Goan archaeoastronomy

A Pioneer Area Of Goalogical Research

Series of 12 Research Articles dedicated to commemorate International Year of Astronomy-2009

Archaeoastronomical Heritage of Goa

Published by Goa Today, Goa’s Finest magazine

(From January 2009), Vol. XLIII and XLIV

Researched and Written By

Dr. Nandkumar M. Kamat

(Asst. Professor, Dept. of Botany, Goa University; Vice President, Association of Friends of
Astronomy-AFA (Goa); Chairman-Task force to Draft Goa state cultural policy notified in 2007)

*Part I-January 2009*

Before I delve on some archeoastronomical mysteries of Goa let me confess about my fascination with
the subject. Since my childhood I was in love with the bright starlit sky. I used to stare at the garland of
milky way, our own beautiful galaxy for hours. I made some attempts to build a small telescope. It was
the early dawn viewing of comet Ikeya seki in 1966 which further stirred my interest in heavenly
phenomena. Astronomy as a subject captivated my mind from school days. In the seventh standard, I
was awarded a book for winning an elocution competition. It was a Marathi translation of Yakov
Perelman’s Russian book on Astronomy. I was thrilled after reading that book. After Perelman- a series
of translated books by George Gamow left a powerful imprint on my mind. This was followed by
Arthur Clarke and Asimov’s works and later during college days the works of Carl Sagan- who is still
my hero. By the time I left the school I had developed a lasting interest in astronomy. It was the
meeting with Indo-Portuguese historian and conservationist, Mr. Percival Noronha in 1982 which
brought me closer to popularization of astronomy. Mr. Noronha was the architect of Association of
friends of astronomy –AFA-a NGO devoted to popularization of astronomy at all levels. He associated
me with AFA’s activities and deputed me as an observer to 120 th symposium of International
Astronomical Union (IAU) held at Fort Aguada from Dec. 3-7, 1985. That was also the year of
apparition of Halley’s comet. At IAU symposium I could interact with famous astrochemists like
Dalgarno, Yamamoto, Khare, Ben Zuckerman, Krishnaswamy-a specialist on comets. That was the first
time I could meet India’s topmost astronomer and cosmologist Prof. Jayant Naralikar. Prof. Naralikar
stood behind AFA and impressed upon the then ex-CM Mr. Pratapsingh Rane and the CS Mr. K.K.
Mathur the need to establish a public astronomy observatory. The observatory was inaugurated on 28
February 1990 on the terrace of Panaji’s Junta house. Prof. Naralikar also chose Goa to host ICGC-
1987- a great congregation of astronomers and cosmologists from the world. ICGC-1987 proved to be a
feast of knowledge for me. I could meet and interview some of the greatest astronomers. Among them
were sir Fred Hoyle, Joseph burbridge, Abhay Ashtekar and many others. ICGC-1987 was followed by
an international workshop on supernova 1987 A held at Hotel Mandovi in 1990. All these events
generated considerable interest among Goa’s small tribe of amateur astronomers. In its’ silver jubilee
year AFA has seen the tribe growing and ready to celebrate the new year with a lot of enthusiasm. This
year is being celebrated as ‘International year of astronomy’-IYA-2009-supported by UNESCO and the
general assembly of UN. The theme is –‘the universe, yours to discover’. It marks the 400 years of
Galileo’s use of telescope to make astronomical observations and publication of Johannes Kepler’s
famous work Astronomia nova which describes the fundamental laws of planetary motions. IAU
founded in 1919 is the apex body which is coordinating the global programs. A special portal
http://www.astronomy2009.org has been created to keep the public well informed about international
and national programs. Goa has a large number of amateur astronomers and an active NGO-
Association of friends of astronomy (AFA) dedicated to promote astronomy. It has branches at Panaji
and Margao where two public astronomy observatories have been established with generous support
from science and technology department of Government of Goa. Besides, Goa Vidyaprasrak Mandal
has established a beautiful dome shaped astronomy observatory at the college premises in Ponda. Goan
intellectuals like the Dnyanapeetha award winner Konkani scholar Mr. Ravindra Kelekar and well
known Marathi novelist, physicist Dr. Arun Heblekar love astronomy. Mr. Kelekar views the night sky
from his vintage refractor telescope at Priol. He published the first book in Konkani on amateur
observational astronomy- “Brahmandatale tandav’ in early 80s. This has to be compared with
“Nakshtraloka” –a Marathi book by pandit Mahadevshastri Joshi. Shastriji has roots in Sattari. He
practiced astrology for some time but then gave it up but compiled various archeo-astronomical and
puranic myths and legends in his book. IYA-2009 has identified 11 cornerstone projects. One of this is-
astronomy and world heritage: universal treasures, which aspires to establish a link between science
and culture on the basis of research aimed at acknowledging the cultural and scientific values of
properties connected with astronomy. Archeoastronomy is a new field started in the 1960s. It began
with discoveries at the megaliths of Stonehenge. Archeoastronomy pays attention to the astronomical
practices, mythologies, and religions of ancient cultures. Archeoastronomy has been called the
'anthropology of astronomy' to distinguish it from the history of astronomy. What are Goa’s
archeoastronomical traditions?. Where do we start to look for evidence?. We need to start from Goa’s
violent geological history. Goa has evolved with the Gondwana supercontinent but sports some of the
ancient rocks on Earth-known as trondhjeimitic gnesiss dated to almost three billion years. Was the
landmass of Goa hit by meteorites?. Were there saurians (dinosaurs and other giant reptiles) crawling
in Goa?. A few years ago, I received a strange phone call from an engineer in Panaji. He had read my
article on Goa’s geological history. He told me that while on a tour to Coorg in Karnataka, he
happened to meet an American geologist who showed him a satellite map of Goa and told him that part
of Goa’s landmass is located within an extinct volcanic/meteoritic crater- a fact which nobody knew.
Now Deccan volcanism is an event which happened a long, long time, almost 64-65 millions years ago.
The only evidence of volcanic material is the small section of Deccan trap on Goa’s border. Was there a
meteoritic hit somewhere in the western ghats, near Sosogad hills?. Because I was handed over a
sample of round glasslike objects-which looked typically like tektites formed after meteoritic impact.
The sample was collected by some trekkers from top of the Sosogarh hill in Sattari. I ruled out the
possibility of frictional forces of monsoon mountain stream which could shape these round pebbles.
There is a large deposit of these presumptive tektites strewn over sosogarh. Could this be an
underexplored site of meteoritic impact?. Recently, I came across photographs of tektites found in
south east Asia. These are known as Indochinites. Are the round polished glasslike pebbles on
Sosogarh-Indochinites-the molten material formed after a meteoritic impact?. Local geologists have no
priority to climb up Sosogarh and do a careful survey. The legends behind “swayambhu lingas” are
intimately linked to stony iron meteorites. All of a sudden people used to discover pieces of strange
rocks embedded in fields. These were considered as ‘Sacred lingas” and came to be worshipped. A
piece of Stony iron meteorite must have landed on top of Chandranath mountain. Today it is
worshipped as “Chandrashila” or “ Sacred moon rock”. The temple of Lord Chandranath was built
over this sacred rock during the period of Bhojas of Chandor. Today it is a famous pilgrimage centre.
Near the Vaishnavaite monastery of Partagal, Canacona there is a small crater-known as “Viza bain”
(the well created by lightening stroke). The legend has it that the crater was created when a piece of
meteorite struck the place violently about 60-70 years ago. As children we were not allowed to go near
the crater during early 70s during our visit to the monastery. Interestingly no geologist has ever
considered this is an opportunity to investigate the crater and the impact debris. Today the crater has
been filled with rubbish. At Calapur, in the segun bairro ward, close to old Panaji-Agacaim road, there
is a location called “don fatarankoden”. A cross has been built at this place. You notice two large
polished, shining greenish brown rocks near the cross. As a local resident ,when I tried to investigate
their origin I was told that people earlier used to call them “noketranchem fator’. Literally translated
this means “extraterrestrial rocks”. Owing to veneration of these rocks I could not obtain any sample
for petrological studies. But their description matches those of hard stony iron meteorites. There is no
stone quarry in this area. Nobody remembers the antiquity of these presumptive iron meteorites. It is a
big challenge to prove or disprove their extraterrestrial origins. I was shown similar type of rock near
Mandrem beach, close to a local temple. Goa may have many scattered pieces of meteorites but unless
a careful hunt is undertaken it is difficult to find them. I strongly believe that the sacred stone, shaped
like a lingam worshipped in the sanctum sanctorum of Kudneshwara temple in Sarvona Bicholim could
be of meteoritic origin. Interestingly, close to the temple is a flat hillock-called “dhupacho temo’ on
which stands a presumptive necropolis. These miniature temples dated to 11 th century erected in
dressed laterite remind us of megalithic traditions and the German indologist Prof. Mitterwalner who
catalogued these structures in detail, speculated about their purpose. Goa government excavation
efforts did not find any remains. However the layout of the miniature temples could have
archeoastronomical significance. One has to take seasonal measurements during equinoxes to prove or
disprove this postulate. I would shed light on some more archeoastronomical mysteries encountered in
Goa in the second part of this article. Perhaps this information may galvanize young researchers to
work more intensively in archeoastronomical heritage of Goa during IYA-2009.

