatites along the margins of that basin (after Gomes, Ruberti and Morbidelli, 1990).

On a more local scale, two tectonic domains can be recognised in the area of Jacupiranga, namely the Ribeira Belt and the Coastal Domain (Vasconcelos et al, 1999). These tectonic units are separated by the Lancinha-Cubatao shear zone, and they are illustrated in Figure 2. The Ribeira Belt, situated north of a shear zone, shows strong NE-SW lineament and comprises a complex association of metavolcanic-sedimentary rocks of low metamorphic grade (with estimated metamorphic peaks dating around 580 Ma and 530 Ma), and it is intruded by large calc-alkaline granite bodies (Vasconcelos et al, 1999). The Ribeira Belt is analogous to the Damara Belt in southern Africa, and both structures represent ancient suture zones of Precambrian amalgamation of microcontinents. The Coastal Domain, south of the Lancinha-Cubatao shear zone, corresponds to a set of supracrustal rocks exhibiting variable degrees of metamorphism, and it forms the Paleoproterozoic basement whose mica-schists and gneisses were later intruded by the Jacupiranga complex (Vasconcelos et al, 1999). Other alkaline-ultramafic igneous complexes are present in the Jacupiranga region, including Juqui, Itapirapun and Mato Preto. They occur as discordant intrusions into rocks of either (or both) tectonic areas, Ribeira Belt and Coastal Domain.

PETROLOGY OF THE JACUPIRANGA IGNEOUS-CARBONATITE COMPLEX

The Jacupiranga Igneous Complex is located in south-eastern Brazil, approximately at latitude 24 42 S and longitude 48 08 W, close to the border separating the states of So Paulo and Paran, and not far from the Atlantic coast (Figure 3). The

area, in the Ribeira River Valley, can be reached by driving 240 km along the highway BR116, south-west from the city of So Paulo. The Jacupiranga Igneous Complex is an intrusive body that has an outcrop area of about 65 km2 (Ruberti, Gomes and Melcher, 2000). It is an elongated ellipsoid in plan view, the longest dimension of which is oriented in a NNW direction. The complex consists mainly of two ultramafic intrusions: dunites to the north and clinopyroxenites (jacupirangite) to the south. Subordinate amounts of alkaline and other rocks are present in the complex. The carbonatites intrude exclusively into the clinopyroxenite and they outcrop in an area of approximately 0.7 km2. They largely consist of a sequence of pipe-like intrusions with subcircular cross-sections, together with genetically related dykes. Numerous rounded, large xenoliths of the clinopyroxenite (from a few centimetres up to about four or five metres) occur within the carbonatite, especially in the area of the contact between the more magnesium-rich intrusions in the northern portion of the deposit but also within the earlier southern intrusions. Drilling has demonstrated that the carbonatites extend in depth to at least 400 m below sea level, with a plunge of about 80 from the horizontal. Structures in the carbonatites are mainly represented by a fault zone oriented NNW, sets of joints, and fractures. Magma flow structures, such as magmatic foliation are also present. Gaspar (1989, 1991) grouped the rocks of the Jacupiranga complex into three categories:

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

383

P R ALVES and R D HAGNI

FIG 2 - Simplified regional geologic and tectonic domains in the region of the Jacupiranga Igneous Complex (after Vasconcelos et al, 1999).

384

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

THE CARBONATITE-HOSTED APATITE DEPOSIT OF JACUPIRANGA, SOUTH- EAST BRAZIL

FIG 3 - Schematic map of the Jacupiranga Igneous Complex (after Gaspar, 1989; Vasconcelos et al, 1999).

1. 2. 3.

ultramafic, nepheline-bearing, and plagioclase-bearing.

The distribution of those rocks within the complex is given in Figure 3, based on mapping by Gaspar (1989) and on subsequent modifications by Vasconcelos et al (1999).

