Ecology Flow: Chapter 52, 56, 55, 53 (Population Ecology); September 28 (Evolution): Chapter 22 SEPTEMBER 18, 2013 Introduction

to Ecology -Do not confuse ecology with environmentalism -Interview of Dr. David Schindler Ecology-scientific study of the interactions between the organism and the environment (Slide 2) Trees are cut and a stream is dammed. Beavers build lodges across a stream to build a house. American Beaver (Castor canadensis) w/ large incisor teeth Interactions determine the distribution and abundance of organisms (slide 2) Early ecology was primarily descriptive and on natural history. Can be traced back to the Greek thinkers Plant ecology developed early. Early ecologists studied plant associations (plant communities), which gave rise to community ecology Victor E. Shelford* Community succession Henry C. Cowles Succession in sand dunes Ernst Haeckel Animal ecologist came up with the name ecology [in 1869] Charles S. Elton population ecology of invasive species animal ecology took off later animals as parasites (blood flukes in Schistosoma; intestinal nematodes passing out in the feces) animals that feed on fecal material (dung beetle) Cannibalism; a male becomes a meal (praying mantis eats its mate) The family that preys together, slays together. Marine animal ecology flourished Animals with economic and medical importance were studied copepod that parasitized horn shark off copepod paratisized by monogeneans Parasitism larva of avocado seed moth (Stenoma catenifer) Cotesia sp. (wasp): lay eggs (parasitoids: lay eggs on other insects) in the avocado seed moth parasitoid wasp is parasitized by a hyperparasitoid wasp which is also parasitized by a superparasitoid wasp Rise of modern ecology G. Evelyn Hutchinson* n-dimensional niche Father of modern limnology born in the UK and studied in Cambridge; polymath at Yale (1903-1991) Eugene P. Odum* Father of modern ecology Wrote the First college-level textbook on ecology: Fundamentals of Ecology (1953) ecosystem ecology energy flow "The ecosystem is greater than the sum of its parts" studied under Victor E. Shelford at Illinois 1940: arrived at University of Georgia; Set-up the Institute of Ecology in UGa later renamed Eugene P. Odum School of Ecology Fundamental assumptions 1. the ecosystem is the basic unit of nature 2. biological diversity increases stability 3. homeostasis is important at all levels of the biological spectrum 4. "The ecosystem is greater than the sum of its parts" 5. reductionist scientific methods cannot adequately explain living systems Howard T. Odum* Energy systems model Silver-Spring model First complete analysis of a natural ecosystem passive electrical equivalent of Energy Systems Language storage icon Environment, Power and Society (1976) One of Hutchinson's ecological heirs Armando A. de la Cruz Student of Eugene P. Odum Detritus as a major component of ecosystems Particulate organic detritus in a Georgia salt marsh-estuarine ecosystems Borrowed the name detritus from Geology Modern ecology includes observation and experimentations Microcosms (Populations of Dapnia magna in plexiglass chambers on the lab bench) Mesocosm (greenhouse experiments; fencing an experimental ecosystem; BioCON) Large-scale experiment on the effects of elevated CO2 concentrations Whole ecosystem approach (Experimental Lakes Area, ELA, in Canada) Bloom of Cyanobacteria when Phosphorous is present in the Lake (226)

