ISOMETRIC FORCE DEVELOPMENT GROUPS IN ATHLETES

A J. JANJIC ,2 DRAGAN V. DODER,1 JAN J. BABIAK,1 NATAS

1

OF

SOME MUSCLE

AND

. DODER2 RADOSLAVA Z

Provincial Institute for Sport of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, Serbia; 2Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology Clinic, Novi Sad, Serbia; and 3Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Clinic for Infections Diseases, Novi Sad, Serbia

ABSTRACT
. Isometric force , NJ, and Doder, RZ Doder, DV, Babiak, JJ, Janjic development of some muscle groups in athletes. J Strength Cond Res 26(1): 293298, 2012In a large sample of both male and female athletes, subdivided by age and sex, a development curve of ) was analyzed for hand exors, upperisometric muscule force (F body exors and extensors, and knee extensors (PDS). A sample of 1,857 male and 1,009 female athletes, aged 830 years, subdivided by their age and sex, was used to measure the mean values of isometric muscle force of certain muscle groups by way of 5 topologically dened tests. Based on the results, isometric ) development curves are shown and analyzed for muscle force (F the right-hand and left-hand (PLS) exors, upper-body exors (PTR), upper-body extensors (OTR), and knee extensors (ONO). The application of certain statistical programs gave rise to equations of the relationship between isometric force and age. The maximum mean value of PLS was chosen as the reference value or the gold standard, with which PTR, OTR, and ONO were subsequently compared. The relationships were 1:1:1:2.8:5.9 (for male athletes), and 1:1:1.3:3.2:5.2 (for female athletes). The newly derived relationship was recognized as the canon. The results may have practical application in athletes tness and conditioning. Every topologically dened muscle force has its own patterns and rules that should be closely followed in the training process, because any generalization may lead to false conclusions.

their effort not only toward theoretical research but also toward the design and construction of apparatus for taking measurements of the activity of isolated muscles or muscle groups. A number of military, civic, medical, and sports institutions around the world have devoted their time and resources to research on muscle force, which is most essential when it comes to human (physical) activity. The aim of this study was to use a large sample, divided based on age and sex, to analyze the curve of isometric force of hand exors, upper-body exors and extensors, and knee extensors. An equation was calculated for each trend of development.

METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem

The experimental approach to the studys problem was designed to explore the dynamics of dynamometric force development in athletes of both sexes. Dynamometric muscle force was measured in the left hand, right hand, upper-body exors, upper-body extensors, and knee extensors. After data analyses, the equation of dynamometric force development was presented for participants 830 years, for every age. Ratios between individual muscle forces for each age were calculated. The force of the left hand was used as the reference point with which all the other muscle groups were compared. These ratios were dened as the canon (gold standard) of muscle force in humans.
Subjects

KEY WORDS canon force, female athletes, male athletes INTRODUCTION

ettinger and Muller were among the rst to stress the signicance of isometric muscle force (15). They were later followed by a great number of Scandinavian, British, American, Japanese, and Canadian authors, who have published work related to voluntary muscle isometric force. These scientists directed
Address correspondence to Dr. Dragan V. Doder, dodersport@yahoo.com. 26(1)/293298 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association

One thousand eight hundred sixty-seven male and 1,010 female athletes, aged 830 years, took part in this study, on the condition that they had been involved in a sport for at least 2 years immediately before the study. Male athletes aged 830 years were divided into 23 subgroups. Age and the number of atheletes (in parentheses) are as follows: 8 (39), 9 (44), 10 (60), 11 (62), 12 (88), 13 (121), 14 (136), 15 (170), 16 (230), 17 (270), 18 (171), 19 (109), 20 (81), 21 (55), 22 (44), 23 (46), 24 (38), 25 (37), 26 (32), 27 (28), 28 (24), 29 (23), and 30 (22). The participants recruited were involved in various individual and team sports and activities. The sports played and the number of male athletes tested are as follows: handball, 291; karate, 281; wrestling, 218; football, 187; kayaking, 157; swimming, 154; tennis, 121; basketball, 94;
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Isometric Force Development