CATHODOLUMINESCENCE MICROSCOPY
Apatite ore-bearing carbonatite specimens for the present investigation were collected from selected locations in six different areas throughout the open pit Cajati mine (A to F), and from one selected drill hole (SP24) located to the north of the mine area. Those areas are shown on the sampling map (Figure 4), and they correspond approximately to the following intrusions (C1 to C5), as defined by Gaspar (1989): A and B = C1, C = C1 and C2, D = C2 and C3, and E and F = C4 and C5. Carbonatite specimens collected from drill hole SP24 do not correlate with any of Gaspars five intrusions. Most of the specimens selected came from areas C, D, E and F. The specimens were examined by transmitted light petrography, reflected light microscopy and especially by cathodoluminescence microscopy. Mineralogical and textural aspects were carefully described and interpreted for each sample, and a total of 1254 microphotographs were taken to record petrographic observations during the investigation of the thin sections (Alves, 2008). Minerals found to be present in the carbonatites include carbonates (calcite, magnesian calcite, dolomite and rarely strontianite), fluorapatite, magnetite (primary and secondary), ilmenite, olivine (forsterite), phlogopite, sulfides (pyrrhotite,

pyrite, chalcopyrite, valleriite), and minor or secondary phases (baddeleyite, perovskite, goethite, serpentine and the pyrochloregroup). Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy is uniquely applicable to the study of many of the minerals present in the Jacupiranga carbonatite. Calcite, dolomite and apatite, which together constitute more than 70 per cent of those rocks, emit distinct CL radiation as visible colours when excited by an electron beam. Carbonatite calcite usually exhibits yellow to yellowish orange CL, and magnesian calcite produces a reddish orange CL. Dolomite typically shows red or brownish red CL. Baddeleyite is present in very small amounts in the Jacupiranga carbonatite but it is readily detected due to its blue CL. Most importantly, as recently emphasised by Waychunas (2002), apatite exhibits a variety of CL colours and can be very effectively studied by cathodoluminescence microscopy. A Technosyn CL instrument mounted on a Nikon microscope, operating with an acceleration voltage from 10 - 15 kV (usually 11 - 12 kV), was used for the present investigation. The CL emission spectrum of a mineral depends largely upon the trace elements present in the mineral, but also upon certain intrinsic properties of some minerals. Apatite from Jacupiranga exhibits several colour shades in the vicinity of blue: light blue, bluish grey, greenish blue, reddish blue, lilac (Figure 5), and it also locally shows white rims. The cause for the CL shown by apatite has previously been shown to be due to the replacement of Ca by minor quantities of Mn and REE (Marshall, 1988). Apatite occurs at Cajati as small, elongated crystals usually arranged in continuous, parallel veinlets along the magmatic foliation. Larger crystals usually exhibit prismatic, hexagonal shapes, and they were formed at an earlier time in the

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

385

P R ALVES and R D HAGNI

FIG 4 - Map showing areas selected for carbonatite specimen collection at the Cajati mine.

paragenetic sequence. The average content of apatite in the carbonatites at Cajati is about 12 per cent. Under the CL microscope Jacupiranga apatite exhibits up to five distinct CL zones (Figure 5). The inner zone of the apatite crystals exhibits a pinkish blue/violet CL. The core of apatite crystals is commonly euhedral, shows a hexagonal shape and may consist of more than one crystal in a cluster. The second zone shows blue CL, and this zone locally can be absent. The third zone shows light blue/ greenish blue CL, a more persistent colour, and it is present in all apatite crystals. The fourth zone has blue CL and is quite similar in CL to zone 2. A fifth zone with bright white CL occurs along the borders of some apatite crystals in the later northern carbonatite intrusions. It is present in those carbonatites that exhibit clear evidence of alteration by local hydrothermal fluids.