*Part II, February 2009*

It is a happy coincidence. This issue is being published during the bicentenary year of Charles Darwin’s
birthday (February 12). Darwin caused a “big bang’ in biology, in 1848 with his theory of evolution by
natural selection and changed our world view of the web of life, its’ origin and diversity. Modern
astronomy changed our old concepts of cosmic evolution. Celebrating the two ideas-Darwinian model
of biological evolution and big bang model of cosmic evolution in a composite manner would be an
intellectual treat for all the scientists. Taken together the two grand celebrations-international year of
astronomy and bicentenary year of Darwin need to galvanize us to think deeply about our intellectual
evolution. My three years old son Nachiketas is my living anthropological laboratory. When he was just
six months old, I used to take him out for a night stroll in our campus which still offers an uncluttered
view of the night sky. I used to repeatedly turn his head to face the silvery disc of the moon in the sky,
the twinkling Orion nebula and the miniscule Pleiades constellation-as if I was programming his brain
yet to wired synaptically. I found him focusing and guessing at the moon. To see the specks of
moonlight reflected from his tiny pupils used to give me some idea about humankind’s innocent but
fearful childhood, the obsession of struggling ancestors of my species with those unknown mysterious
objects in the sky which they would understand much later. How does the universe communicate with
our consciousness?. In the pre-fire age, enveloped by pervasive darkness but bathed under the eerie
glow of the galaxy, the shapeless, formless constellations, what primordial thoughts, visions, dreams
and nightmares could have filled the minds of our hunter , food gatherer ancestors?. As I observed my
son growing and taking giant leaps in evolution-compressing time, rapidly completing phases of
mental, intellectual growth which our ancestors had taken thousands of years-it was like watching
human evolution with the finger on fast forward button. Today, familiar with pictures, Nachiketas
draws shapes of stars, planets, galaxies and nebulae and easily identifies Sirius, Venus, Moon and
Pleiades. I was stunned when I found him repeating the same sequence of dots, lines , shapes and
symbols-which we often find in global rock art. It was like watching the expression of an undeciphered
gene-from which the impulse is born-the subconscious urge to overthrow the hidden neurogenetic
memories of long , dark, Paleolithic childhood and swiftly cross over to contemporary reality. The slice
of Sun rising between two hills is a common, favourite theme for many children when they learn to
draw landscapes. When did archeoastronomy really begin?. If we turn to an authority on the subject Dr.
Edwin C. Krupp, his research of 1300 locations across the world could convince us that our ancestors
were keen watchers of the sky and they left the records behind-on rocks, bones, ivory, metal, wood.
Unfortunately we forgot the evidence because we never acknowledged that it existed. Who were the
‘Saptamatrikas’ –the seven holy goddesses?. Their theogony is derived from our ancestors’ fascination
with the constellation of Pleiades- the kritikas. Krupp’s important books- Echoes of the Ancient Skies:
the Astronomy of Lost Civilizations (1983), Beyond the Blue Horizon: Myths and Legends of the Sun,
Moon, Stars, and Planets (1991), Skywatchers, Shamans & Kings: Astronomy and the Archaeology of
Power (1996) leave no doubt that archaeoastronomical traditions need to be taken seriously. Krupp
provided a clearcut definition of the the interdisciplinary field of archeoastronomy as embracing
"calendrics; practical observation; sky lore and celestial myth; symbolic representation of celestial
objects, concepts, and events; astronomical orientation of tombs, temples, shrines, and urban centers;"
and other, similar trappings of culture and symbolic representation of celestial objects" in rock art.
Following Krupps’ footsteps in a humble manner, I started digging deeper into Goa’s
archeoastronomical heritage. This subject may need a separate book which I intend to write soon. It
would certainly fill a gap in our current knowledge of Indian archaeoastronomical traditions. We need
to begin from the Paleolithic period in Goa’s history. I have always found the transition of human
societies from Paleolithic to Neolithic period intriguing and fascinating. The transitional period differs
from continent to continent but it was humankind’s coming of age. And the most surprising part was
the development of an universal consciousness-humans thinking and dreaming alike, taking the same
decisions, having the same visions, confronting the same challenges for survival. We are talking about
the twilight before the dawn of the human civilization and a clonal human mind which explains
identical forms in global rock art. There appears in global rock art- the first evidence of
archeoastronomy- symbols for sun, moon and stars, for constellations like pleaides and Corona
borealis. An immense body of scholarly work on Paleolithic rock art has found something very simple-
the childlike innocent mind of the developing human brain. Entheogens –consumption of certain
psychoactive compounds of plant origin created an altered state of consciousness from which sprang
fountains of absolute spirituality. In a trance like condition when the primitive brain looked at Corona
borealis-the arc of stars , known as the northern crown (this constellation is found nearly midway
between Arcturus and Vega near the first of these stars. From Arcturus move up to Izar (epsilon Bootis)
and then east fifteen degrees to alpha CrB) the shape of labyrinth arose. These were known as entoptic
(behind the eyes) visions. These visions were superimposed on a medium to create the rock art. We
don’t have to go far to find the most ancient archaeoastronomical evidence in Goa-it is carved out there
on the site of a prehistoric riverside nomadic fishing camp of the people of “Kushavati culture” - at
Panasaimol, Sanguem (This discovery was reported by the author in the article “Goa’s rock art
gallery” in June 1993 issue of this magazine) . It is an entoptic ocular petroglyph of labyrinth (readers
may view my uploaded paper by clicking on this weblink-
http://www.scribd.com/doc/7458449/Labyrinth-of-GOA-DemystifiedPresentation-made-in-2005-
during-history-seminar-Goa-University). This form is strikingly similar to the Minoan Cretan labyrinth
(Check the weblink-http://www.goa-world.com/goa/magazine/goan_rock_art_news.htm. ). There is, at
least so far no archaeological evidence of any Minoan contact or migration to west coast of India. But
NIO marine archaeologists claim that they found a Mesopotamian stone anchor in Goa. An undated
quadrangular stone with figure of Greek God of the ocean-Neptune lies partly sunk on the footpath in
front of the Cemetry of Sant Inez church. The stone was excavated in 1966-7 from a depth of two
metres in silty-sandy soil. This place was once an ancient jetty. Rotten wooden planks of a Greek ship
were excavated from the inner courtyard of Mhamai kamat’s house near Panaji’s secretariat in the 70s.
A bust of Gautam Buddha’s idol was found in typical Gandhara style among these remains. It was
dated to fourth century A.D. The idol came from a wreck of Greek ship in Mandovi. The Minoans
worshipped bulls- a form which interestingly predominates the bovid zoomorphs at the Kushavati rock
art gallery. They used double axe and worshipped symbols like sun disk and serpent. Their religion had
a mistress of animals, mistress of harvest, fertility goddess, a protector of cities. However, the only
connection between Goa and Mediterranean region is the arrival of the Dravidian speakers -also
known as the Mediterraneans 6-8,000 years ago. They had followed the negritoes and the austrics.
Homo erectus populations have been in India for over half a million years. Fossil human remains
appear only after 45-50 thousand years ago associated with middle palaeolithic, or stone age tools. The
only connection between the Cretans and the Goans is pastoralism and somewhat striking
physiognomic similarity of Goa’s pastoral tribals-the Goulys/Dhangars to the Greek Shepherds-
possibly because of the Caucasoid elements. Only DNA sequencing using special markers would tell us
whether we have any Cretan blood in Goa. The fate of the Minoans after a volcanic eruption and
invasion by the Mycenaeans is still a mystery. The fate of the sea faring Harappans is also unknown
after the massive earthquake of 1400 BC. There is more to the labyrinth. The constellation of the
Northern Crown is associated with Minoan ritual dance in which the dancers try to find the way out
from the Labyrinth. Classical Greek authors tell us that Daedalus had made a dance floor for Ariadne in
Cnossos. It was decorated with with labyrinthine pattern, on the lines of the Egyptian Labyrinth. The
Cnossioan coins also emphasize the astral character of the labyrinth. Besides the Goan labyrinth , there
are cup marks or cupules which are thought to have archaeoastronomical importance. Their patterns
would have to be compared to constellations visible from the Kushavati river bank. There are single
cupules and cupules arranged in oval or elliptical patterns. Such patterns have been studied in the
American rock art. Ancient Goans must have also practiced geomancy or divination with earth. We
need to explore folk toponymy or the naming of places, routes, locations considered as sacred to
explore the geomancing traditions. Two foothills in the western ghats of Sanguem, Goa are named as
“chand-surya” or the “lunar and solar” hills. We have probably lost the knowledge of the ancient pre-
portuguese locations used as solstice points and observatories. But I am sure that one such ancient
observatory was located near the old temple of Mhalsa at Verna and also at the ‘Saibinicho dongor’/ the
breathtaking Cansaulim hillock where the feast of three kings is celebrated . An ancient monolithic sun
dial was found among the archaeological remains at Verna. In the next article, We shall mainly see the
archaeoastronomical connection of Goa’s cult of Saptamatrika worship to constellation of
pleaides/Krittika and also the impact of sighting of the massive supernova explosion of July 1054 A.D.
resulting in the Crab nebula which has a neutron star at center. How did the newly established regime
of Goa Kadambas react to this cosmic event? Could the Goans miss what the Chinese could see?. I
would try to seek some answers.
 *Part III, March 2009*