athletics, 82; volleyball, 69; judo, 28; children sport school, 46; boxing, 26; gymnastics, 32; rowing, 27; weightlifting, 16; waterpolo, 14; taekwondo, 13; and table tennis, 11. Female athletes, aged 830 years, were divided into 23 subgroups, based on their age. Age and the number of atheletes (in parentheses) are as follows: 8 (19), 9 (25), 10 (81), 11 (44), 12 (72), 13 (83), 14 (81), 15 (89), 16 (82), 17 (64), 18 (66), 19 (41), 20 (32), 21 (25), 22 (26), 23 (28) 24 (25), 25 (22), 26 (28), 27 (25), 28 (21), 29 (16), and 30 (15). The number of women athletes tested and sports involved in are as follows: handball, 193; karate, 188; kayaking, 88; swimming, 98; tennis, 151; basketball, 64; athletics, 68; volleyball, 153; judo, 27; children sport school, 51; gymnastics, 17; rowing, 4; taekwondo, 2; and table tennis, 6. The athletes had also taken part in various sports and activities. The Provincial Institute for Sport conducts all its studies in accordance with the law. All the participants were informed of the procedures and possible risks and gave their informed consent personally or had their parents do so if they were under 18 years of age.
Procedures

Figure 2. Isometric force of upper-body exors.

Topological Tests/Assessments. Five topologically dened tests of isometric muscle force were applied: (a) isometric force of right-hand exors (PDS), (b) isometric force of left-hand exors (PLS) (Figure 1), (c) isometric force of upper-body exors (PTR) (Figure 2), (d) isometric force of upper-body extensors (OTR) (Figure 3), and (e) isometric force of knee extensors (both legs) (ONO) (Figure 4). In the standing position, the athlete includes a handful of two grips (22 mm diameter) and trying to squeeze them closer. Muscle grip force is transferred through the probe to the computer. The measurement was done with the left and right hands. In the sitting position, the athlete drew the belt forward located in the upper arm. The belt muscle force was transferred through the probe to the computer.

In the sitting position, the respondent drew the belt back that was located across the back under the arm. The belt force was transmitted by the probe to the computer. The athlete was in a sitting position. The ratio of segments hand-torso, thigh-lower leg, and foot was 90. The athletes pushed their feet, and the muscle strength force over the belt which was on the hips was transmitted by the probe to the computer. Reliability indices are high, thanks to the denition of motor tasks, and precision of the measuring devices. The accuracy of the instrument is 62% (15). Force is measured in newtons (N). Some authors (16) agree that abdominal muscles, back extensors, leg and arm extensors, and also big chest muscles best represent isometric muscle force in an individual. The testing was done at the Provincial Institute for Sport in Novi Sad, Serbia, on a dynamometric apparatus and was performed in accordance with basic measuring protocols. It took place in the morning when the temperature was

Figure 1. Isometric force of hand exors.

Figure 3. Isometric force of upper-body extensors.

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Figure 4. Isometric force of knee extensors (both legs).

1821C and the relative humidity was 4060%. All the athletes were tested immediately before the beginning of their training season. Isometric muscle force was measured by a dynamometer, manufactured by the Nikola Tesla Electrical-technical Institute in Belgrade, Serbia. The assessment consisted of 3 phases: resting period, workload period, and recovery period. Each measurement was taken 3 times, and the best attempt was recorded and saved for subsequent analyses. Additionally, the mean values for each age subgroup were calculated. The assessment protocol used in this study has been described by others (1,14).
Statistical analyses

) of the right (PDS) and left-hand exors (PLS) Figure 5. Isometric force (F by participants age (830 years). PDS (M) = right-hand exorsmale athletes, PLS (M) = left-hand exorsmale athletes, PDS (F) = right-hand exorsfemale athletes, PLS (F) = left-hand exorsfemale athletes.

the hand and age of the participant can be described by a third-order equation for male athletes and by a fourthorder equation for female athletes. Figure 5 also shows the coefcients of determination (R2), SD, and prediction coefcient (P). The equations are as follows:

Excel and Origin 6.1 computer applications were used for all statistical analyses. Arithmetic mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) is calculated for each applied variable, a polynomial equation using the trend line (regression) was calculated coefcient of determination (R2), standard deviation SD and the signicance of the prediction coefcient P , 0.0001.