SEPTEMBER 20, 2013 *Recall the experiment of Schindler in the Experimental Lakes Area (ELA) Lake 226S was fertilized with C and N- no bloom of cyanobacteria Lake 226N was fertilized with C, N and P- bloom of cyanobacteria Oligotrophic lake low in nutrients Hungabee lake (canadian rockies) Eutrophic lake high in nutrients low water quality; poor clarity low levels of dissolved oxygen Fish die off and fish have an off flavor cultural Eutrophication Lake Taihu Mercury levels in water were increased experimentally in mesocosms (enclosures) inorganic Hg became methylmercury methylmercury gets inside fishes and the people who eat it get sick Case Study: Nutrient Cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest In one valley, trees were cut down while the valley was treated with herbicides The research team constructed a dam to monitor water loss and minerals Water loss is 30-40% higher than in control Nitrate was lost by 60x more Results show how human activity can affect ecosystems Nutrient cycling ina forest ecosystem studied since 1963 Modern Ecology More experimental and quantitative More long-term and large scale Multidisciplinary Enhanced by powerful computing, statistical analysis. data is shared and disseminated instruments are extensively used Secchi disks measures depth of effective light penetration in water (clarity) Portable meters can measure abiotic factors in situ Dissolved oxygen meter, pH meter, thermometer Can all be measured by Multi-parameter Benchtop Meter Has become very expensive River Thames in Britain Heavily polluted before but is now very clean Stations are set up for monitoring water quality YSI data sonde measures multiple parameters s/a DO, cyanobacteria growth, turbidity, pH, ammonia, etc. Stations need not be maned Water quality data is recorded and transmitted via telemetry Standard Plankton net Back to Introduction to Ecology (given slides) Biotic and Abiotic factors influence species distribution Abiotic factors temperature, water, light, nutrients, rock, and soil Biotic factors Predation, herbivory, competition Rediscovery of nearly extinct harlequin toad (Atelopus varius) in Costa Rica What environmental factors limit their geographic distribution? What factors (food, pathogens) affect population size Why are amphibians in general, disappearing world-wide? Most likely due to a fungus, Batrachochytridium dendrobatidis Scope ecological reserach Organismal ecology studies how an organism's structure and physiology meet environmental challenges Population Ecology Population- a group of individuals of the same species living in an area w/c can interbreeed Population ecology-focuses on factors affecting population size over time growth of locusts exponential growth in African elephants J-shaped growth-exponential growth S-shaped growth-logarithmic growth Bacterial growth curve Community ecology Community-group of populations of different species in an area at least 2 species deals with the whole array of biotic factors interacting in a community ex. acacia tree and ants (Pseudomyrmex) Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycle take a look at the overview of energy and nutrient dynamics of an ecosystem Landscape ecology landscape-mosaic of connected ecosystems

Global ecology Biosphere-global ecosystem; sum of all ecosystems Global ecology examinse the influence of energy and materials across the biosphere emergent properties at each level population dispersion Uniform, clumped, random Community succcession Community interactions Community species diversity Ecosystem (energy flow, nutrient cycling) SEPTEMBER 25, 2013 Biosphere thin layer of all ecosystems, difficult to see edgewise from outer space Situation: Corals die (bleaching of the maze coral Meandrina meandrites) Cattles eat corn which are planted where rainforests once stood, increased CO2 content increased CO2 traps heat and acidifies seas As the seas heat up, the polar ice caps melt Figure 54.30. Tagging a gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus May be a carrier of H5N1 Avian flu is a highly contagious virus Ecologists study the potential spread of H5N1 from Asia to North america through migrating birds such as the gyrfalcon END OF CHAPTER 52 Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Global Change Scientists have named and described 1.8 million species Biologists estimate 10-200 million species Dr. Bruce M. Beehler studied the wattled smoky honeyeater Melipotes carolae Tropical deforestation is threatening this species Western New Guinea International Institute of Species Exploration Lesula Monkey, Cercopithecus lomamiensis Lyre sponge, Chondrocladia lyra. Found in very deep waters, carnivorous Eternal light mushroom, Mycena luxaeterna, is bioluminescent Monitor lizard, Varanus bitatawa Hydraena ateneo, a newly discovered beetle Today, we perhaps lose one species every single day Conservation Biology Integrates Ecology, Physiology, Molecular Biology, Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Note concept 56.1 3 levels of biodiversity Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity Genetic diversity Comprises genetic variation within a populations and between populations Source of variations that enable populations to adapt to environmental changes Tale of the banana Ironically, the banana has had no sex for a thousand years It was first propagated in jungles of Southeast Asia around 10,000 y.a. Originated from Musa acuminata, whose hard seeds make its fruits inedible Hunter-gatherers came upon mutant individuals that have since been cultivated vegatatively. Mutant bananas are seedless, thus edible, but sterile It has been at an evolutionary standstill and is genetically old and decrepit Lacks genetic diversity, hence is vulnerable to Panama disease and black Sigatoka, wherein fungicides are ineffective. Breeding programs are using disease resistant wild varieties are expensive Sequence the genome of inedible wild bananas to find resistant genes t hat could be introduced into the tissues of cells from edible varieties Global collaboration led by INIBAP based in France Overcome concerns about genetically modified bananas Bananas are the 4th food crop next to wheat, rice and corn The fate of bananas is the fate of millions The demand for more bananas has led to loss of genetic diversity Why evolutionary geneticists could go bananas Genomic evolution is rarely observed Genome of sterile bananas has been relatively unchanged In contrast, wild bananas continue evolving Comparing genomes can reveal how genomes change over time Was the forbidden fruit bitten by Eve really an apple? "Banana: The fate of the fruit that has changed the world" by Dan Koeppel