APATITE PROCESSING AT CAJATI

Cajati has been planned for an open pit mine until its exhaustion, but this is periodically re-evaluated as cost conditions change, and as geological knowledge of the deposit advances. At the Cajati open pit, the carbonatite ore and jacupirangite waste are mined in blocks and benches employing explosives. The fragmented rock is hauled to the crushing station where its size is reduced to below 1.75 inches, a size that is subsequently distributed on to a long, homogenised pile using a stacker. This size- and phosphate grade-classified pile feeds the beneficiation plant.

FIG 5 - Cathodoluminescence micrograph showing euhedral to subhedral apatite crystals in carbonatite from the Cajati phosphorus mine. The crystals exhibit well-developed growth zoning brought out by distinct variations in the intensity and colour of cathodoluminescence. Specimen J128-C. FOV: 1.5 mm.

386

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

THE CARBONATITE-HOSTED APATITE DEPOSIT OF JACUPIRANGA, SOUTH- EAST BRAZIL

At the beneficiation plant, the first process step is bar milling to further comminute the ore to produce apatite separation from the gangue and to increase the surface area of the particles, a feature that is very important for the flotation step. The bar mills operate in closed circuit with cyclones, so particles larger than 0.5 mm return to the mill. This creates a re-circulating load representing about ten to 20 per cent of the total wet weight inside the mill. The ground ore then undergoes removal of magnetite using wet magnetic drums. The magnetic reject consists mostly of magnetite and ilmenite, but it also contains some apatite inclusions in the magnetite particles that are very difficult to liberate. However, the amount of non-recovered apatite in the magnetic reject is typically very small. After magnetic separation, another set of cyclones is used to deslime (ie remove the fines from the ore slip). Although these fines still contain apatite, they are detrimental to the mechanical flotation cells, and therefore they are subsequently scavenged in air flotation columns. The next process step is flotation to separate apatite from the remaining gangue. Valuable apatite particles are separated from the gangue by their collection on the surface of bubbles. The addition of appropriate chemicals (surfactants and wetting agents) modifies the surface charges of the apatite to be floated, rendering it hydrophobic (ie eliminating its affinity with water). Air is then bubbled through the preconditioned mixture of minerals, water and chemicals. The hydrophobic apatite grains escape the water by attaching to the air bubbles and rising to the surface. The accumulated foam forms a froth containing the concentrated apatite that is then collected. At Cajati, scavenging and cleaning flotation steps are used to increase final apatite recovery. The flotation reject typically contains less than 1.5 per cent of P2O5, but the company would prefer that this content be consistently below one per cent. In order to determine how to further increase recovery, it is required to know and understand the variation of the apatite characteristics throughout the deposit, and the present research has been designed to contribute to that understanding.

Gaspar (1989). The present research has shown that although there are some chemical composition differences that contrast to apatite from the other intrusions at Cajati, the negative effect on flotation recovery probably is mostly a function of the abundant amounts of fine, platy silicates (phlogopite, serpentine) that makes the suppression of these minerals less effective than with apatite ores elsewhere. There is probably an optimum limit for the abundance of platy particles above which they will increasingly make the adhesion of apatite to the bubbles much more difficult. In fact, recent practice by the company has been to limit the mix to less than about 15 per cent weight of mineralised rock from the xenolith zone, although this limiting number may to be somewhat high. A comparison between the economic benefit of ore reserve maximisation versus process recovery maximisation is necessary to determine the break-even point and better define the limit for utilisation of the ore from the xenolith zone.

Hard apatite in the north-western portion of the orebody

Apatite described as hard is more difficult to grind, and it occurs in sampling area E (and probably also in area F). The current research has demonstrated that area E was affected by late metasomatism or hydrothermal activity. The CL microscopy showed that the internal structure and composition of apatite was barely affected, even though carbonates and sulfide microveins penetrated and formed fractures in those apatite crystals. In addition, no evidence of apatite recrystallisation was found to have occurred. The microveins appear to have cemented the apatite fragments, resulting in a greater cohesiveness and consequently giving the perception of a greater hardness. However, the effect of the hydrothermal activity may actually be minor in importance as compared to the changes of the surface characteristics of apatite. Most importantly, the present study has shown that apatite grains in this area commonly display a distinct outer zone of white CL colour. It is highly likely that this modification of the apatite surface is the cause for the negative results obtained during flotation.