The most ancient monolithic panel of “Saptamatrikas’ –the seven mother goddesses- Brahmani,
Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Varahi, Indrani and Chamunda. was found in Goa at Chandor, or
Chandrapur, the former capital of Bhojas. It may belong to 5th or 6 th century A.D indicating the
popularity of the archaeoastronomical cult. But I examined another eroded panel at Cudnem, near
Sanquelim which indicates typical Gupta (4-5th century) influence. Interestingly Cudnem also had a
temple dedicated to the Sun-probably the only one between Modhera-Gujarat to Mangalore on the west
coast. The partly mutilated idol of Sun God is now installed in Goa museum and archaeologist V.T.
Gune had commented that it showed Kushana influence. That’s indirect acknowledgement of Goa’s
connection to central asian silk route. If we go by German indologist, Prof. Gritli Mitterwalner’s
research on Aravalem cave complex, then there is no doubt that the Aravalem-Cudnem area formed a
tantric religious center with a significant presence of sun worshippers, tantriks, astrologers and sky
observers. Aravalem’s Skanda Kartikeya cult, Cudnem’s Sun worship and the panels of Saptamatrikas
(related to theogony and mythology of Skanda-Kartikeya) offer composite insight into Goa’s ancient
archeoastronomical traditions. According to Goswami et. al (2005) the iconography of Mother
Goddesses date back to third century B.C. The Saptamatrika form developed from Gupta period (3rd to
6th century A.D. ), Gurjara Pratiharas ( 8th to 10th century A. D. ), Chandellas ( 9th to 12th century A.D. ),
Chalukyas ( 11th to 13thcentury A.D. ), Pallavas and Cholas ( 7th to 9th century A.D. ). Many
saptamatrika panels have been found in Goa and these belong to 6th to 13 th century A.D. All of these
have been influenced by the dynasties which ruled Goa from 4-5th century and imported contemporary
iconographic styles. Why Indians showed so much interest in ‘Saptamatrikas’?. The roots of this cult
could be traced to Messier object 45, the open star cluster -Pleiades. Perhaps no other star cluster has
fascinated the mankind as much as the Pleiades, popularly known as ‘seven sisters’ or “krittika’, the
third of 27 ‘nakshtras’ of Hindu calendar. This open star cluster in constellation of Taurus is located by
the coordinates: 03h 45.9m Right Ascension by +24 04 Declination. It has hot blue stars which are 100
million years old. It has an apparent diameter of 120 minutes of arc and is 408 light years away from
earth. What this means in simple terms is that light reaching our eyes from Pleiades has traveled for
408 years. We see these prominently during winter. Pleiades can be spotted as part of the Taurus
constellation and this cluster forms the shoulder of the Bull whose eye –Aldebaran is among the
brightest stars. The Persians called them “Parveen”, the Maya called them “Tzab-ek”, the Aztec named
them Tianquiztli. The Greeks, Chinese, the Maoris, the Australian aboriginals were familiar with them.
The Indian tantric cult of ‘seven mothers’-the ‘Saptamatrikas’ has beginnings in the Vedic period. The
number seven is considered sacred from the Rigvedic time. Vedic people divided the cosmos into seven
regions under the command of seven adityas. Much before Issac Newton discovered the polychromatic
nature of sunlight, a mixture of seven colours, the chariot of Surya, the Hindu Sun god was described
as having seven horses. The number seven was also sacred to Babylonians, Greeks, Hebrews and
Indonesians according to Kathrine Anneharpen , the author of “ Iconography of Saptamatrikas”. Now
let me cast some speculative light on a rare astronomical event which must have impacted the
powerful community of tantriks in Goa. Before their mindless destruction, first by the iconoclast
Bahamanis and then by the Portuguese, Govanath/Goveshwar and Chamunda were prominent temples
at Govapuri or Gopaka, the new capital (A.D. 1050-1336) of Goa Kadambas. A few archaeological
remains from these temples are displayed at the museum of major seminary of Pilar. When were these
temples built?. Goveshwar is described as “presiding deity’ of the capital city in the royal grants of
Kadamba kings. Why the kings installed and worshipped Goddess Chamunda-considered to be a fierce
form of mother goddess?. It was not their family deity. Apparently, Govapuri of 11 th century was a
center of the tantrik practitioners. They were originally stationed on and around the Pilar hillock which
still offers a picturesque and breathtaking view of the island of Tiswadi during the day time and a
dazzling star filled skyscape at night. Imagine the pre-urbanization, light pollution free days. It must
have been a treat to watch the night sky from Pilar hillock. The area around the hillock was booming
as a port city and was known among merchants, sailors as “Gopakapattana’ or the “port of Gopaka’.
The Roman wine amphorae, coins and fragments of Chinese porcelain of Song dynasty period (AD
960-1279) found at Pilar/Goa Velha area indicates ancient trans-oceanic trade contacts. The Chinese
vessels cast anchors in the waters of Zuari. Moroccan geographer Al Idrisi has given an account of
Chinese trade in Indian ocean. Govapuri was a cosmopolitan city. The tantriks of Govapuri worshipped
Chamunda. She is a favourite goddess of the astrologers and magicians. They wielded considerable
influence with the kings. Although it is believed that Kadamba Veeravarmadev established Govapuri
there is no evidence of construction of temples of Govanath/Goveshwara and Chamunda before A.D.
1054. So what was so significant about that year?. We need to think like the powerful tantriks of
Govapuri who were keenly watching the skies day and night and were constantly looking for signs.
How could they miss the greatest ‘heavenly’ sign- the sudden and inexplicable appearance of a brilliant
star during daytime in July 1054?. A star had exploded to become a supernova. The Chinese
astronomers recorded the following account on July 4, 1054 AD. It describes a star that suddenly
appeared near Zeta Tauri. "In the 1st year of the period Chih-ho, the 5th moon, the day chi-ch'ou, a
guest star appeared... After more than a year it gradually became invisible...". The Arabs also recorded
it and those who were present in Govapuri as navigators and sailors would not have missed it.
Believing the tantriks, King Jaikeshi who was then ruling from Chandor must have ordered the
construction of the temples of Govanath and Chamunda to mark the event and appease the divinity.
Jaikeshi must have shifted the capital permanently to Gopaka. This reasoning is based on the practice
among the kings to make large donations during solar and lunar eclipses and order construction of
temples and installation of idols. Appearance of a supernova was however was not predictable
phenomena. Comets or ‘dhumketus’ were familiar to astrologers. But no astrologer in Goa during the
regime of Goa Kadambas could predict or explain the appearance of a bright new star. Supernovae are
rare and when they appear it takes some time to discover them even with powerful telescopes. But
Supernova 1054 was one of the brightest. So the natural reaction of the tantriks in Govapuri on July 4,
1054 was panic followed by ritual offeringsa and possibly animal sacrifices. Since the star continued
its’ appearance for many days in the monsoon sky, the bewildered tantriks must have rushed to King
Jaikeshi. To appease the heavenly deities, the twin temples were built. The crab supernova slowly lost
its’ brilliance with time and that must have been considered as a good omen by the tantriks who were
naturally satisfied that the temples were being constructed . Did they also hear from the Chinese sailors
about the “guest star’?. There are many possibilities. Because Asian ports have their own vibrant
cultures. The archaeological remains of the Govantah and Chamunda temple sites indicate that these
were built in granite and laterite. A huge lateritic yonipeetha displayed at Pilar museum signifies the
ritualistic importance of the Chamunda temple. Was Pilar a tantric archaeoastronomical center?. A
chronological reconstruction of archaeoastronomical heritage of Pilar is now virtually impossible. Not
much importance is given to such areas of studies in Goa. The old port city witnessed several waves of
plunder and destruction. The last job was completed by the Portuguese. Goddess Chamunda was
transferred to Piligao, Bicholim in 16 th century. Coming back to Pleiades, when I read Lynn Ceci’s
well researched paper-‘ Watchers of the Pleiades: Ethnoastronomy among Native Cultivators in
Northeastern North America’ ( Ethnohistory, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1978, pp. 301-317), I could see that we
need to do a lot of interdisciplinary intellectual mining on similar lines. I am tempted to quote from
Ceci’s scholarly paper to give an idea of his work-“ References to Pleiades appear in Mesopotamian
and Chinese writings dated 3000 BC and 2357 BC, respectively, and in early Egyptian and Hindu
works, the Talmud, the Koran, the Bible, and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Early evidence for the
Pleiades in the New World consists of archaeological constructions apparently aligned with the stars'
celestial positions, e.g., a Nazca desert feature dated c. 500-700 AD, streets and buildings of the great
city of Teotihuacan, c. 150-750 AD. Later Inca, Aztec priests and the Emperor Moctezumas observed it.
For the ancient Maya a bird-like glyph is thought to have represented these stars, while for the modern
Mayan descendants the Pleiades are identified as "those who travel together," "a handul," the "Seven
Kinds," and in November, as "signal of the night". The Pleiades are illustrated on the Night Sky figures
of Navajo sand paintings, on the masks of Pueblo Kachinas, and on the upper black painted "night sky"
area of Blackfeet lodges. A Pawnee Sky Map drawn on buckskin places these stars quite accurately on
the "winter" side in their proper relative magnitude and position; and if, as Pawnee informants reported,
villages were located so as to form a "reflected picture" of the stars they considered important, then the
Pleiades celebrated in the Hake ceremony and song cited above also influenced their site distribution. It
has also been proposed that the Pleiades along with other star groups served as celestial templates for
particular clusters of prehistoric conical mounds in the Midwest. “ Consistent with Ceci’s global
synthesis of information on archaeoastronomy of Pleiades-is India’s Saptamatrika cult, represented so
well in Goa since the Gupta period. Today, these magnificent monolithic panels of Saptamatrikas need
to remind us that the archaeoastronomical traditions of Goa need deeper investigations.