M F PLS 6; 088 3:152G 0:681G 2 0:0178G 3 ; R2 0:993; SD 1; 973; P , 0:0001; M F PDS 10:262 3:996G 0:746G 2 0:019G 3 ; R2 0:993; SD 2:06; P , 0:0001; F F PLS 177:92 52:617G 5:851G 2 0:253G 3 0:004G 4 ; R2 0:991; SD 0:959; P , 0:0001; F F PDS 187:136 55:108G 6:104G 2 0:264G 3 0:004G 4 ; R2 0:994; SD 0:804; P , 0:0001:
) of Upper-Body Development Curve of Isometric Force (F Flexors

RESULTS
) of Hand Flexors Development Curve of Isometric Force (F

The results for both right-hand (PDS) and left-hand exors (PLS) are presented in Figure 5. It can be observed that ) in the right hand is similar to that of the isometric force (F left one, with slightly lower values for the left hand. As expected, male athletes had signicantly greater isometric force than female athletes had. This difference was quite moderate between the ages of 814 but was becoming more signicant with increasing age. In male athletes, isometric force steadily rose in those upto about 22 years of age and remained rather unchanged in those who were upto 30 years of age. In female athletes, maximum values were recorded in those upto the age of 18 years, after which the values steadily declined. When these development trends are expressed through the equation, the relationship between isometric force of

The results suggest that there is a steady accumulation of isometric force in those aged upto 22 years. In male participants (Figure 6), followed by a stabilization and later even slight loss of force with increasing age. In female
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Isometric Force Development

) of the upper-body exors (PTR) based on Figure 6. Isometric force (F participants age (830 years). PTR (M) = isometric force of upper-body exorsmale athletes, PTR (F) = upper-body exorsfemale athletes.

) of knee extensors (ONO) based on Figure 8. Isometric force (F participants age (830 years). ONO (M) = knee extensorsmale athletes, ONO (F) = knee extensorsfemale athletes.

participants, the isometric force of the abdominal muscles was the greatest at age 19 years and then started to deteriorate with age much faster than it did in male participants. The equation revealed the dependence of the third and fourth orders, indicating obvious differences in isometric force of upper-body exors in men vs. women, and those related to participants age. The equations are as follows:

F F PTR 236:794 67:547G 7:172G 2 0:298G 3 0:004G 4 ; R2 0:976; SD 2:12; P , 0:0001:

) of Upper-Body Development Curve of Isometric Force (F Extensors

M F PTR 36:66 10:466G 0:139G 2 0:003G 3 ; R 0:992; SD 1:73; P , 0:0001;

2

Upper-body extensor isometric force (Figure 7) in male athletes appears to increase till 22 years, when it stabilizes. In female athletes, the values are higher with age until the age of 18 years, after which they begin to decrease. Equations are dened as follows:

M F OTR 48:057 10:761G 1:847G 2 0:046G 3 ; R2 0:994; SD 1:78; P , 0:0001;

) of the upper-body extensors (OTR) based Figure 7. Isometric force (F on participants age (830 years). OTR (M) upper-body extensorsmale athletes, OTR (F) = upper-body extensorsfemale athletes.

) of different muscle groups in Figure 9. Histogram of isometric force (F male athletes at 20 years. PLS/PDS right-hand and left-hand exors, (PTR) = upper-body exors, (OTR) = upper-body extensors, (ONO) = knee extensors.

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) of different muscle groups in Figure 10. Histogram of isometric force (F female athletes at 18 years. (PDS) = right-hand exors, (PLS) = left-hand exors, (PTR) = upper-body exors, (OTR) = upper-body extensors, (ONO) = knee extensors.