APATITE CHARACTERISTICS APPLIED TO PROCESSING ISSUES

There are three types of apatite ores recognised by the mining company to be more difficult to process, and these are: 1. 2. 3. reddish apatite that occurs close to the fault zone, apatite from the carbonatite in the xenolith zones, and hard apatite that occurs mostly in the north-western portion of the orebody.

CHARACTERISATION OF THE GANGUE MINERALS

Although this study emphasised the phosphate mineralisation, the gangue minerals in the carbonatites at Cajati were also examined during this investigation and they also have a bearing on the apatite processing behaviour. CL microscopy is especially useful to analyse the carbonates, because it provides a direct method to distinguish between calcite and dolomite, reveals the distribution of those minerals in the deposit and highlights a variety of textures and structures in the carbonatites that are not readily recognised by other study methods. The CL of baddeleyite and some of the olivine crystals help to quickly recognise those minerals and also to understand certain aspects regarding their chemical compositions. The microscopic and EPMA data for the oxides and silicates from the current research support the hypotheses proposed by Gaspar (1989) that:

Reddish apatite close to the fault zone

The current research has shown that apatite from the fault zone has been modified with respect to its chemical and morphological characteristics. Apatite close to the brecciated area (encompassed in sampling area C) exhibits zoned, recrystallised calcite as identified by CL, together with apatite that has been fragmented into very small, angular grains. These apatite grains are soft and have a high probability of being discarded during the desliming step. The apatite grains from the fault zone that have not been fragmented show fractures and have a dull CL that indicates additional iron has entered into its structure, quenching its CL and causing the reddish appearance of these grains. In addition to the effect on milling and consequently size classification, the entrance of other elements may also have affected the mineral surface charge characteristics, further negatively influencing its recovery by flotation.

the carbonatite deposit was emplaced during five intrusive

episodes;

there is a time hiatus between the oldest intrusion (C1) and

the subsequent intrusions, based mostly on compositional differences; and

Apatite from carbonatite in the xenolith zone

Apatite from the xenoliths zone is correlated mostly with the transition area between intrusions C3 and C4 as defined by

the second intrusion (C2) is probably the parent of the

youngest ones (C3, C4 and C5), although its time of emplacement may not agree with the continuous sequence of emplacement proposed for the three last intrusions.

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

387

P R ALVES and R D HAGNI

For instance, data from the present research has demonstrated important differences in texture and chemical composition between olivine from areas C and E (approximately equivalent to the intrusions C1 and C4, respectively, as delineated by Gaspar, 1989). SEM images from the current research show complex zoning in phlogopite crystals and provide information on the distribution of Ba and Mg between those zones. Both elements are present in highly elevated levels as compared with most carbonatites elsewhere as listed by Brod et al (2001). EPMA of magnetite show variable but low amounts of Ti, Mn, Mg, V and Al, and show the presence of ilmenite laths. The ilmenite contains elevated amounts of Mn, Nb and very high Mg; these results confirm and expand upon the chemical characteristics previously described in the literature by Gaspar and Wyllie (1983a and 1983b). Reflected light microscopic study of the sulfides reveals textures that indicate some of the sulfides are related to hydrothermal activity. Geochemical and mineralogical results from this study also bear upon the Jacupiranga carbonatite genesis. The current study has indicated that more than one petrological process, such as partial melting, fractional crystallisation and hydrothermal alteration, was involved in the development of the individual carbonatite intrusions. The cathodoluminescence petrography is discussed more fully in Alves (2008) and Alves and Hagni (in press).

veins or veinlets that are usually strongly oriented according

to magma flow;

small pods or patches, either associated with veins, or formed

by individual clusters of short, acicular grains;

disseminated, discrete grains; and massive aggregates of medium to coarse apatite grains
developed in the oldest carbonatite intrusion.