*Part IV, April 2009*

Without mining deeper in Goa’s rich tradition of folklore it is impossible to get insights into folk
archeoastronomical beliefs like the fascination of people with Sun, Moon, planets, stars, eclipses and
comets. Such an effort is possible for only those who can understand the local languages, Marathi and
Konkani with their rich idiomatic nuances perfectly. It is impossible to date Goa’s folklore precisely.
Goa’s well known folklorist and cultural historian Dr. Pandurang Phaldessai identified 50 local folklore
forms. Most of these may have origin in Neolithic period. Very little work has been done to shed light
on neolithic Goan society. Actually the ‘original cultural matrix’ of Goan society can be traced to
Neolithic period. An attempt was made by late Anant Ramkrishna Shenavi Dhume in his ‘magnum
opus’ ‘cultural history of Goa, from 10,000 B.C. -1352 A.D.’ which was first published in 1986. The
second illustrated edition ( 378 pages, Broadway book centre, Panaji) , technically improved and
corrected would be officially released in April. It is indeed a collector’s item. For the purpose of
editing the first edition I had long evening sessions during 1984-6 with Shri Dhume at his beautiful
residence at St. Inez. He had retired as director of land survey department and had vast experience in
geological and archaeological field work. During the discussions, I came to know about the rock art of
Usgalimol near Colamb, Rivona which was later rediscovered in May 1993. Today ( and unless new
and more ancient evidence comes to light) we know that prehistoric archaeoastronomical traditions of
Goa begin from ‘Kushavati rock art’. I had meticulously measured and catalogued 125+ petroglyphs
during 1993. A few more petroglyphs were found later. These were classified as plain geometric
figures, phytomorphs, zoomorphs and anthropomorphs. An illustrated paper ( ‘Animal diversity in rock
art’, in Biodiversity in the western ghats, WWF, India and IIRR, Phillipines) was published in January
1995 to focus on spiritual and material world of the creators of kushavati rock art. I could not identify
the heliomorph mentioned by Shri Dhume based on secondary information. Probably he had made a
mistake to identify the labyrinth petroglyph with the ‘sun’ symbol. But there were distinct ‘cup marks’
or ‘cupules’. Elsewhere (Hockey and Hoffman, Rapa Nui Journal XIV, #3, 85-88, September 2000)
cupules have been identified with patterns of constellations. These authors speculated that Rapanui
watched Sagittarius and the Milky Way. I would need to do similar studies at Usgalimol. Did the milky
way fascinate our ancestors in Goa?. The belt of milky way is visible from September to May on dark
nights. The visibility is best in rural areas. There is a popular Dhalo folk song which is probably based
on astrofeminist creative impulses. Dhalo is a truly ecofeminist ‘edutainment’ festival of Goa. Its’
origin is basically non vedic and non brahminic. That brings ‘Dhalo’ in the cultural domain of the
prehistoric austric settlers in Goa. The festival is associated with ‘earth worship’. The presiding deity
on the sacred platform of ‘Dhalo’ performances is Santeri/Bhumika. She represents mother earth. The
composer of the Konkani folk song –“ Nakshatranchyo oli’ is unknown. But it says-‘ Vholli baye vholi
ge, hyo nakshtranchyo Vholli; Khuntimaya bholi ge, amka khelunk dilyo Vholli’ ( Khuntimaya=an
aniconic female spirit has innocently given/gifted us these rows of stars/constellations to play with ).
The dancers also invoke- earth goddess (‘dhartarimaya’) and forest goddess ( ‘Vanadevatamaya’) while
singing this song. The term for stars-‘nakshatra’ is of Sanskrit/ Indo European origin. Dhalo is older
than the Konkani language. The original Dhalo songs could have been in Austric language. Later, after
interaction from neolithic period with Indo-European speakers many Sanskrit terms were incorporated.
What’s the symbolism of ‘dancing ‘ with the rows of stars/constellations?. It may indicate the
appreciation of star studded milky way galaxy. The women could see endless rows and rows of stars in
the dark village night sky when they left their houses to assemble at the ‘mand’. They watched the
apparent movement of these stars between sunset and sunrise. The pre industrial Dhalo dancers noticed
that movement from east to west. The Dhalo dancers also form rows. They associated subtle stellar
motions with their own dancing steps and rhythm. This is an unique and beautiful example of cultural
aspects of Goa’s archaeoastronomy. Goa’s folklore pay rich tributes to Sun and Moon. The apparent
disc size of both these bodies appears same. Otherwise at slightly longer distance from Earth , Moon
would have been a small celestial sphere similar to Venus. People perhaps would not have given it
much importance. But the similarity in apparent size and the Moon’s cycle of waxing and waning
mystified the folks. They could not distinguish between a self shining star and a satellite. Moon got
almost same importance in folklore as Sun. Most of the folksongs and community prayers, invocations
begin with “adi naman sansyurya”-first salutations to Moon (san) and the Sun (surya) . Folks adopted
solar and lunar symbols on religious and ritualistic insignia. The carvings of lunar crescent and a solar
disc on Goa’s memorial stones-the sati stones (’sati kals) and ‘hero stones’ (veera gals) was
continuation of this tradition. Folks viewed Sun and Moon as timeless and ageless radiant celestial
entities. Their agelessness and timelessness inspired the drafting of royal grants and charters. The royal
inscriptions also picked up the folk spirit. The expression- “yavat-chandra-divakarrova” aims at
timeless perpetuation of name, fame and all good deeds in future. Another dhalo folk song identified
Moon as a “nakshatra’. It says-“ chandramasarkhya nakshtra go, tuji piray geli vaya go, tuji, piray geli
vaya ” . This is a mischievous composition. It taunts a beautiful maiden. The Dhalo folk dancers treated
Sun and Moon as divine deities. “Chand-Suryadeva bhayar sarale, kele gandhache tile” expressed their
fascination with the celestial duo. Goa had traditions of both the Sun and the Moon worship. Iconic Sun
worship was introduced perhaps during the imperial Gupta period by central asian/Persian merchant
guilds. Multan, Modhera, Konark had famous sun temples. The idol of Sun found at Kudnem, Bicholim
puts Goa on the map of sun worshippers. The Aravalem cave complex was meticulously explored by
German indologist Dr. Mitterwalner. She mentions the influence of Skanda Kartikeya cult and a linga
with a solar disc. This is an unique ‘Surya-lingam’. Similar solar disc motif has been found at the
Elephanta caves. Was the Suryalingam once a capital of the cylindrical ‘surya-stambha’ –the polished
monolithic column/pillar in front of Kudnem’s extinct Sun temple?. Again we’re stuck here as this is
one of the unexplored area in Goa’s archaeoastronomy. I had made several exploratory visits to
Kudnem. The villagers had also invited during Divali festival to deliver a lecture on the local history.
But I could not trace the original sun pillar. Probably it was destroyed by the raiding armies of
iconoclastic bahamanis. There is also mystery associated with Goddess Usha. Dr. Mitterwalner had
found a carved fragment of vedic Goddess Usha-the Hindu goddess of dawn, in the ruins of
Saptakotishewara temple. Although she did not discuss the significance of the finding in detail-the
unique carving shows that the vedic goddess was very much relevant in the saivaite pantheon. The
verses in praise of goddess of dawn-the Ushasuktas are some of the most beautiful, ecospiritual verses
in entire vedic literature. The iconic representation of goddess Usha is relatively rare. But the finding of
this small fragment brings into question the possible presence of sun worshippers at Divar. The
etymology of ‘Divar’ is possibly from the Sanskrit term for island-‘Dweepa’ and not “Deepavati’ as
claimed. The Divar hillock was ideal place for sky observations and solstice points. Even today, we can
see breathtaking view of the sun setting over Mandovi river from the courtyard of the church of Divar.
Interestingly Divar has an ancient cave temple associated with tantrism. So, the presence of Saivaite
Tantriks (probably Ganapatyas) near Divar hillock indicates site of an ancient observatory. The tantriks
prospered in Goa from the period of Kadambas of Halsi till the end of Goa Kadamba dynasty. For
nearly a thousand years they must have keenly observed the sky. Obviously they selected vantage
points, free from the chaos of the settlements. Therefore we don’t find a cave complex at Kudnem- a
valley. It is at nearby Aravalem. Both the hillocks of Divar and Pilar had cave temples occupied by the
tantriks. The cave temple of Pilar is now beyond recognition. A comprehensive archaeoastronomical
exploration to locate the sites of ancient astronomical observatories could lead us to all the lateritic
plateaus in Goa. Although caves and tunnels were found at Verna plateau, a microlithic archaeological
location, not much attention was paid to their relevance. Loliem is a culturally rich village in Canacona.
The Loliem plateau is yet to be explored from archaeoastronomical angle. Interesting discoveries
would be made if Mopa and Dhargal plateaus are explored. Ancient astronomers loved plateaus or
small hillocks for observations. Another candidate site on my list is the beautiful hillock named
–‘Saibinicho dongor’ (conception hill) at Cansaulim. It is famous for three kings feast. On top of the
95-100 metres high hillock there is a small flattened area with the beautiful church of our lady of
remedies. As the crow flies, upto 24 kms. towards south there is absolutely no other hill or a higher
ground between this point and the ridge separating Canacona. The whole coastal plains of Salcete, the
basin of Sal river lie beneath one’s feet. It is one of Goa’s most scenic and panoramic point- a feast for
eyes for the photographers and painters. How ancient astronomers of Goa could have missed such a
location?. It could have been the most ideal location for astronomical observations during the pre-
Portuguese period. This site could have been as important as the megalithic monument of stone henge
in Salisbury plains of England.