F F OTR 502:494 142:256G 15:423G 2 0:65G 3 0:009G 4 ; R2 0:992; SD 3:38; P , 0:0001:

) of Knee Extensors Development Curve of Isometric Force (F

In male athletes (Figure 8), there was a steady increase in isometric force of knee extensors until 22 years of age, followed by a stabilization trend. In female athletes, an increase of isometric force of knee extensors was recorded till age 18 years, followed by a stabilization period between the ages of 18 and 21 and a consistent decrease later on. Equations reecting the dependence of isometric force on the participants age do not stray from a previous trend. In male and female athletes, it can be explained to the third and fourth orders, respectively. These equations can be dened as follows:

M F ONO 5:489 3:041G 2:495G 2 0:067G 3 ; R2 0991; SD 11:46; P , 0:000; F F ONO 953:333 259:478G 26:642G 2 1:066G 3 0:014G 4 ; R2 0:986; SD 5:882; P , 0:0001: All mathematically derived equations have a high degree of agreement with corresponding curves of isometric force development in most participants, regardless of their sex. DISCUSSION
A topologically dened dimension of isometric muscle force ) was presented here with 5 experimental measurements, 2 (F of which were indicators of isometric force of either hand (right- and left-hand exors), and the other 3 measurements

(upper-body exors and extensors, and knee extensors) were taken in a single assessment. Two assessments of the hand isometric force, one for each hand, were used for establishing the force symmetry. In an overall comparison, one can agree that sex determination can best explain the relationship between certain muscle regions. When expressed in absolute terms, male athletes exhibit greater isometric force as compared with female athletes. However, when results were expressed in relative terms, it was once again shown that men were stronger in their upper and lower extremities, whereas women demonstrated greater force of the upper-body exors and extensors. A possible explanation for these ndings could be based onthe fact that, on average, women are shorter and lighter than men are and have a relatively longer upper body and shorter legs, narrower shoulders, lower chest girth, and wider pelvic bone (6,9). Women also have a lower central point of balance and greater anterversion and proximal convergence of the femurs. Genum valgus is typical in women and is manifested by a hyperextension at the knee and the elbow joints. All of the above anthropological characteristics of women can inuence their biomechanical outlet, that is, muscle force, which can be observed in Figures 58. As for the muscle tissue, there are no major differences between genders till 89 years of age. At puberty, there is an increase in muscle mass in men because of higher testosterone concentrations, resulting in increasing muscle force and power. The absence of a similar effect of hormones in women can account for a more moderate accumulation of muscle force and power than that observed in men. Gender comparisons in the production of muscle force in this study show that there are no signicant differences in motor ability at a very young age for hand exors or extensors, upper-body extensors, or the legs. On the other hand, the opposite is true for the upper-body exors, for which signicant differences can be observed even from the earliest age measured in this study. After the age of 8 years, both genders generally improve very rapidly until 18 and 22 years of age in women and men, respectively, after which values increase much more slowly in men or begin to decrease in women. This can be explained by the softer, more exible, but less developed muscle tissue in women as compared to that in men. Joints in women are generally characterized by greater instability and exibility than in men. A relationship (canon) between certain muscle groups has been established with the left-hand exors used as the reference point. Isometric force of other muscles can then be expressed in relation to the reference. In men, this canon was found to be approximately 1:1:1:2.8:5.9 for isometric force of the left-hand exors, right-hand exors, upper-body exors, upper-body extensors, and knee extensors, respectively. In women, the canon was approximately 1:1:1.3:3.2:5 for the same muscle groups. Isometric force varies greatly in intensity, and, as expected, it is greater in men than in women, as shown in the histograms in Figures 9 and 10 (2,4).
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There is one relationship that draws particular attention in both men and women and that is the one between isometric force of upper-body exors (PTR) and extensors (OTR). It was found to be roughly 1:3 in men and 1:2.5 in women. This may be because, during strength exercises for abdominal muscles, the lumbar section of the spine is under much stress. This is why a proper selection of strength exercises for the abdominal musculature is rather difcult to make (7), because the activation of all abdominal muscles leads to a synergistic action of m. illiopsoas (m. psoas major and minor, m. illiacus), which is so critical for the functioning of the lumbar area of the spinal column (10). Exercises aimed at the activation of the lumbar musculature must maximize movement at the hip joint, not at the lumbar portion of the spine.