Ore characterisation
The apatite from Jacupiranga shows distinctive geochemical trends and textural characteristics between the five carbonatite intrusions. The replacement of Ca was characterised by complex substitutions that occurred under conditions of disequilibrium, simultaneously involving LREE (especially Ce, but also Nd and La), Sr, Na and other less important cations. The total REE oxide level determined for apatite from Jacupiranga in the present research was low, ranging from 0.04 to 0.49 per cent, but with a consistent increase toward the north especially for the three latest intrusions. The content of Na2O also is low and was measured to be between 0.07 and 0.37 per cent in the present research. The variation of LREE levels does not correlate very well with that of Na. In terms of chemical variability among the five intrusions, strontium has the most regular trend, and it also shows a more pronounced sequential increase in the northern intrusions than that shown by LREE. A wider range for SrO content was found (0.40 to 1.02 per cent) than that reported in previous investigations. Strontium typically increases towards the later phases of carbonatite intrusions. Indeed, at Jacupiranga the higher contents of SrO are restricted exclusively to the youngest intrusions in the northern portion of the deposit. Compositional zoning is conspicuous in apatite crystals at Jacupiranga, and it is shown especially by variations in CL colour that are typically the following from core (1) to rim (5): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. pinkish blue/violet core that commonly shows euhedral hexagonal shapes; blue CL zone that may be absent; light blue/greenish blue zone that is more extensive; blue CL, very similar to zone two; and bright, white CL developed along the borders of some apatite crystals, especially in the northern intrusions that were locally affected by hydrothermal fluids.

PETROGENETIC ASSOCIATION OF THE DOLOMITIC CARBONATITE SP24

Recent drilling to the north of the carbonatites exposed in the Cajati open pit has encountered 189 m of carbonatite with continuous apatite mineralisation before bottoming in jacupirangite. Sampling of the drill core has been labelled SP24 for the current research project. It is unknown whether the drilled carbonatite represents an extension of the northernmost intrusion, if it is an individual intrusion or marginal dyke, of if it is perhaps a portion of the latest northern intrusion that was strongly affected by metasomatism or hydrothermal activity. SP24 shows a high content of fine-grained apatite, as well as chemical and textural characteristics that are significantly different from the northern intrusions (C4 and C5) in the mine. The microscopic evidence from the current research strongly supports the hypothesis that the carbonatite in drill hole SP24 represents an individual intrusion or marginal dyke. That carbonatite exhibits textures and mineralogy that are significantly different from the other carbonatite intrusions. For example, it contains only about three per cent fine-grained magnetite and as much as five per cent modal pyrochlore. Also, in contrast to the other carbonatites, the carbonate rock in SP24 is almost exclusively represented by dolomite. Finally, hand samples of SP24 can be easily distinguished from samples from the other carbonatite intrusions. Apatite from the SP24 dolomitic carbonatite contains the highest concentrations of LREE and strontium among all intrusions. The level of enrichment of these elements in apatite is much higher than in apatite from the other two northern intrusions, and these differences probably have resulted from a temporal and compositional gap with respect to the carbonatites currently being mined in the open pit. In addition, the high contents of LREE and strontium may have inhibited apatite growth, causing its size to be below the average size of apatite in the mined ore.

The dominant activator for CL in Jacupiranga apatite is Eu+3 (Mariano and Ring, 1975; Roeder et al, 1987). This reflects the typical elevated amounts of the cerium subgroup (LREE) and the relatively low amounts of the quencher element, Fe+2 in the Jacupiranga carbonatites. The interpretation of CL emission spectra from the white zones of apatite at Jacupiranga indicates activation by a broad Mn2+ peak with superimposed peaks for Sm3+, Dy3+ and Tb3+ (Mariano, 2002).