*Part V, May 2009*

This month I would focus on Goa’s tradition of Sun/Surya worship and the ill understood cult of
ancient Goa’s sun worshippers which can be dated to Mauryan period. I am writing a monograph on
this subject based on detail iconographic studies of ancient Sun worshipping centres such as Kudnem,
Aravalem, Divar, Margao, Par-Usgao, Netravalim , Panaji and possibly Verna because of the grand
Mhalsa temple. Mhalsa was a female consort of Mhalhari-Martand or the folk deity of Khandoba. But
this deity incorporated the vestiges of ancient Sun worship. Surya images were found at Kudnem,
Bicholim, Divar, Tiswadi, Margao and Neturlim. Among these the Neturlim image is the smallest. The
month of May receives the highest flux of solar energy in Goa. It is the warmest month of the year.
Solar energy has been put to use very intelligently by local people for thousands of years. Various food
items, grains, old clothes, costumes, salted fish are dried in sun. The salt producers get high production
during this month. Since when people of Goa began worshipping the sun?. Sun worship in India dates
back to pre vedic period. During prehistoric period –Heliographs or solar images were carved on rocks.
On the banks of Manda river in Raigarh district of Madhya Pradesh a petroglyph of Sun was found. It
depicts a figure of man raising his hand apparently in salute to the Sun. Another similar petroglyph was
found at Edakkal near Calicut. It is associated with Swastika symbol. Ritualistic Sun worship in south
east asia must have become popular due to contacts with Egypt and Persia. The Scythians and the
Kushanas promoted it. Mathura Sun images are very famous. The progressive Maharashtrian scholar,
historian V.K. Rajwade (1864-1926) proposed that the Sun worshipping Magas migrated from central
asia/Scythia and were absorbed in the Hindu varna system as Brahmins. He also suggested that
–‘Magadha’-the ancient name of Bihar was derived from ‘Maga’ Brahmins. The Magas made Bihar a
major sun worshipping centre in north India. I had to return to research done by Rajwade and Goa’s
self taught cultural historian-Kashinath Damodar Naik to establish a link between three possibilities-
first-Goa-as Aparatna or Sunaparanta was an integral part of the Imperial Mauryan state. Goa during
this time was not directly ruled by any particular dynasty but after paying taxes to a local provincial
governor was allowed to administer its’ own affairs under the ancient Gaunkaris. Buddhism reached
Goa during this period ((321–185 B.C.E.) and prospered. Second, the Maga brahmins introduced iconic
Sun worship and Ayurvedic healing practices in Goa. Third, the etymology of the headquarters of
Salcete-Margao is not really Mathagram or Mad-Gaon but is based on the ancient practice of Sun
worship introduced by the Maga Brahmins-so it must be Maga-grama or a village of Maga sun
worshippers. I myself would not have believed in this new finding until I examined the fragment of the
beautiful Sun/Surya image found at Margao. The image is in the custody of Goa archaeological
museum. There was a Sun temple at Margao where the pre Portuguese presiding deity was Damodar
( now established and venerated at Zambaulim) . From the damage done to the Goa museum idol it is
clear that it was intentionally broken into two pieces during the frenzy of mass Hindu temple
demolition drive undertaken by marauding Portuguese in 1565. The Margao Sun image shows north
Indian influence. But who were these North Indian Sun worshippers?. Naturally they could be the
descendants of Maga Brahmins. They were expert ayurveda practitioners. So, Margao could originally
be a settlement of Maga Brahmins, the natural healers. One of the ancient architectural monument of
Margao is the Aquem rock cut cave. This is clearly the work of the tantriks-the main rock cut temple
excavators of Goa. At Aravalem the followers of saivaite Skanda kartikeya cult were also worshipping
the Sun god. The Aquem cave was excavated most probably by Skanda Kartikeya cult followers and
again we need to identify them as Maga Brahmins. There are no Hindu families with Sun god as their
‘kuladevatas’ or family deities. The Margao Surya image could be dated to 7th -12 th century. Another
characteristic of Margao sun image is symmetrical carvings of goddesses–Usha and Pratushya at the
base of the frame, shown shooting arrows. These two dynamic figures could be compared with the
fragment of Surya image with the arrow shooting goddess Usha mounted on a makara on the left side
of the frame around the image of Sun which the German indologist Dr. Mitterwalner located on the site
of Saptakotiswara temple in Divar. She found another identical image of Sun god-Surya in the
compound of Daksina Kedaresvara temple at Balamgave (Karnataka). She concluded after a
comparative study of Diwar, Balamgave and Magala images that-“ … it is possible to reconstruct the
lost Surya of Divar as an image that stood in the centre with two arrow shooting deities on makaras
placed on pilasters on either side. This proves that the main temple of Saptakotisvara, which housed the
linga of god Siva in the garbhagriha, was provided with at least one filial shrine containing an image of
Surya. ( Marga, Vol. 35:3) “ Dr. Mitterwalner could not study the Margao Surya image otherwise she
would have drawn the same conclusion about filial shrine of Surya within the grand temple complex of
Lord Damodar. At Zambaulim today the affiliate deities of Lord Damodar are Sri Ramnath, Sri
Mahesha, Sri Chamundeshwari, and Sri Mahakali. God Surya does not figure there. Since the original
image was damaged perhaps the worshippers did not think of reestablishing it at Zambaulim. But today
we have expert sculptors like Puttswamy Gudigar of “shilpaloka’ sculpture studio, Verna, who can
restore the Margao Surya image. The filial shrine of Margao’s Sun god was destroyed in 1565 A.D.
Since then we lost the traces of Maga Brahmins. If they left descendants then the IBM-National
geographic’s genographic project would be able to discover them. The Netravalim Sun image does not
show any ornamentation. It has been dated to Vijayanagara period by late Dr. Mitragotri (1999). Why
the Netravalim Surya image was installed inside a riverside cave?. The logical reason is that the cave
served as a primitive temple in that region with very heavy monsoon rainfall. The Aravalem cave
complex is also a rock cut temple complex. The inscription on one of the lingas was read as “Sambalur-
vasi ravi”, which mentions a village named after Samba-the son of Yadava war hero Lord Krishna.
That’s straight from Sambpurana. Samba is associated with Sun worship and catalyzing migration of
Maga Brahmins from Shakadweepa or Scythia to north India. Sambapurana praises Sun worship in its’
84 chapters. If the original name of Aravalem was Sambalur then it explains the meaning of the
inscription on the linga with a solar disc. Ravi stands for Sun God. Sambalur-vasi-Ravi refers to the sun
God of Sambalur (Here it needs to be mentioned that the Christian folk dancers of Chandor’s Mussol
dance invoke-the Yadava prince Samba in their song). Ancient Sambalur alias Aravalem must have
been a centre to cure skin diseases. The nearby Aravalem waterfall has a lot of dissolved minerals with
(medically unproven) curing effects. So people could been flocking to the SambalurVasi Ravi to get rid
of their skin ailments. Whether the Sun-Skanda-Kartikeya worshipping tantriks were engaged in
administering medicines to the people is a matter of speculation. I have already made a reference to
Sun image of Kudnem in one of my previous articles in this series. This image is displayed at ASI’s
Old Goa museum. It shows the Kushana influence. The depiction of tall shoes is a typical Persian
iconographic style. Kudnem had a navigable minor port in its’ peth area. The mouth of river Mandovi is
easily accessible from there via Sar manas. Today this whole area is silted and beyond recognition.
Most probably Kudnem was a major centre for landing the imported Persian horses. Therefore the
Surya image of Kudnem associated with Uma-Maheshwara shrine could have been under worship by
the horse traders. Late Dr. Mitragotri also reported (1999) that a stone pedestal with carving of seven
horses was found at the site of Maruti temple at Altinho, Panaji. Although he claimed that the Goa
museum acquired it , I could not trace it last month during my recent visit. Mitragotri believed that a
sun image was installed on that pedestal but it has not been located so far. Interestingly if the pedestal
was found on the Eastern face of Altinho hill then it explains the original location of the mysterious
Sun temple. Panaji was a ward of Taleigao gaunkari. The 60 m high altinho hill is stretched like a tent,
surrounded by Mandovi river and mangrove swamps. Generally, not the locals but the Maga Brahmins
used to establish the Sun temples. If a pre-Portuguese Sun temple existed on Altinho, Panaji then it
must be at the highest point facing the Sun. It could have been located just above the Fontainhas
spring-Fonte Fenix. Both the Boca da vaca and the Fonainhas springs sprout from the same aquifer.
The archaeology of these springs has been poorly explored. These were the only free flowing sources
of freshwater available to the ocean going vessels near coast of Panaji from Mauryan period. The
ancient rock cut caves at Altinho were destroyed during several construction projects. Otherwise the
influence of Maga Brahmins could have been discovered. The syncretic image of Martanda Bhairava
displayed at Goa museum also shows the importance of the ancient trade route used by the Persian
horse traders. Martanda in Kashmir was India’s best known centre of sun worship. Sometimes during
the early Shilahara-Goa kadamba period, Kashmir Saivism reached Goa with traders, pilgrims and
travelers. Then a miraculous synthesis of two cults took place-indicating considerable cultural,
economic and ritualistic synergy –between the Sun worshippers and the folk worshippers of Malhari-
Martand in the foothills of western ghats. The syncretic iconic form of Martanda Bhairav was born.
Over a period of two thousand years, the Sun worship in Goa had come a full circle-from prevedic
aniconic form to a syncretic form of Martanda-Bhairva. This event culturally enriched Goa’s
archaeoastronomical heritage.
 *Part VI, June 2009*