Species diversity Important in maintaining structure of communities and food webs Endangered species, in danger of becoming extinct throughout Threatened species, likely to become endangered in the future Vulnerable, rare or common Hundred Hearbeat Club Proposed by Edward O. Wilson Lord of the Ants in Harvard Memoirs: Naturalist Prolific in writing. 2012. The Social Conquest of the Earth Species listed are critically endangered Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi Yangtze river dolphin, freshwater dolphin. Lipotes vexillifer Extinct in 2006 Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sonadicius Local extinction of one species can have a negative impact of the ecosystem Pteropus mariannus is an important polinator Loss of species also means the loss of genes Rosy periwinkle can cure some cancer Ecosystem Diversity Ex. Wetland ecosystem. Fig. 52-18c, 52-18f What are wetlands for Serve as havens for biodiversity Filter off pollutants Help prevent heavy flooding Store nutrients For the adventurous, where to to get wet and wild, to get stuck in the mud, to come face to face with no-see-ums and other varmints To get away from oneself Fig 56.3 On Friday. Threats to Biodiversity SEMPTEMBER 27, 2013 Threats to Biodiversity Habitat destruction The greatest threat to biodiversity habitat destruction and fragmentation lead to loss of biodiversity Prairies turning to human settlements Destruction of the Amazon forest Introduced species moving species to new geographic regions they may spread rapidly without their native predators, parasites and pathogens disrupt the adopted community Accidental species introduction brown tree snake arrived in Guam as a "stowaway" Originated from Australia *Mark Jaffe writes about it in "And No Birds Sing" Counteroffensive involved dead toxic mice Introduction of species with good intentions kudzu (Pueraria lobata), fast growing invasive species Golden apple snail Pomacea canaliculata from Taiwanwas intended to provide protein for Filipinos. Might have displaced the native species Pila conica Overharvesting gathering of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations to recover large organism with low reproductive rates are especially vulnerable elephant ivory tusks DNA analysis can help identify source of illegally obtained animal products overfishing has decimated wild fish populations like North Atlantic bluefin tuna Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) are also hunted Global Change alterations in climate, atmospheric chemistry and broad ecological systems acid precipitation contains HNO3 and H2SO4 coming from Fossil fuels it kills trees and other lake-dwelling organisms it also defaces stone art