Applications to mineral processing

The ore characteristics associated with apatite processing issues have been interpreted as follows:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Styles of mineralisation

Four distinct styles of apatite mineralisation are present in the carbonatite host rock at the Cajati mine. Those styles are:

Reddish apatite ore has been fractured and fragmented. Some

apatite grains show no CL, probably due to quenching by iron that entered the apatite structure. The presence of that iron also changed the megascopic colour of the apatite. Such chemical and morphological changes would be expected to negatively affect flotation recovery.

388

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

THE CARBONATITE-HOSTED APATITE DEPOSIT OF JACUPIRANGA, SOUTH- EAST BRAZIL

Although apatite from the xenoliths zone shows some

chemical differences as compared to apatite from other areas, its flotation recovery problem is probably more affected by the presence of abundant fine, platy silicates in the gangue that are more difficult to eliminate during processing and therefore can interfere with the collection of apatite grains during froth flotation.

Hard apatite occurs mostly in a north-western area of the

carbonatite that was affected by hydrothermal fluids. The internal structure of apatite apparently was not affected, but carbonates and sulfide veins penetrated apatite, recrystallised and possibly led to higher cohesiveness and the perception of greater hardness. In addition, a distinct external zone of white CL was developed and probably affected the surface properties of that apatite and thereby modified its flotation response. All three of the above problematic ores can be mined and processed, but the delimitation of their areas of occurrence is necessary to allow the mine planning to consider a limited blend of those ores in the homogenised pile. Whenever they represent a significant component of the material in the plant feed, the overall process recovery will decline unless process modifications are developed and implemented that would permit more flexibility in accepting those problem ores.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks is expressed for financial support to the senior writer (PRA) from the Society of Economic Geologists through a Hugh E McKinstry research grant, and for financial assistance from the Josephine Husbands Radcliffe fund at the Missouri University of Science and Technology. She also thanks colleagues from Bunge Brazil for allowing access to the mine and facilitating the field aspects of this research, and to Maria Cristina Toledo Motta, professor at the Universidade de So Paulo, for first introducing her to the joys of studying carbonatites. She also thanks Robert Pruett at Imerys Pigments for his support during the completion of this research.

REFERENCES
Alves, P R, 2004. Varied applications of waste and tailings: Case analysis of a low grade, hard rock Brazilian phosphate, mine, in Proceedings 38th forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, St Louis, Missouri, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Geological Survey and Resource Assessment Division, Report of Investigations Number 74, pp 3-8. Alves, P R, 2008. The carbonatite-hosted apatite deposit of Jacupiranga, SE Brazil: Styles of mineralization, ore characterization, and association with mineral processing, MS thesis (unpublished), University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri. Alves, P R and Hagni, R D, in press. The Jacupiranga alkaline igneous-carbonatite complex, Brazil: Cathodoluminescence petrography, geochemistry, and apatite ores at the Cajati phosphate mine, in Proceedings 44th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Geological Survey. Amaral, G, 1978. Potassium-argon age studies on the Jacupiranga Alkaline District, State of So Paulo, Brazil, in Proceedings International Symposium of Carbonatites, vol 1, pp 297-302 (Minstrio das Minas e Energia, Departamento Nacvional da Produo Mineral: Braslia). Basu, A R, Renne, P R, Mertz, D and Poreda, R J, 1993. Alkalic igneous complexes of the Deccan and Paran: Implications for the origin of continental flood basalts (CFB), American Geophysical Union Meeting Abstracts, 74(43):552.