Monsoon in Goa has an astronomical flavor. People identify nine groups of stars or ‘nakshatras’ with
the rainy season. These with the corresponding English zodiac signs are, mriga (Taurus) , Ardra
(Gemini) , Punarvasu (Gemini) , Pushya (Cancer) , Ashlesha (cancer) , Vishakha (scorpio) , Swati
(libra) , Chitra (Virgo) and Hasta (Virgo). “meerg ayalo”, “meergacho pavas zadta’ these are the
expressions which we hear in Goa when the first heavy showers of south west monsoon occur. “meerg’
is the name for Mrigashirsha-or Mriga a nakshatra or group of stars. The noted Konkani author,
Sahitya akademi award winner-Pundalik Naik has vividly captured the rustic picture of the meerg
showers in his path breaking Konkani novel-Acchev (The upheaval, OUP, 2002). He describes the
monsoon in the Kolamb village- (page 55) “ the winds of Meerg shredded the plantain leaves and it
was as though a capricious artist had run amok with a pair of scissors , leaving behind tattered strips.
As dusk descended on the land, covering it with a mantle of darkness, the silhouettes of trees and
bushes merged, forming a dark blur. Not a single star could be seen in the sky, heavy with massed
clouds. The still air made the heart heavy with apprehension. Suddenly lightening flashed, it seemed as
though the black fabric of the sky had been ripped apart and all of Kolamba shimmered in its glow. A
cool breeze played upon bare bodies. Like a wedding that had been fixed for godhuli hour the first
shower of rain fell upon the land. “ People in Goa patiently wait for this unique tropical experience.
The month of June brings the invigorating rains of southwest monsoon. Its’ origin lies in the heating of
intertropical convergence zone, away from equator. This season lasts in Goa till the end of September.
So it would be appropriate to see the interesting ethnoastrometeorological and ethnoastronomical
connections between prediction and association of the rains with astronomical objects such as
constellations and stars. Many major and popular Hindu festivals are celebrated during the monsoon.
Their origins can be traced to cosmic and natural cycles. South west monsoon has a history of millions
of years. It has changed its’ profile-over millions of years-creating dry, arid environments during
certain periods and wet, humid conditions during other periods. We’re in the Holocene epoch of
quaternary period. This is warmer, interglacial age. The Pleistocene humans were not knowledgeable
about the monsoons. Most probably the interest in predicting rains began with the advent of agriculture
in Anatolia, Turkey. Then it spread from civilization to civilization. The ancient Indian astronomers
absorbed this knowledge. It was probably brought in Goa by the Indo European settlers. But its’
popularity increased only with royal patronage from fourth century A.D. From the period of Bhojas of
Chandrapur to the Vijayanagara emperors we find several royal grants and donations mentioning
agraharas and Brahmapuris-the settlements or religious-cultural vedic-puranic educational complexes
meant for priests, vedic scholars and astrologers. Ancient brahmapuris were great centres of Sanskrit
learning in Goa. The Indian astrometeorological knowledge taught in these brahmapuris is attributed to
ancient Indian sages- Krutu, Pulah, Pulatsya, Atri, Angira, Vashista and Mareechi. They identified a
group of stars called constellations (Nakshatra). They considered these as stationary. The path of the
earth around sun is elliptic and sun lies on one of the foci. The plane containing sun and earth is called
as Ecliptic which is divided in 12 equal parts of 30°, which are called as Rashis or Zodiac namely
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.
The Indian astrometeorologists used 27 nakshatras. They divided these in seven ‘Nadis’ starting from
‘Krittika” (3rd nakshtra) as ‘Vat nadi” followed by Ativat, Dahan, Soumya, Neer, Jal and Amrit to
‘Ashlesha’ (9th Nakshtra). They believed that Vat produces windy weather, Ativat produces cold, Dahan
increases temperature. It was their belief that Soumya, Neer, Jal and Amrit nadis are rain producing.
About 1400 years ago, the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Varahamihira evolved a
technique to predict the onset of rains. The observer noted occurrence of the full-moon day of the
month of Jyestha (approximately coinciding with June) nakshatra of the day on which the first rainfall
is received. This provided the basis for forecast of seasonal rainfall. Varahmihira even tabulated the
rainfall intensity. The first ‘nakshtra’ for south west monsoon is mriga. For normal Mriga rains he
predicted 102.4 cms. This is actually the average rainfall in Goa for month of June and not just for two
weeks when the Sun enters Mriga. There are certain other astrometeorological beliefs. According to
one such belief, rainfall on 2nd and 5th day of ashadh month means more rainfall during the 2nd
fortnight of ashadh and the first fortnight of shravan month respectively. Another belief is associated
with Swati nakshatra. This corresponds to gradual withdrawal of monsoon. The legend of the Chatak
bird (pied crested cuckoo, Clamator jacobinus) is also associated with rains. In many places, the
sighting of this cuckoo is considered a sign of arrival of rains. People believe that Chataka depends on
raindrops directly falling from the clouds. Ornithologists have so far not proven this belief. Even today
the farmers and fishermen in Goa identify the monsoon showers by the nakshtras. The farmers would
say-‘Pushya went dry’. The hasta rains would be associated with thunder and lightening. They know
that Ardra would bring the heaviest of the showers and rains would diminish with Sun entering Hasta
nakshatra. The fishermen would prepare to appease the oceans around ‘Narali Pornima”. By this time
they know that the turbulence in the ocean becomes less. Ethnometeorologically the fishermen have
come to associate the changing colours of the post monsoon sky with abundance of certain species of
fish. A maroon sky they would say- produces a bumper harvest of mackerels. Iconographically, the
most important representation of the southwest monsoon is found in the monolithic semicircular
sculptures of Gajalaxmi. Hundreds of such panels are found in the Mahadayi river valley. What’s the
ethnometeorological significance of goddess Gajalaxmi?. To local people, she is the folk goddess
bhauka/bhaukai or Kelbai. Marxist historian Debiprasada Chattopadhyaya mentioned the cult of the
goddess of vegetation-Shakambhari in his wonderful treatise on ancient Indian materialism-Lokayata.
Shakambhari worship was propular in ancient India. Today it survives as ‘Gauri pujan’ during the
Ganesh chaturthi festival. The goddess of vegetation is none other than mother earth herself. The earth
is transformed after the monsoon showers. The panel of Gajalakshmi depicts an almost symmetrical
pair of royal elephants in the act of sprinkling water on a seated goddess. The goddess is representation
of earth. The elephants symbolize the monsoon clouds. The older panels of Gajalakshmi were simple
and less ornamented. The medieval panels show figures of dancers, acrobats, musicians and some
erotic positions. The Kadambas of Goa could have initiated a monsoon ritualistic festival to invoke the
blessings of Gajalakshmi. The festival involved various rituals, dances, acrobatics, martial art displays
and probably open air copulations by the tantrics. The festival was part of fertility magic ritual and
childless couples could have made offerings to the goddess during the ceremony. Faint traces of this
festival have survived in the tradition of ‘the feast of cucumbers’ or “tovashyachem fest’ at Telaulim-
Santan, Tiswadi. At the site of the majestic church of St. Anne, there existed a temple of Santeri, also
known as santandevi. Gajalakshmi and Santandevi were folk depictions of the fertility magic of the
monsoon and mother earth. The simple folks of Goa were benefited from the import of
astrometeorological ideas of the Sanskrit speaking Indo-Europeans. The merger of austric, Dravidian
and Indo European elements gave rise to new belief systems and rituals. Worship of Santeri, Santandevi
or Gajalakshmi is actually the worship of mother earth, our own planet. So people of Goa laid down a
healthy tradition of planet worship. Ethnoastronomically their knowledge was enriched after the
brahmpuris were established. The connection between stars and rains is not acceptable to modern
science. But people develop their beliefs through centuries of observations. It may take centuries to
replace this belief system with modern science. However we still don’t have sufficient knowledge of
folk wisdom which was basis to predict the behaviour of monsoon on astrometeorological and
ethnoastronomical principles. Some of this knowledge exists among the fast vanishing older
generation of farmers and fishermen of Goa. It is a challenge for young cultural anthropologists and
ethnographers to do the intellectual mining in these forgotten traditions. People have personified the
behaviour of the nine nakshatras of monsoon. If a morod farmer in Pernem says-‘Chitran fatayalem’-
don’t misunderstand him. He doesn’t mean a woman by the name of Chitra. He speaks about the
failure of rains under the monsoon nakshatra of Chitra. The sociolinguistics of monsoon in Goa is
subtle, unique and full of nuances. Despite the media revolution and routine weather forecasts-the
farmers still recognize the first rains as ‘meergacho pavas’. That itself is a great tribute to Goa’s
archaeoastronomical heritage.