Population ecology focuses on population size, genetic diversity and critical habitat 2 approaches 1.) Small population approach Considers conditions that make small populations become extinct The extinction vortex: evolutionary implications of small populations Key factor driving extinction vortex is loss of genetic variation Decline of Tympanuchus cupido it has been proven that low genetic variation is in fact how the extinction vortex works Minimum Viable Population smallest number of individuals that can keep a population growing Effective Population size based on populations breeding potential Ne=(4NfNm)/(Nf+Nm) Nf is # of females and Nm is the # of males case study, grizzly bear populations. It is estimated that 100 bears would have 95% chance of surviving for 200 years 400 grizzly bears in YSNP Urus arctos horribilis 2.) Declining Population approach Emphasizes the environmental factors Focuses on threatened and endangered populations Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis Red-colored woodpecker Pocoides borealis requires living trees in mature pine forests low undergrowth Species had been forced into decline by habitat SEE JIAN NOTES

SEPTEMBER 28, 2013 EVOLUTION Book: Portraits of Great American Scientists by Elizabeth A. Gilbert Geerat J. Vermeli born in the Netherlands and went to Princeton University, PhD in Yale after he was a high school valedictorian. top malacologist (studies snails and mollusks); well published evolutionary "arms race" editor/ associate editor of Science, Evolution, Paleobiology unusual childhood glaucoma; sees gastropod mollusks with his hands Distinguished professor in Marine ecology and paleoecology at UC-Davis Pigeons have an array of variations in color, shape and form Nature selected which individuals would be able to reproduce Reproduction-->Ecology-->Evolution--->Diversity Figure1.UN09 mother-of-pearl plant (ghost plant) [Graptopetalum paraguayense] native to northeastern Mexico fresh succulent leaves store water grows in crevices of vertical rock walls, where there is little soil to hold rainwater. also found growing in Baguio City Namib desert: a sea of sand Welwitschia mirabilis, an endemic gymnosperm; tweeblaarkanniedood Onymacris unguicularis (Coleoptera), darkling beetle; the headstanding beetle and fogbasking beetle allows water droplets to condense in its legs to obtain water there are 350,000 species of beetles (Coleoptera); 3 pairs of legs, hard outer surface and 2 pairs of wings Why are there so many beetles? Because they have various adaptations to the environment 3 observations unity of life remarkable ways by w/c an organisms are suited to the environment diversity Essay in 1973 in American Biology Teacher by Theodosius Dobzhansky, an evolutionary biologist and geneticist "Nothing in Biology makes sense except in the light of evolution" Overview: Endless forms most beautiful, Origin of Species by Charles Darwin Darwin noted that current species are descendants of ancestral species Evolution can be defined by descent with modification Species were created and are immutable (unchanging); view held by the Old testament See slides for more details (lol) Wild mustard

SEPTEMBER 30, 2013

[AFTER THE BONUS] Create fewer large reserved or more numerous small reserves? Smaller reserves may be more realistic and may slow the spread of disease throughout a population Large for ranging animals Zoned reserves Costa Rica has been successful in making zone reserves Some marine zoned reserves in the Fiji islands. It even improves fishing success in nearby areas Florida Keys National Marine sanctuary Human caused changes in the environment include (part of global change) Nutrient enrichment Harvest of agricultural crops export nutrients from the agricultural ecosystem Agriculture leads to the depletion of nutrients in the should Fertilizers add Nitrogen and other nutrients to the agricultural ecosystem [Harmful because nutrients is either gained or lost by the ecosystem] *Critical Load: the amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity Agricultural runoff and sewage lead to phytoplankton blooms (HABs) in the Atlantic Ocean. Fish kills cased by Pfiesteria piscicida triggered by high nitrogen levels from pig farms *Decomposition of phytoplankton blooms causes "dead zones" due to low oxygen levels Show photographs! Explain situation. Toxins in the environment (see slides) just additional info PCB-PolychlorinatedBiphenyls Herring gulls of the Great Lakes lay eggs with PCBs 5000x greater than that found in phytoplankton An example of Biological Magnification Disrupts Calcium deposition in eggshells DDT-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson brought the attention of the biomagnification of DDT in birds DDT was eventually banned in the US in 1971 It also kills malaria vectors CO2 levels. Figure 56.28 Greenhouse effect OCTOBER 2, 2013