Bell, K, 1989. Carbonatites: Genesis and Evolution, 618 p (Unwin Hyman Ltd: London). Brod, J A, Gaspar, J C, Araujo, D P, Gibson, S A, Thompson, R N and Junqueira, T C, 2001. Phlogopite and tetra-ferriphlogopite from Brazilian carbonatite complexes; petrogenetic constraints and implications for mineral-chemistry systematics, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 19(3):265-296. Dawson, J B, 1966. Oldoinyo Lengai An active volcano with sodium carbonatite lava flows, in Ruberti and Morbidelli (eds: O F Tuttle and J Gittins), pp 155-168 (Wiley: New York). DNPM, 2003. Anurio Mineral Brasileiro (Brazilian Mineral Yearbook), Departamento Nacional de Produo Mineral, Braslia, 31:303-304. Gaspar, J C, 1989. Geologie et mineralogie du complexe carbonatitique de Jacupiranga, Bresil, PhD thesis (unpublished), UER de Sciences Fondamentales et Apliques de la Universit DOrleans, France. Gaspar, J C, 1991. The magmatic evolution of the Jacupiranga Complex, Brazil, in Proceedings International Kimberlite Conference, 5:127-129. Gaspar, J C and Wyllie, P J, 1983a. Magnetite in the carbonatites from the Jacupiranga Complex, Brazil, American Mineralogist, 68(1-2):195-213. Gaspar, J C and Wyllie, P J, 1983b. Ilmenite (high Mg, Mn, Nb) in the carbonatites from the Jacupiranga Complex, Brazil, American Mineralogist, 68(9-10):960-971. Germann, A, Marker, A and Friedrich, G, 1987. The Alkaline Complex of Jacupiranga, Brazil; petrology and genetic considerations, Zentralblatt fr Geologie und Palaeontologie, 1(7-8):807-818. Gomes, C B, Ruberti, E and Morbidelli, L, 1990. Carbonatite complexes from Brazil: A review, Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 3:51-63. Groves, D I and Vielreicher, N M, 2001. The Phalabowra (Palabora) carbonatite-hosted magnetite-copper sulfide deposit, South Africa: An end-member of the iron oxide-copper-gold-rare earth element deposit group, Mineralium Deposita, 36(2):189-194. Kogarko, L N, Kononova, V A, Orlova, M P and Woolley, A R, 1995. Alkaline Rocks and Carbonatites of the World, 226 p (Chapman and Hall: London). Marshall, D J, 1988. Cathodoluminescence of Geological Materials, 146 p (Unwin Hyman Ltd: London). Mariano, A N and Ring, P I, 1975. Europium activated cathodoluminescence in minerals, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 39:649-660. Mariano, T, 2002. Personal communication. Melcher, G C, 1954. Nota sobre o distrito alcalino de Jacupiranga, So Paulo, 84 p (Diviso de Geologia Minerao, Notas Preliminares). Roden, M F, Murthy, V R and Gaspar, J C, 1985. Sr and Nd isotopic composition of the Jacupiranga Carbonatite, Journal of Geology, 93(2):212-220. Roeder, P L, MacArthur, D, Ma, X P, Palmer, G R and Mariano, A N, 1987. Cathodoluminescence and microprobe study of rare-earth elements in apatite, American Mineralogist, 72:801-811. Ruberti, E, Gomes, C B and Melcher, G C, 2000. The Jacupiranga Carbonatite Complex: Geological and petrological aspects of the Jacupiranga alkaline-carbonatite association, Southern Brazil, in Post-Congress Field Trip Guidebook, 31st International Geological Congress, Rio de Janeiro, 21 p. Vasconcelos, C S, Dehler, N M, Yamato, A A and Lopes I, Jr, 1999. Projeto Jacupiranga Rio Guara, CPRM, Servio Geolgico do Brasil, 233 p. Waychunas, G A, 2002. Apatite luminescence, in Phosphates: Geochemical, Geobiological, and Materials Importance (eds: M J Kohn, J Rakovan, and J M Hughes), 48:701-742 (Mineralogical Society of America and Geochemical Society). Winter, J D, 2001. An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, 697 p (Prentice Hall: New Jersey). Wyllie, P J and Tuttle, O F, 1960. The system CaCO3-H2O and the origin of carbonatites, Journal of Petrology, 1:1-46.

Ninth International Congress for Applied Mineralogy

Brisbane, QLD, 8 - 10 September 2008

389