*Part VII, July 2009*

Eclipses are powerful astronomical phenomena. Total lunar and solar eclipses leave people spellbound.
In any calendar year a minimum of two and a maximum of seven eclipses could occur-five solar and
two lunar or four solar and three lunar. Eclipses have their own ancient lore. This is a month of triple
eclipses. The first in the series of triple eclipses will be a lunar eclipse on July 7, 2009, followed by a
solar eclipse on July 22, 2009, and another lunar eclipse on August 6, 2009. The most significant
among the three is the total Solar eclipse on July 22. It will also be the longest eclipse of the 21st
Century being 6 minutes 38 seconds at the point of maximum eclipse. It will be visible from within a
narrow corridor that traverses half of Earth which includes most of eastern Asia, and the Pacific Ocean.
It would be visible in India, some of the Japanese islands, China and Pacific Ocean. The eclipse would
begin with the sunrise in the western part of India, travel to eastern part of India, cross to Mynamar
(Burma), small islands of Japan and China. Surat, Indore, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Varanasi and Patna are
some of the cities lie close to the central part of the totality. In China duration of the eclipse will be
about 5 minutes. So thousands of eclipse watchers would flood China. In India, eclipses are still
considered as bad omens. This would be also a fertile occasion for doomsday prophets,
pseudoscientists and psedospiritualists to make all kinds of predictions. Perhaps these triple eclipses
could get associated with failure of monsoon and economic recession. So this month I would delve on
archaeoastronomical aspects of lunar and solar eclipses which could be discovered in Goa by mining
into certain rituals, beliefs and customs. Footprints of humans in Goa have been archaeologically traced
back to about 60000 to 100000 years before present (YBP). This is based mostly on typological
analysis of stone tools. A more precise estimate would be available from IBM-National geographic’s
ambitious genographic project. The most ancient mitochondrial DNA would be able to tell us the story
of Goa’s original inhabitants. The climate changed drastically in the pleistocene and warmer periods
began. With plentiful of game, fish, edible plants, roots, fruits, tubers-the hunter food gatherer stage of
humans in Goa had adequate food security. But there was fear of darkness and the unknown. What
could have been the reaction of the pre-historic hunter food gatherers in Goa to lunar and solar
eclipses?. The anthropology of eclipses tells us that across the world these astrogeometrical phenomena
elicited almost similar responses. Primitive hunters could not predict the eclipses and viewed such
phenomena as cosmic mysteries and magic. During daytime they would expect brilliant sunlight but all
of a sudden a solar eclipse would begin and darkness would engulf the earth. Those who watched this
phenomena would definitely consider it as a bad omen and seek shelter. Obliteration and extinction of
irradiance or light meant losing context of familiar surroundings. Primitive hunter-food gatherers could
distinguish between natural cloud cover obliterating the sunlight or moonlight and the envelopment of
solar or lunar discs. Partial, total , annular-all types of eclipses reduce the flux of light reaching the
earth. So what could be the immediate reaction of those people?. In understanding their spiritual and
material world lies the formula to demystify the present beliefs. Most of the puranic and brahminic
rituals are later day interpolations. Goa’s tribals who inherit a prehistoric nomadic or semi nomadic past
have retained the residue of the awe, wonder, shock and disbelief in their present belief system in
response to eclipses. Until the introduction of astrological knowledge in Goa, from period of
satavahanas and their feudatory Bhojas of Chandor, there was absolutely no knowledge to predict
eclipses. So the folks just anticipated the eclipses every year and were ill prepared to adjust their
normal routine. We have belief systems in Goa which are pre-brahminic and those which are post-
astrological/brahminic influenced by introduction of the mythical demons ’Rahu’ and ‘Ketu’. If we
consider the pre-brahminic, pre Rahu/Ketu period and essentially explore the local folk belief systems-
then the appearance of lunar or solar eclipses was always considered as a bad omen, a polluting
phenomena from which folks sought release, relief and purification. Folks believed that darkening of
lunar or solar discs was a sign of defacement-something which they considered as impure and
polluting. It is not known with certainty how the custom of locking oneself indoors, giving up intake of
food and taking special care of the pregnant women originated. People equated eclipse related darkness
with contamination and pollution of the environment, body and probably the spirit. They believed that
eclipses affect and impact the fetuses. They believed that if pregnant women watched the eclipses the
fetuses would be deformed. The darkening of the solar disc was connected to the fetus getting dark
marks on the face or other parts of the newly born babies. Domestic work came to a grinding halt
during eclipses because cooking food, eating, drinking was considered to be a taboo. Folks waited
patiently till the eclipses ended. For them it was a period of becoming impure, polluted due to unknown
forces. End of eclipses signaled normalcy. Folks used to take a ritual bath- in an elaborate purificatory
ceremony. Food used to be cooked afresh. Pregnant women in the house used to heave a sigh of relief
because food and drinks were forbidden to them. Modern science considers this as a superstition
because even the most sensitive instruments have not been able to detect any type of known radiation
which can affect human beings or fetuses during the eclipses except in cases where people out of
ignorance could get their eyes damaged if they look directly at a partially or totally eclipsed sun. Since
Moon merely reflects the sunlight there is no question of any effect on humans. Folks seldom knew
about frequency and recurrence of eclipses. Triple eclipses like what we would witness in July could
have bewildered them. So these customs in Goa have survived for thousands of years. I was stunned
when a few years ago I received a phone call from a young Christian woman, a first class science post
graduate and teacher. She was carrying her second child and wished to know whether the eclipse would
affect her. She was afraid and had decided to sit at home instead of traveling to her workplace. I had to
patiently explain that eclipses seem to affect Indians more than any other people. Americans and
Europeans would carry their normal businesses even when their countries would pass through the
eclipse zone. My wife experienced two eclipses when she was pregnant but went about her routine
without any anxiety. She had a normal, healthy baby. But the taboos associated with eclipses are deeply
rooted in Goan psyche and there is no difference between educated and illiterate people. If we consider
the post-astrological, brahminic period, then we can see that a lot of rituals came to be associated with
eclipses. The royal astrologers extracted their pound of flesh from their mentors. The tantriks jumped at
the opportunity. We come across royal grants from period of Badami Chalukyas, in Goa and in
surrounding region, which specifically mention about special ceremonies and rituals performed by the
kings to avoid bad omen. There is no doubt that the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Kadambas and the
Vijayanagara kings made special grants during solar eclipses because these take place on ‘no moon
day’ or Amavasyas. They used to donate entire villages, lands or silver and gold coins to the Brahmins
to appease the deities and avoid the undesirable effects of solar eclipses. It is natural to distinguish
between lore of solar and lunar eclipses. Solar eclipses were taken much more seriously. Only total
lunar eclipses scared the folks because many a times the disc of moon appears to produce a peculiar
reddish glow. Although annular solar eclipses are relatively rare-such phenomena produced disbelief
and fear among the folks. There is no information about the beginning of the practice to view the solar
eclipse in a brass or copper pan filled with cowdung slurry or reddish pigment (kumkum). But in Goa
generally people avoid looking at even the reflection of the eclipsed sun. There was a strong
Arabic/Muslim presence in pre-Portuguese Goa but we don’t know much about their positive influence
on local population. Islam has a very positive attitude towards the eclipses. Muslims view eclipses as a
normal natural phenomena, manifestation of the power of Allah and offer special prayers till the
eclipse ends. Christanity does not support superstitions associated with eclipses but it is a different
story in Goa. The bible has ‘crucifixion eclipse’ associated with darkness which fell on earth after
crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Some scholars have identified it with a lunar eclipse. That’s all what
Christians could say about eclipses. So we have different belief systems now in Goa based on
archaeoastronomical traditions which view lunar and solar eclipses differently. Modern astronomy has
fully demystified solar and lunar eclipses. But somewhere in the psyche of majority of Goans is hidden
that primeval fear of the unknown. It is this inerasable residue of past which explains taboos and
purificatory rituals so popular even in this progressive century. Don’t heed the doomsday prophets.
Eclipses yield knowledge-so people should benefit from scientific facts from triple eclipses this month
instead of falling prey to irrational fears. In Goa they could get in touch with Association of Friends of
Astronomy any time this month for more information on triple eclipses.