REFERENCES
,  , M, and Mudric , R. Methods and Tools for the evic 1. Amanovic D, Milos Evaluation, Monitoring, and Development of Muscle Force in Special Physical Education. Zemun, Serbia: High School of internal Affairs, 2004. 2. Babiak, J and Doder, D. A canon of dynamometric muscle power in male athletes in relation to their age. Research in Sport Science. M. Hughes, H. Dances, and K. Nagyvaradi, eds. Szombathely, Hungary: University of West (Savaria Campus) Hungary and Data2win Ltd., Cardiff, United Kingdom, 2009. pp 171177. 3. Barry, AJ and Cureton, TK. Factorial analysis ad physique and performance boys. Res Q 32: 288299, 1961. 4. Doder, D and Babiak, J. A canon of muscle power in female athletes in relation to their age. Research in Sport Science. M. Hughes, H. Dances, and K. Nagyvaradi, eds. Szombathely, Hungary: University of West (Savaria Campus) Hungary and Data2win Ltd., Cardiff, United Kingdom, 2009. pp. 178183. , M. Relations between the repetitive and static strength of 5. Dragas the absolute type. Graduate work, Faculty of physical culture of University of Zagreb, 1980. , A, Franic , M, Bojanic , I, and Pec ina, M. Overuse injuries in 6. Ivkovic female athletes. Croat Med J 48: 767778, 2007. 7. Juker, D, McGill, SM, Kropf, P, and Steffen, T. Quantitative intramuscular my bioelectric activity of lumbar portions of psoas and the abdominal wall during a wide variety of tasks. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 301310, 1998. 8. Larson, LA. A factor analysis of motor variables and tests, with tests for college men. Res Q 12: 499517, 1941. 9. McGill, SM. Low Back DisordersEvidence-Based Prevention and Rehabilitation. Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002. 10. McGill, SM and Cholewicki, J. Biomechanical basis for stability: An explanation to enhance clinical ability. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 31: 96100, 2001. 11. Medved, R. Sport Medicine. Zagreb, Croatia: Yugoslav Medicine Copies, 1987. , D. The inuence and partialization of morphologic 12. Metikos characteristics on the latent structure of dimensions for the regulation of intensity and duration of excitation in motor areas of the nervous system. Dissertation: Faculty of physical culture of University of Zagreb, 1976. 13. Miler, B. Factor Analysis of Some Tests of Physical Conditioning. Zagreb, Croatia: High School of physical culture, 1963. panjol, S. Factor structure of certain measurements of absolute 14. S static force. Graduate work, Faculty of physical culture of University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, 1978. tuka, K and Heimer, IS. A Presentation of the methodology 15. S for measuring isometric muscle force. Kineziologija 1: 97100, 1971. 16. Zatsiorsky, V and Kraemer, W. Science and Practice in Strength Training. Belgrade, Serbia: Data Status, 2009.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The results of this study can be summarized in a few points. In an overall comparison of isometric muscle force, it can be concluded that gender determines the overall relationship of isometric force of various muscle regions. Specically, in relatively expressed values of isometric force, that is, the relations between various indices of muscle force in the body, it has been proven that male athletes perform better in the upper and lower extremities, whereas female athletes are relatively stronger in the upper-body (both exors and extensors). Additionally, a canon, that is, the relationship between specic muscle groups within the body, has been determined for both men and women in this study, with isometric force of the left-hand exors used as a reference. Even though the relationship between isometric force of the left-hand and right-hand exors, upper-body exors, upper-body extensors, and knee extensors was approximately 1:1:1:2.8:5.9, respectively. In women, the canon was approximately 1:1:1.3:3.2:5.2 for the same muscle groups. One should bear in mind that absolute values of the measured muscle force of certain muscle groups vary greatly in intensity and that, expectedly, they are greater in men than in women. These ndings can be very valuable to coaches and others who are involved in the training of muscle force and power in athletes. They demonstrate that any topologically dened isometric muscle force has its own rules that need to be taken into account, because any generalization can be misleading.

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