Chapter 55: Ecosystems and Restoration Ecology Overview: Cool ecosystems An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as the abiotic factors eye-in the-sky photograph of Taylor Valley and the area Why is this ice in the Antarctic blood red? Blood falls in Taylor glacier Very cold but water is unfrozen since it is hypersaline No oxygen and no light High in sulfate, iron, and Carbon Locked in for 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 years Below the glacier; 17 species of Chemoautotrophic bacteria metabolize sulfate and iron Water seeps upward and the ferrous iron is reoxidized to ferric iron upon exposure to air. Ferric iron makes the water bloody red Hence, the glacier is blood red due to the ecosystem of bacteria below A desert world. A desert spring ecosystem Megan Young is also an ecosystem (lol) temperature, pH, water, biological gases, nutrients, elements, metabolites urea and a bit of ammonia bacteria, parabasalids, small arthropods, roundworms, etc. Regardless of an ecosystems size, its dynamics involve 2 main processes: Energy flow and nutrient cycling Energy flows through the ecosystem while nutrients are recycled

Ecologists study the transformations of energy and matter within ecosystems Conservation of Energy. Laws of physics and chemistry apply to ecosystems 1st Law of thermodynamics: Energy is neither created nor destroyed Energy enters an ecosystem as solar radiation and is kept as heat 2nd Law of thermodynamics: Entropy of the universe always increases In an ecosystem, energy conversions are not completely efficient The amount of energy in the universe has been fixed since the beginning of time and will remain as such until the end of time The total energy content of the universe is constant Autotrophs build molecules themselves using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis Heterotrophs depend on biosynthetic outputs of other organisms Note energy flow and nutrient cycle Detritivores and decomposers are consumers that derive their energy from detritus, nonliving organic matter that is breaking down Detrivores are invertebrates that reduce the size of detritus example: termites, ants, millipedes, earthworms and dung beetles Scat-animal feces Fungi are decomposers Concept 55.2 In a few ecosystems are chemoautotrophic bacteria; a deep-sea hydrothermal vent community; polochaetes Only a small fraction of solar energy actually strikes photosynthetic organisms, and even less of a usable wavelength Only 51% is absorbed at the surface 7% of UVR reaches the surface of the Earth; 45% visible light Wavelength of light are the most effective in driving photosynthesis Gross Primary Production- Total primary production Net Primary Production-GPP- energy used by primary production for respiration (R) Only NPP is available to consumers Ecosystems vary greatly in NPP and contribution of the total NPP of the Earth Tropical rainforests, estuaries and coral reefs are among the most productive ecosystems per unit area Marine ecosystems are relatively unproductive per unit area but contribute much due to their size Net ecosystem production (NEP) is a measure of the total biomass accumulation during a given period. NEP is gross primary production minus the total respiration of all organisms Estimated by comparing the net flux of CO2 and O2 in an ecosystem, two molecules connected by photosynthesis. The release of O2 by a system is an indication that it is also storing CO2 NOTE THE MEASUREMENT OF OCEAN PRODUCTION Primary production in aquatic environments Light limitation; Photic zone- Depth where light penetrates Nutrient limitation; usually Nitrogen and Phosphorus Figure 55.8 Experiments in Sargasso Sea In lakes phosphorus limits cyanobacteria growth In some areas, sewage runoff has caused eutrophications which almost always result to bad things such as fish kills Fig 55.9 Various adaptations help plance access limiting nutrients from soil Secondary production; Production efficiency (note equation) Fig 55.10 Trophic efficiency; it is usually about 10% An idealized pyramid of net production Plants can only fix 1% Eating plants get 10% of energy Eating 1* consumers only 10% Approximately 0.1% of chemical energy fixed by photosynthesis reaches the tertiary consumer "Food Matters" and "Fast Food Nation" Mark Bittman Cows emit CO2 and methane