*Part VIII, August 2009 (in Press)*

The festival rich month of Shravana is the fifth one in the Hindu calendar. Some of most interesting
Hindu festivals –Narali Pornima, Nag Panchami are celebrated during this month. These are based on
ancient ecotheological precepts and practices. The ‘Narali Pornima’ festival originated from the
understanding of the south west monsoon and the turbulence in the Arabian sea. But actually it can be
seen as one of the ‘Water worship’ ritual- a tribute to magic of Earth’s hydrosphere and the
hydrological cycle. Offerings are made to the ocean by seafarers and fishing community. The festival
date doesn’t synchronize with the cycle of marine turbulence but people believe that the sea would get
calmer after the festival. The month of Shravana begins this year after the conclusion of Total Solar
Eclipse on July 22. Archaeoastronomically we need to look at the ancient practice of Sun worship
during this monsoon month. Although a special day- Ratha Saptami or Surya jayanti is earmarked for
the worship of Lord Surya- folks choose to consider all the Sundays in Shravana as days of “Sun
worship’, a practice locally known as ‘Aitar pujap’. The origin of this ritual may be pre-historic but the
influence of Goa’s ancient Sun worshippers –the Maga Brahmins can not be ruled out. Since most of
the days during the monsoon are overcast with cloud cover, with little chances of Sun coming out of the
clouds –why the folks choose the Sundays of only this month to worship the Sun god?. Rathasaptami
falls on Seventh day of the bright half of the Hindu month Magha which is a bright month-just before
the summer truly sets in. But unlike Magha-the month of Shravana shows a hide and seek between the
Sun and the dark monsoon clouds. Shravana is also the month when maximum number of rainbows
spanning the sky could be expected. The famous Marathi poet Trayambka Bapuji Thomare alias
Balakavi has aptly described the Sharvana skyscapes in his immortal picturesque poem-
‘Shravanmas’(Month of Shravana). He wrote ‘ Kshanat yete sarasar shirvae, Kshanat firuni un pade,
Varati khali indradhanucha gof duheri vinalase’ ( it showers for a spilt second and low again the Sun
comes out, the double garland of rainbow is woven across land and sky). On every Sunday during the
Sharvana, in Goa, folks bring the white leaves of ‘Shiravad’ tree and make a leaf dome out of these.
This is worshipped on a platform as a symbol of Sun god. Mainly the women perform the worship.
Before the Sun sets in a special offering is prepared for the deity. This includes pieces of coconut or
roasted seeds of jackfruit pounded with turmeric leaves and salt. The platform is then ceremoniously
taken out with ringing of the bells and kept near the Tulasi vrindavan (Sacred basil plant). According to
local custom every newly married woman need to follow this practice at least during the first year of
the marriage. She is supposed to offer different baked preparations to appease the Sun god. In some
places women used to recite folk songs to honour the Sun god but this practice is very rare and almost
extinct now. The weekly Sun Worship rituals during Shravana could be seen from another angle. After
two months of monsoon people look forward to brilliant Sun shine. They are eager to have brighter
days. The high humidity and dampness during the first two months of monsoon cause a lot of damage
to household objects and food commodities. Clothes do not dry. Various types of epidemics and
illnesses spread. Just as people in western hemisphere hate the cold winter and crave for the warm
summer- in the Konkan experiencing heavy rainfall-people expected a break. They watched the hide
and seek game between the Sun and the clouds. They were mesmerized by the colourful rainbows.
Iconographically Sun God is shown to be drawn in a chariot by Seven horses representing obviously
the seven colours of the rainbow. The peculiar magic of the play between light and shadow, radiance
and moisture, monotony and polychromy dazzled the folks. Therefore compared to any other month in
the Hindu calendar they chose all the Sundays of the month of Shravana for the ritual of ‘ Aitar pujap’.
Incidentally, Shravana is followed by Bhadrapada-a pre harvest month. The major festival in the rice
growing region of India during this month is Ganesh chaturthi-worship of Lord Ganesha, the patron
deity of the biosphere. Sun is known to drive all chlorophyllous primary production on earth. Plants
with foliage grow very fast during the monsoon but their maximum growth occurs towards the end of
the monsoon, beginning from month of Shravana with increase in the duration and intensity of the
Solar radiation flux. Folks had noticed the spurt in luxuriant vegetation and attributed it to the radiant
power of the Sun. A logical consequence was the worship of seasonal biodiversity in the form of the
decorative display of local fruits and vegetables in the form of ‘Matoli’ in front of the installed idols of
Lord Ganesha. Why the newly married women were bound to perform the Sun worship during
Shravana?. The answer may lie in our pre historic past- the hunter-food gatherer stage of our cultural
evolution. In primitive societies there used to be a simple division of labour. The women roamed in the
forests and grasslands in search of edible plants, tubers, nuts, seeds. The men hunted wild game and
fowl. It was impossible for women to gather food during the first two months of heavy monsoon
rainfall. Probably the women were permitted to come out and see the Sun after the intensity of
monsoon became less. Women make offerings of baked food to Sun God precisely because they had
pioneered gathering of food blessed by abundant sunlight. Even to light a fire for cooking they needed
the dry firewood-which is impossible without ample sunlight in nature. Offerings of baked food
therefore signal two developments in–food gathering and cooking- which provided security to the
household. A newly married woman lays down the foundation to start a new family-therefore the ritual
of Shravana Sun worship was prescribed for her symbolically to link Sun with domestic food security
and overall comfort. Another unique archaeoastronomical aspect is the relatively less composite
popular worship of “navagrahas’ ( nine planets) in Goa which in modern astronomy we can’t accept as
planets. The Hindus recognise Ravi (Sun), Som (Moon) , Mangal (Mars) , Budh (Mercury), Guru
(Jupiter), Shukara (Venus), Shani (Saturn) , Rahu and Ketu as “grahas’ or planets. Among these, Ravi
or Sun is a Star and Moon is just a satellite of Earth. Rahu and Ketu are just postulated entities. In Goa,
before a major religious function or house warming ceremony or to ward of evils -people perform
“navagaraha homa or shanti’ to appease these entities. That’s the only time to invoke the blessings of
these “navagrahas’. Goa had a cult of Saptamatrika worship. The tantriks depended on oracles based on
the nine planets. So it is possible that some pre Portuguese temples could have installed the images of
navagrahas. Such carvings have been found at Sarnath, Khiching and Bhuvaneshwar (Orissa) ,
Kanakandighi (West Bengal) and Gangeykondcholapuram (Tamil Nadu). Although temples in Goa
have beautiful carvings of twelve constellations, ten reincarnations and 24 forms of Lord Vishnu – the
navagraha panels are missing. There are no temples dedicated to Shani as well. Why the ancient Goans
did not give much importance to the worship of ‘navagrahas”?. One reason could be the cloudy sky
conditions. Almost for five months Goa can not view the night sky due to poor observational
conditions. People worshipped Sun and Moon and adored Venus as a morning star. But there was
neither fear nor fascination of Mercury, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Rahu and Ketu were confined to the
period of eclipses. This brings us to the conclusion that under tropical hot, humid, monsoon conditions-
archaeoastronomical beliefs and practices show a different evolutionary pathway. Goa emerges as a
region of Sun worshippers because the overcast sky conditions and high humidity makes life miserable.
Other heavenly bodies were relegated to the background because unlike people in the dry northern
plains, the people in the monsoon washed country had a different perception and perspective of the
seasonal sky. The tradition of “aitar pujap’ during shravan clearly shows the overwhelming dependance
of Goans on solar energy. By incorporating such practices Goans attempted to identify themselves with
the cosmic cycles. This is the real beauty of Goan culture. When we attempt to demystify the festivals
and rituals the archaeoastronomical background is revealed. During the three weeks of present month
thousands of families in Goa would make offerings to Sun God without knowing the hidden
connections between the ancient ritual , our food security and heliocentric cosmic existence.
This document was posted on July 27, 2009.
The series would conclude in December 2009 with final and XII th part.
© 2009, All Rights Reserved by the author.
Material from this document should not be used/quoted without the
permission of the writer.
Contact address:nandkamat@gmail.com