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Two of the most significant, recent developments in seismic acquisition and processing technologies
are repeat (time-lapse) surveys and multi-component ocean bottom seismic (OBS). These advances
have given rise to many new avenues for interpretation of reservoir properties throughout the reservoir
region and over time. Here we assess the value of these new technologies with respect to the trade-off
between the additional information that may be gained and the new challenges that are introduced.
4D-4C seismic
Applications of 4C data
The primary objective of 4C acquisition has been imaging in difficult situations, e.g., using converted
waves in the presence of shallow gas (e.g., Valhall and Tomalieten) or for low P-wave impedance-
contrast reservoirs (e.g., Alba); P-wave image improvement (“true-3D” data; P-Z summation, for
multiple attenuation); sub-salt and sub-basalt imaging. Many of these primary objectives are relevant
to specific reservoirs where imaging is difficult. Secondary objectives of 4C acquisition are:
lithology/fluid prediction, e.g., discrimination between sand and shale and quantification of P-P bright
spot anomalies; determining reservoir properties such as saturation; characterising fracturing (e.g.,
orientation and intensity). These secondary goals are those that are a primary concern in time-lapse
monitoring and are thus rapidly becoming a more significant motivation for the application of 4D-4C.
Rich and un-tapped source of information for lithology and fluid discrimination from both post-
stack and pre-stack data - for example, changes in density and VS may be more directly accessible
from P-S AVO. Furthermore, combining P-S data with P-P data (and using two possible shear modes in
conjunction) could lead to a reduction in the non-uniqueness of many characterisation challenges.
Likewise repeat surveys can reduce the uncertainty in many reservoir properties. For example
combining 4D and 4C and could help to distinguish pressure from saturation, better quantify possible
gas zones and assess fluid flow. Sand-shale discrimination is a good example of this potential. 4D-4C
data also allows better quantification and characterisation of seismic anisotropy through azimuth-offset
analyses and shear-wave data (e.g., using shear-wave splitting).
“True 3D” data – OBS acquisition strategies, e.g., orthogonal shooting, allow true 3D imaging plus
correct AVO or velocity analysis. For example, if spatially dependent azimuthal anisotropy exists
streamer data will have a bias (inaccuracy) due to the sail-line azimuth; 3D OBS allows correct
analysis by considering the full 3D data.
Good noise reduction techniques – e.g., dual sensor suppression for receiver-related multiples,
up/down separation, repeat surveys.
Permanent receivers may make repeated surveying economically possible but must be carefully
designed; could reduce noise levels.
Cost of acquisition - the best receiver deployment procedure is still being evaluated being a trade-off
between data quality/repeatability and cost reduction. However, analysis of early 3D OBS surveys
indicates a need for more channels and reduced spacing. Currently the sparse acquisition strategies,
due to cost issues, reduces the value and potential gains plus increases the processing difficulties (see
below).
New processing challenges - Sparse receiver distribution requires careful planning of the positions to
avoid acquisition footprint and produces new challenges even in standard processing. Converted wave
processing requires a more complicated set of procedures than P-P data, e.g., rotations, receiver statics,
and common conversion point binning that varies with depth and is updated based on revised velocity
analysis. Furthermore non-hyperbolic terms in the moveout equation are more significant and there is
a greater susceptibility to anisotropy effects. However, these factors also highlight the potential of P-S
data due to the enhanced sensitivity to rock properties. DMO and migration is often problematic for P-
S data and may also be challenging for P-P data with current 3D OBS acquisition strategies.
Interpretation - how to match P-P and P-S images to gain the benefits of a joint interpretation;
development of new techniques and algorithms is needed to understand the P-S post-stack and pre-
stack results.
Conclusion
On balance we should move towards 4C acquisition and combined processing of P-wave and converted
shear waves because in the near future there will be:
Increased need for constrained reservoir information only available from 4C seismic – ongoing
advances in acquisition and processing (improved noise levels, better-designed experiments, smart
wells, high-resolution velocity measurements, anisotropy) will allow this.
More time-lapse activity, with a new 4C-4D era being possible over the next few years (precursors
from consortia - Vacuum field, Teal South). Time-lapse analysis will require increasingly more
accurate information with reduced (and quantified) uncertainty; multicomponent processing and
analysis could provide the additional data to allow this to happen.
However many challenges still exist in the interpretation of multicomponent data (P-P and P-S) not
least of which is calibration of P-P and P-S data/analysis.